ARGUMENTATION

PROPOSING AND SUPPORTING CLAIMS

Aristotle

Ethos

Pathos

Logos

Plato

Say only what you believe is true.Organise your thoughts.Define the terms that you use.Use correct diction.Practise the art of speech in public.

Intellectual traditions

Classical humanism

Social reconstructivism

Progressivism

Hungarian and North American writers

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Hungarian

NorthAmerican

Requirements of Anglo-American argumentative rhetoric

Listener/reader-friendly stylea confident opinion statement,a primary focus on justifying this claim,strongly linked evidence/reasoning,clear connections, linking,reservations and alternative opinions are evaluated in the light of the author’s opinion,conclusions drawn for the audience.

Discourse organisation

Through ArgumentationThesis: Genetic engineering will benefit people.

Support 1: Genetic engineering helps prevent diseases.

Support 2: Genetic engineering enables parents to choose the sex of their children.

Counter ArgumentationAntithesis: Some say that we won’t be able to enjoy the advantages, as people will not respect the limits of this technology.Evaluation: I believe that with appropriate legal measures and awareness raising it can be kept under control, and Thesis: genetic engineering will benefit the human kind.

Argument schemata

reasoning: the combination of ideas according to a certain logicevidence: opinions, facts, figures, common beliefs to support a viewpointappeal to the audience: involving the audience through addressing, questions, appealing to common knowledge

Reasoning

Comparison/contrast“If all the people are the same,than we are more likely to be wiped out by a disease or virus. It was the same in the case of the Irish potato famine: it happened because almost all of the potatoes in Ireland were genetically the same and were infected.”Cf. dramatic contrast“Ten years ago we had a reputation of excellence. Today we are in danger of losing reputation.”

Cause-effect“I saw on a Discovery Magazine Billboard a picture of a baby with the number 120 next to it implying the child's life expectancy, now that is a little scary. As we start making a healthier race and they keep living longer, we will way overpopulate and starve everyone out.”

Phenomenon - symptom “In addition to medicine, genetic engineering could also be useful in plant biology. Imagine growing huge foods, big enough to feed entire families.”

Evidence

Other’s words, quotes“… many people are worried that GE will be carried beyond healthy limits.”

“According to Shakespeare, an orator always performs two speeches simultaneously: one that the audience can see and another that they can hear. „

Personal evidence“I have worked summers on organic farms and have felt the financial pain of small-scale farming.”

Real-life examples“Genetic engineering fulfils what the Nazis wanted in World War ll – to enable certain human beings to be perfect.”

Facts and figures

“30% of the interviewees said that they had not had any systematic training in essay writing previously.”

Fiction

“Genetic engineering can easily lead to the human selection described in the film ‘Gattaca’.”

Communal knowledge/experience

“ As we all know, we are already overpopulated, but we would be jamming people into the tightest places because there would be no room.”

Appeal to the audience

Initiating involvement through

finding common ground,

addressing the audience directly with “we” and “you”,

using rhetorical questions,

initiating real interaction through questions and activities.

Involve your audience by

asking questions

suggesting exercises

proposing experiments

offering a quiz

making them laugh.

Using questions

Reducing tension – action

Using the time to relax and think ahead

Creating a friendly, relaxed atmosphere

More colourful and

memorable

Types

Binary questions

Has any of you spent a longer time living abroad?Who agrees with this opinion?

Functions: - getting used to participation- conducting a quick survey to illustrate a point

Do- keep it simple- indicate and show how to respond

Closed questions

What colour is your car?When did you start learning a second language?

Functions:- introduce a topic- illustrate a point

Do- keep it short- sweep the audience with your eyes and designate the respondents

Open questions

How could we improve quality assessment in schools?What are the advantages to streaming?

Function:- ellicit contribution

Do- set a strict time limit- ask the audience to work in small groups- keep to a pre-planned outline

Rhetorical questions

Am I a native speaker at all?

What is the point then? English exists in many different forms.

The fact is, cheap imitations of our leading products are flooding the market.

So what’s the solution? The solution is to push for tighter controls.

Functions:- introduce new topic- introduce and highlight main ideas- focus a key word by repetition- indicate the controversial nature of a point

Do- use them in strategic places to emphasise info- not make them too difficult/impossible to answer- not use them all the time

Activities

1. Visualising

2. Creating ambience, getting to know each other

3. Reinforcing an idea by small group discussion

4. Movement (?)

5. Applause (!)

6. Singing (!)

7. Filling out forms

8. Stimulating competition

Handling the audience’s questionsClarify aim of question:

Clarify confusing message

Professional remark, contribution even if contestable

Argue with viewpoint

Provoke presenter, show off

Ask for clarification/specification!

Procedure

Understand the question: avoid anticipation

Ask for clarification if in doubt

Reformulate the question (TIME TO THINK!)

Accept the limitations of your questioners: do not degrade them

Refer to parts of talk in response

Make sure your answer is satisfactory

Strategies

Do

find something positive in the question/

criticism

avoid interrupting the questioner – long elaboration takes the sharp edge of criticism

say if you don’t know

indicate source of info

ask for time to think

tell the truth

disagree and argue but avoid saying ‘no’

stay calm, show openness for criticism

be brief and precise.

How to cope with agressive questions

Ask back: force questioner to specify and structure criticism.Open-accepting attitude„I appreciate your point but …”Preventive approachAvoiding responce by throwing in another topicOpening„Are there any other viewpoints that could contribute to the whole picture?”

Journalist: „You have had many men in your life …”

Elizabeth Taylor: „I’d have preferred having a lot of life in my men !”

Conclusion

Capture audience through different channels:

- justify yourself

- appeal to logic

- appeal to emotions

- involve them