Arguments

Practice:

A. Identify Premise and Conclusion

Most Americans eat at fast-food establishments more than once a week, and many researchers agree that such eating habits are the leading (if not primary) cause of obesity in the U.S.. Obesity-related diseases such as diabetes and hypertension burden our healthcare system by billions of dollars each year. Whether through healthcare-insurance premiums or state and federal taxes, you suffer the consequences even if you eat only healthful, home-cooked meals. Therefore, we should impose a small tax on every high-calorie meal served at fast-food chains in this country. This would not only offset obesity-related healthcare costs, but force consumers to seek out more healthful options when looking for lunch.

Key Premise 1- Most Americans eat at fast-food establishments more than once a week. Premise 2- Many researchers agree that such eating habits cause obesity. Premise 3- Obesity-related diseases burden our healthcare system. Premise 4- Every American suffers the consequences of obesity.

Conclusion- Impose a tax on fast foods.

B. Indicator words

Common Premise IndicatorsSinceBecauseForFollows fromAs shown byGiven that

on the grounds thatfor the reason(s) thatas indicated bymay be inferred frommay be derived frommay be deduced from

Common Conclusion IndicatorsThereforeThusSoHenceThenIt follows thatIn conclusionAccordingly

for all these reasons we can see thaton these grounds it is clear thatconsequentlyproves thatshows thatindicates thatwe can conclude thatdemonstrates that

Place each of the following phrases in one of the three columns below, according to whether it is a premise/reason indicator or a conclusion indicator. Assume that the word(s) appear before the statement. If a word has other uses in addition to an indicator, e.g. since, assume for the purpose of this exercise that it’s an indicator.

Reason (Premise) Conclusion Neither1. implies that2. especially3. I think that4. being that5. seeing that6. nevertheless7. may be deduced from8. not9. suggests very strongly10.in the first place

C. Combine Statements Using Indicator Words

1. When I play football (soccer), my position is defense. One of my best techniques is

"offside trap."

2. Disneyland is located in Chiba Prefecture. Chiba is not famous. Disneyland is recognized

as Tokyo Disneyland.

3. She exercises daily. She is in excellent shape.

4. The moon is full. The ocean tides are extremely high.

5. The sun is at its highest point in the sky. The time is near noon.

D. Decide which contain conclusions and indicate what those conclusions are

1. "No matter, therefore, how you may have fared in every bout and battle until now, this time you'll be worsted; no one has ever outlasted an entire night against Grendel."  Unferth to Beowulf, Beowulf, p. 37.

1. Yes: "No matter ... how you may have fared in every bout and battle until now, this time you'll be worsted."

2. You are interested in philosophy?  You want to be a teacher?  Then go to college!

2. Yes: "Then go to college!"

3. I think.  Therefore, I am.

Yes: "Therefore, I am."

4. "You must create a female for me, with whom I can live in the interchange of those sympathies necessary for my being.  This you alone can do; and I demand it of you as a right which you must not refuse."  The creature to Victor Frankenstein, Frankenstein, p. 98. 

Yes: "You must create a female for me, with whom I can live in the interchange of those sympathies necessary for my being."

5. A philosopher and a zebra walk into a bar.  The philosopher turns to the zebra and says, ... What?  Oh, you've heard this one?

No

6. I began by sauteeing the red pepper flakes, garlic, and parsley in olive oil.  Then I added the tomatoes and anchovies.  Mmmmm....

No. In this case, 'then' indicates the next item in a sequential order (here, a temporal order).  It does not mark a conclusion. E. Draw argument maps for the following arguments:  

Question 1

[1. Many people think that having a dark tan is attractive.] [2. But the fact is that too much exposure to the sun is very unhealthy.] [3. It has been shown that sunlight can cause premature aging of the skin.] [4. Ultraviolent rays in the sun might also trigger off skin cancer.]

Question 2

[1] This computer can think. So [2] it is conscious. Since [3] we should not kill any conscious beings, [4] we should not switch it off.

Question 3

[1. Marriage is becoming unfashionable.] [2. Divorce rate is at an all time high], and [3. cohabitation is increasingly presented in a positive manner in the media]. [4. Movies are full of characters who live together and unwilling to commit to a lifelong partnership]. [5. Even newspaper columnists recommend people to live together for an extended period before marriage in order to test their compatibility.]

Question 4

[1. All university students should study critical thinking.] After all, [2. critical thinking is necessary for surviving in the new economy] as [3. we need to adapt to rapid changes, and make critical use of information in making decisions.] Also, [4. critical thinking can help us reflect on our values and purposes in life.] Finally, [5. critical thinking helps us improve our study skills.]

F. Do these passages contain arguments? If so, what are their conclusions?

1. Cutting the interest rate will have no effect on the stock market this time round as people have been expecting a rate cut all along. This factor has already been reflected in the market. Yes. The conclusion is that this time, cutting interest rate will have no effect on the market.

2. So it is raining heavily and this building might collapse. But I don't really care. Not an argument. Although the first statement starts with "so" it does not indicate a conclusion.

3. Bill will pay the ransom. After all, he loves his wife and children and would do everything to save them.The first statement is the conclusion.

4. All of Russia's problems of human rights and democracy come back to three things: the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. None works as well as it should. Parliament passes laws in a hurry, and has neither the ability nor the will to call high officials to account. State officials abuse human rights (either on their own, or on orders from on high) and work with remarkable slowness and disorganisation. The courts almost completely fail in their role as the ultimate safeguard of freedom and order.

(The Economist 25.11.2000)An argument. The conclusion is that the legislative, executive and judicial systems in Russia are not working properly.

5. Most mornings, Park Chang Woo arrives at a train station in central Seoul, South Korea's capital. But he is not commuter. He is unemployed and goes there to kill time. Around him, dozens of jobless people pass their days drinking soju, a local version of vodka. For the moment, middle-aged Mr Park would rather read a newspaper. He used to be a brick layer for a small construction company in Pusan, a southern port city. But three years ago the country's financial crisis cost him that job, so he came to Seoul, leaving his wife and two children behind. Still looking for work, he has little hope of going home any time soon.

(The Economist 25 .11.2000)Not an argument.

6. For a long time, astronomers suspected that Europa, one of Jupiter's many moons, might harbour a watery ocean beneath its ice-covered surface. They were right. Now the technique used earlier this year to demonstrate the existence of the Europan ocean has been employed to detect an ocean on another Jovian satellite, Ganymede, according to work announced at the recent American Geo-physical Union meeting in San Francisco.

(The Economist 16.12.2000)Not an argument.

1. Mature-aged students are bound to be more careful and thoughtful in the way they choose

their subjects and hence much less likely to choose abitrary or soft options. (indicates

conclusion)

2. If a stone is released some distance above the ground, then it must of necessity descend

towards the earth. It is in the nature of the stone to seek its natural place, which is to be in

contact with the earth. But that the stone in descending knocks an elderly philosopher on

the head, is something which happens by chance, because it is not in the essential nature

of a stone to strike elderly but absent-minded persons. (inference indicator)

3. Then there are major word classes - such as Noun, Verb and Adjective - which have a

large and potentially unlimited membership. It is impossible to give an exhaustive list of

the many thousands of nouns, since new ones are being coined all the time (and others

will gradually be dropping out of use). (indicates inference, not a period of time)

4. Some considerating touch of humanity was in him; for at times like these, he usually

abstained from patrolling the quarter-deck; because to his wearied mates, seeking repose

within six inches of his ivory heel, such would have been the reverberating crack and din

of that bony step, and their dreams would have been of the crunching teeth of sharks.

(inference indicators)

5. Babies piece their self-image together from the myriad reflections of themselves they see

in the mirrors of adult's reactions to them. If nobody reacted at all they could not come to

feel themselves real, so social responses are crucial to psychological development and

adult attention is, and remains, not just something children crave but something they truly

need.

6. Because they shared so many memories, Margaret and Hilary remained friends, despite

their many differences. (reason)

7. My grandmother used to tell me ghost stories when I was very young, and for that

reason I have always had a lingering fear of deserted churchyards and cemeteries.

(indicates conclusion)

8. Students find statistics courses daunting, but success in them is merely a matter of

practise. So if you want to do well in stats, put in the hours - that's all there is to it.

(conclusion indicator)

9. The legal system ought not to tolerate frivolous appeals, for two reasons: litigants

already have many avenues to justice, and time wastage caused by worthless appeals adds

further burdens to the already over-stretched courts.(reason)

10. The ubiquitous kerosene tins could be used for cooking food, boiling clothes, protecting

legs of safes from vermin, and carrying dam water to the farm-house for washing - since

the rainwater from the tanks had to be kept for drinking purposes.(reason)

11. But even if we could explain the present state of the universe in terms of its state a billion

years ago, would we really have achieved anything, except moving the mystery back a

billion years ago? For we would surely want to explain the state a billion years ago in

terms of some still earlier state, and so on. Would this chain of cause and effect ever end?

(reason)

12. In the whole conception of history up to the present this real basis of history has either

been neglected or else considered as a minor matter quite irrelevant to the course of

history. [...] The exponents of this conception of history have consequently only been

able to see in history the political actions of princes and States, religious and all sorts of

theoretical struggles, and in particular in each historical epoch have had to share the

illusion of that epoch.(conclusion)

13. The harsh possibility of structural unemployment is potentially as destabilising for

Australian society as the redefinition of gender roles. It means that the traditional source

of identity, dignity, structure and purpose for many people's lives has been taken away

from them. (conclusion)

14. The natural term of a hog's life is little known, and the reason is plain - because it is

neither profitable nor convenient to keep that turbulent animal to the full extent of its

time.(reason)

15. All creatures are pure nothing. I do not say that they are at least a little something, but

that they are pure nothing, because no creature has being. (reason)

(first word of conclusion)

16. Because she could not see so far, the children were able to play in safety.

17. Because catches are declining and fish stocks are reported to be low, we need tight

restrictions on tuna quotas if we are not to risk destroying the tuna population altogether.

18. In certain countries drinking water supplies are unreliable and sometimes dangerous, so it

is always advisable to take great care with what one drinks.

19. The Ottoman Government wished to ameliorate the condition of its subjects, and thus

attempted to improve the collection of taxes and the administration of justice.

20. Because 'ethnic' usually categorises people according to colour or race, it is more

offensive in its own way than the comparatively innocuous term 'New Australian', also

originally well meant, that it has largely replaced (and which applied to immigrants from

anywhere).

21. It is true that no word ever finally stands on its own, since it is always an element in the

social process of language, and its uses depend on complex and (though variably)

systematic properties of language itself. (or start from “it is true”)

22. Knowing that someone is a man or a woman gives us little clue to the person's self-

reported well-being. One statistical digest of 146 studies found that gender accounted for

less than 1 percent of people's differing well-being; another review of research reported

that women expressed only slightly greater happiness.

23. In America a glance at the penal statutes of the various states of the Union reveals

something quite astonishing to English eyes. For in addition to such offences as are

punishable under English law, there seems to be no sexual practice, except 'normal'

relations between husband and wife and solitary acts of masturbation, which is not

forbidden by the law of some state.

24. Domenico Scandella, called Menocchio, was not a modern individual but he was

certainly an individual in the modern sense of the term. This is particularly interesting

because of his social rank, in the light of claims that individuality was at best an upper

class phenomenon. (That's right: the conclusion starts here. The conclusion is that what the

second part of the first sentence says ('he was certainly an individual in the modern sense of the

term') is interesting. The word 'this' stands for the first sentence, but the first sentence is not

itself the conclusion.)

25. The main reason I believe Australia should have nothing to do with SDI (Star Wars)

research is that the whole plan is discredited. Hardly any scientists of note support it ...

Determine whether the following are arguments or non-arguments. If an argument, identify the conclusion. Write down your answers and then see next page for my answers.

1) The class was canceled because of lack of enrollment. Most of the students were unhappy

about this.

2) If a person’s desk is organized then their mind is organized. Sue’s desk is organized. Thus, her

mind is organized.

3) This Thai food is sure hot. Can you pass me some water?

4) Since the Gulf War, this committee has been in existence.

5) Only adult citizens can vote and Peter is not a citizen. So, he can’t vote.

6) We must begin to develop alternative energy sources, for our existence as an autonomous

nation is at stake.

7) Most doctors want to set their own fees. So, doctors are natural opponents of socialized

medicine.

8) Abortion raises serious moral questions because abortion involves taking a human life, and

anything that involves taking a life raises serious moral questions.

9) I don’t like big-time college football and I don’t like pro football on TV either. In fact, I don’t like

sports period.

10) Some people are good at math and some are not. Jeri is definitely not.

11) Heather didn’t come to the party because she was with her boyfriend.

12) Heather couldn’t have come to the party because she was with her boyfriend and whenever

she’s with him, she doesn’t socialize.

13) Barry doesn’t have health insurance. So, he’s sure to be in favor of universal coverage.

14) The bigger the burger the better the burger. The burgers are bigger at Burger King.

Answers:

1) The class was canceled because of lack of enrollment. Most of the students were unhappy

about this.

Answer: Non-argument (explanation and unsupported statement).

2) If a person’s desk is organized then their mind is organized. Sue’s desk is organized. Thus, her

mind is organized.

Answer: Argument and conclusion is 'her mind is organized'. This statement follows the

conclusion keyword 'Thus'.

3) This Thai food is sure hot. Can you pass me some water?

Answer: Non-argument (unsupported statements with no conclusion).

4) Since the Gulf War, this committee has been in existence.

Answer: Non-argument (unsupported statement with no conclusion).

5) Only adult citizens can vote and Peter is not a citizen. So, he can’t vote.

Answer: Argument and conclusion is 'he can't vote'. This statement follows the conclusion

keyword 'So'.

6) We must begin to develop alternative energy sources, for our existence as an autonomous

nation is at stake.

Answer: Argument since there seems to be an intent to persuade and conclusion is 'We must

begin to develop alternative energy sources'.

7) Most doctors want to set their own fees. So, doctors are natural opponents of socialized

medicine.

Answer: Argument and conclusion is 'doctors are natural opponents of socialized medicine'. This

statement follows the conclusion keyword 'So'.

8) Abortion raises serious moral questions because abortion involves taking a human life, and

anything that involves taking a life raises serious moral questions.

Answer: Argument and conclusion is 'Abortion raises serious moral questions'. The other

statements are premises as they are connected by the premise keyword 'and'.

9) I don’t like big-time college football and I don’t like pro football on TV either. In fact, I don’t like

sports period.

Answer: Non-argument (unsupported statements of opinion).

10) Some people are good at math and some are not. Jeri is definitely not.

Answer: Non-argument (unsupported statements of fact and opinion, with no conclusion).

11) Heather didn’t come to the party because she was with her boyfriend.

Answer: Non-argument (explanation).

12) Heather couldn’t have come to the party because she was with her boyfriend and whenever

she’s with him, she doesn’t socialize.

Answer: Argument and conclusion is 'Heather couldn’t have come to the party'. The other

statements are premises as they are connected by the premise keyword 'and'.

13) Barry doesn’t have health insurance. So, he’s sure to be in favor of universal coverage.

Answer: Argument and conclusion is 'he’s sure to be in favor of universal coverage'. This follows

the conclusion keyword 'so'. Also an implied premise is 'if someone doesn't have health insurance

then they are sure to be for universal coverage'.

14) The bigger the burger the better the burger. The burgers are bigger at Burger King.

Answer: Argument and conclusion is implied, namely, 'the burgers are better at Burger King'.

Arguments and Non-Arguments - 1452

Answers to Exercise:

1. If you fail algebra then you can’t take calculus and Mia failed algebra. So, she can’t take calculus.

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'she can’t take calculus'. It follows conclusion keyword 'So'.

2. All dogs are mammals. All trout are fish. All oaks are trees. And each other living thing also falls within some biological category.

ANSWER: Non-argument (descriptions).

3. My car didn’t start this morning because it was very cold and the battery is weak.

ANSWER: Non-argument (explanation).

4. He was talking to the rubber tree in the hall. Then he went outside and had a long conversation with the azalea bush.

ANSWER: Non-argument (narrative).

5. He was talking to the rubber tree in the hall. Nobody in their right mind would talk to a rubber tree. Thus, he must be crazy.

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'he must be crazy'. It follows conclusion keyword 'Thus'.

6. My trip to Europe was great. We went to Paris, London, and Amsterdam. They even let you smoke pot in Amsterdam. We’re going back next year.

ANSWER: Non-argument (narrative).

7. John is uncoordinated. He has little interest in games. He prefers to read.

ANSWER: Non-argument (unsupported statements of opinion).

8. Marie looks better since her vacation. I see she has a new boyfriend.

ANSWER: Non-argument (unsupported statements of opinion).

9. Marie ought to be hired for the job since she has the best qualifications and anyone who has the best qualifications should get the job.

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'Marie ought to be hired for the job'. Note the word 'and' connects premises. Note that the word 'ought' is an argument keyword.

10. Some people have tact and some do not. Kate is a person who does not.

ANSWER: Non-argument (unsupported statements of opinion).

11. Those bleeding heart liberals ought to stop criticizing President Bush’s for his tax cuts. Can’t they see that Bush is doing a great job with the War on Terrorism?

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'Those bleeding heart liberals ought to stop criticizing President Bush’s for his tax cuts'. There is also an implied premise of 'If a president is doing great on a war then they should not be criticized for other actions'.

12. Either you should start voting or stop complaining and you refuse to vote. So, stop complaining.

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'stop complaining'. It follows the conclusion keyword 'So'.

13. The Green Party is really helping the Republican Party. After all, they helped make Bush President.

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'The Green Party is really helping the Republican Party'. There is also an implied premise of 'If a political party helps another party to the presidency then they are really helping that party'.

14. Sarah is trying out for the volleyball team because her sister is on the team.

ANSWER: Non-argument (explanation).

15. Sarah ought to try out for the volleyball team. She’s a great basketball player.

ANSWER: Argument. It has the argument keyword 'ought'. Conclusion is 'Sarah ought to try out for the volleyball team'. There is an implied premise 'If someone is a great basketball player then they should try out for volleyball'.

16. The smoother the sound the better the radio station. KOOL radio station has a smoother sound.

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is implied, namely, 'KOOL is a better radio station'.

17. We must begin to withdraw from Iraq, for our casualties are not worth it.

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'We must begin to withdraw from Iraq'. There is an implied premise 'If a war has casualties not worthy of it then a country should withdraw'.

18. But honey, don’t be angry with me. I was only 10 minutes late.

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'you shouldn't be angry with me', which is implied by 'don’t be angry with me'. There is another implied premise 'If I was only 10 minutes late then you shouldn't be angry with me'.

19. Good study habits lead to good grades. Her straight A average shows that she really has good study habits.

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'she really has good study habits' since it follows the conclusion keywords 'shows that'.

20. Joe couldn’t have committed the crime. He was sitting with me in Taco Bell when the crime was committed.

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'Joe couldn’t have committed the crime'. Note the argument keywords 'couldn't have'. There is an implied premise 'the crime wasn't committed at Taco Bell' or that 'the crime took place at the same time that Joe was at Taco Bell'.

21. These Italian meatballs sure are spicy. Do you have any Rolaids?

ANSWER: Non-argument (unsupported statement).

22. You should take an umbrella, since if it’s raining you should take an umbrella and it is raining.

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'You should take an umbrella'. Note the premise keyword 'since' and the premise connector 'and'.

23. Bank fees will soon rise at Bank of America. So will bank fees at all of the major banks.

ANSWER: Non-argument (unsupported statements of opinion. The word 'so' in this case is not a conclusion keyword since it means 'also' in this case.

24. But Karen, don’t be too hard on yourself. You were only trying to do a good job.

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'you shouldn't be too hard on yourself', implied by 'don’t be too hard on yourself'. There is an implied premise 'If someone was only trying to do a good job then they shouldn't be too hard on themselves'.

25. John doesn’t own a gun. So, he’s sure to be for gun-control.

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'he’s sure to be for gun-control', since it follows the conclusion keyword 'so'. There is an implied premise 'If someone doesn't own a gun then they are sure to be for gun-control'.

26. The faster the computer the better it is. The computers are faster at Computer Land.

ANSWER: Argument and the conclusion is implied, namely, 'The computers are better at Computer Land'.

27. Jeremy must be honest. Aren’t all Quakers honest?

ANSWER: Argument and conclusion is 'Jeremy must be honest'. There are 2 implied premises, namely, 'All Quakers are honest' and "Jeremy is a Quaker'.