are dysfunctional strategies in emotion regulation, risk
TRANSCRIPT
Are Dysfunctional Strategies in Emotion
Regulation, Risk Factors for Psychopathology in
Children and Youth?
Comparison of Children’s Emotion Regulations in Germany and Iran
Inagural-Disertation
Zur
Erlangung der Doktorwürde
der Wirschafts- und Verhatenswisenschaftlichen Fakultät
der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg im Breisgau
Vorgelegt von
Niloufar Tahmouresi
Tehran, Iran
Sommersemester 2014
2 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Dekan: Prof. Dr. Dieter K. Tscheulin
• Gutachterin: Prof. Dr. Brunna Tuschen-Caffier
• Gutachterin: PD. Dr. Jennifer Svaldi
Date: 06.06.2014
3 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Acknowledgments
A major research project like this is never the work of anyone alone. The contributions of many
different people, in their different ways, have made this possible. I would like to express my
gratitude to all those who gave me the opportunity and support to complete this thesis.
Thank God for the wisdom and perseverance that he has been bestowed upon me during this
research project, and indeed, throughout my life: I can do everything through him who give me
strength.
In particular, I would like to thank my supervisor Prof. Dr. Brunna Tuschen-Caffier for her
support and helpful comments and suggestions during all stages of this project.
Furthermore, I am deeply indebted to Dr. Caroline Bender whose support, advice, and
encouragement guided me through this study.
Many warm thanks also go to my friends Nader Kabiri, Dr. Anisha H Aubeeluck, Dr. Sadaf
Koohkan, my brother- in- law Hans Heinrich Brueggemann who always was like my second
father, my sister Shahrzad and my brother Mohammad Mehdi.
I also thank my family who prayed for me throughout the time of my research. This thesis is
heartily dedicated to my mother who took the lead to heaven, but she will be in my heart forever.
4 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Table of Contents
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................... 7
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... 9
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 10
2. Theoretical Background .................................................................................................. 14
2.1. Theories of Emotion Regulation ...................................................................................... 14
2.1.1. Emotion ................................................................................................................................... 14
2.1.2. Emotion Regulation .............................................................................................................. 15
2.1.3. Emotion Dysregulation and Dysfunctional Strategies in Emotion Regulation ............. 23
2.1.4. Coping, Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies ........................................................... 24
2.2. Factors Affecting Emotion Regulation .......................................................................... 28
2.2.1. Social Factor on Emotion Regulation and Coping in Children ....................................... 28
2.2.2. Environmental Factors .......................................................................................................... 28
2.2.4. Family Factor ......................................................................................................................... 30
2.3. Psychopathology and Emotion Dysregulation ........................................................... 34
2.3.1. Internalizing Behavior Problem in Children ...................................................................... 37
2.3.1.1. Depression .................................................................................................................... 38
2.3.1.2. Anxiety ......................................................................................................................... 39
2.3.2. Externalizing Behavior Problem in Children ...................................................................... 40
2.3.2.1. Oppositional Defiant Disorder.................................................................................... 42
2.3.2.2. Conduct Disorder ......................................................................................................... 42
2.4. Cross Culture Study .............................................................................................................. 43
2.4.1. Concept of Culture ............................................................................................................... 44
2.4.2. Dimensions of Culture ......................................................................................................... 44
2.4.2.1. Differences between Individualism and Collectivism – Individualism versus
Collectivism…………………………………………………………………………….45
2.4.2.2. The Self………………………………………………………………………....................48
5 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
2.4.3. Cultural Differences between Germany and Iran .............................................................. 49
2.4.3.1. Cognition………………………………………………………………………….......51
2.4.3.2. Self……………………………………………………………………………………..52
2.5. Cross-Cultural Studies in Emotion Regulation .......................................................... 53
2.5.1. Culture, Cross Cultural Studies and Psychology............................................................... 53
2.5.2. Cross-Cultural Study on Emotion Regulation and Cognitive Emotion Regulation ..... 55
2.5.3. Goal of Cross Cultural Studies ............................................................................................ 63
2.5.4. Summary ................................................................................................................................. 64
3. Hypotheses .................................................................................................................................. 66
4. Methods ......................................................................................................................................... 68
4.1. Participants and Procedures ............................................................................................... 68
4.2. Measures .................................................................................................................................... 69
4.2.1. Children’s Emotion Management Scale (CEMS). ............................................................ 69
4.2.2. Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ) ................................................... 71
4.2.3. Youth Self-Report (YSR) ..................................................................................................... 72
4.2.4. Children Behavior CheckList (CBCL) ............................................................................... 73
4.2.5. Children Depression Inventory (CDI) ................................................................................ 74
4.2.6. Parenting Scale (PS) .............................................................................................................. 75
4.2.7. Psychometric properties ....................................................................................................... 75
5. Results .......................................................................................................................................... 78
5.1. Descriptive Findings ............................................................................................................. 78
5.1.1. Description of Background Variables................................................................................. 79
5.1.1.1. Description of Gender Variables……………………………………………............79
5.1.1.2. Description of Parent Educational Level Variable…………………………..........79
5.1.1.3. Description of Parent Occupation………………………………………………..…80
5.1.1.4. Description of the Children Age…………………………………………………....81
5.1.2. Description of Main Variables of the Research…………………………………..…..….81
5.1.2.1. Description of Emotion Regulation Variables…………………………………….82
5.1.2.2. Description of Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies Variables………...…..82
6 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
5.1.2.3. Description of Children Depression Inventory (CDI), Parenting scale (PS),
Youth Self Report (YSR) and Child Behavior Check List (CBCL) Variables………...83
5.2. Inferential Findings ................................................................................................................... 84
5.2.1. Group Comparison on Emotion Regulation Variables (CEMS) ......................................... 84
5.2.2. Group Comparison on Cognitive Emotion Regulation Variables (CERQ)……………...87
5.2.3. Groups Comparison of Component of Parent Scale (PS) .................................................... 90
5.2.4. Group Comparison on Components of Depression, CBCL and YSR Variables .............. 91
5.2.5. Examination of Research Variables Correlation from CEMS, CERQ, PS, YSR, CBCL
and CDI……………………………………………………………………………………… 94
5.3. Multivariate Regression Test……………………………………………………………...103
5.3.1. Examination of Predictor Variables Effect on Internalizing (YSR) among Iranian
Children……………………………………………………………………………………….103
5.3.2. Examination of Predictor Variables Effect on Internalizing (YSR) Variable among
German Children…………………………………………………………………………….105
5.3.3. Examination of Predictor Variables Effect on Externalizing (YSR) Variable among
Iranian Children……………………………………………………………………………...106
5.3.4. Examination of Predictor Variables Effect on Externalizing (YSR) Variable among
German Children…………………………………………………………………………….108
5.3.5. Examination of Predictor Variables Effect on Depression Variable among Iranian
Children………………………………………………………………………………………109
5.3.6. Examination of Predictor Variables Effect on Depression Variable among German
Children………………………………………………………………………………………110
6. Discussion................................................................................................................................... 112
References ..................................................................................................................................... 128
Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 160
Index of Appendixes ................................................................................................................... 160
7 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
List of Tables
Table 1. Psychometric properties of the scales .................................................................... ..77
Table 2. Frequency of gender variable .................................................................................. 79
Table 3. Description of parent educational level variable ..................................................... 80
Table 4. Description of parent occupation ............................................................................. 81
Table 5. Age of Iranian and German children ....................................................................... 81
Table 6. Country differences in CEMS subscales ................................................................. 82
Table 7. Country differences in CERQ subscales .................................................................. 83
Table 8. Country differences in CDI, PS, YSR, CBCL subscales ......................................... 84
Table 9. Summary of analysis of variance to compare groups on the variables CEMS ........ 85
Table 10. Scheffe's test for paired comparison groups ........................................................... 86
Table 11. Summary of analysis of variance to compare groups of the variables CERQ ........ 88
Table 12. Scheffe's test for paired comparison groups ........................................................... 89
Table 13. Summary of analysis of variance to compare the two groups on the variables Parent
discipline .................................................................................................................................. 91
Table 14. Summary of analysis of variance to compare groups on the variables CDI, YSR,
CBCL ....................................................................................................................................... 92
Table 15. Scheffe's test for paired comparison groups ........................................................ ..94
Table 16. Correlation between CEMS and CERQ ................................................................. 96
Table 17. Correlation between CERQ with PS, CDI, YSR, CBCL....................................... 98
Table 18. Correlation between CEMS with CDI, PS, CBCL, YSR………………………...100
Table 19. Correlation matrix of research variables in Iran………………………………….102
Table 20. Correlation matrix of research variables in Germany…………………………….103
Table 21. Multiple regression analysis to predict internalizing (YSR) in Iranian children…104
Table 22. Multiple regression analysis to predict internalizing (YSR) in German children...105
Table 23. Multiple regression analysis to predict externalizing (YSR) for Iranian children...107
Table 24. Multiple regression analysis to predict externalizing (YSR) in German children...108
Table 25. Multiple regression analysis to predict depression in Iranian children……………109
Table 26. Multiple regression analysis to predict depression in German children...…………111
8 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
List of Figures
Figure 1. Process model of emotion regulation that show five families of emotion regulation
strategies (Gross&Thompson, 2007)…………………………………………………………19
Figure 2. Emotion regulation and related process (Gross 1998b)…………………………..27
Figure 3. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory ...................................................................... .30
Figure 4. Biosocial interaction model of childhood externalizing behavior by Raine, Brennan,
Farrington, and Mednick (1997) .............................................................................................. 41
Figure 5. Comparison of the logic underlying the Markus& Kitayama (1991) model with at
underlying the evidence cited in support of it. ......................................................................... 49
Figure 6. Hofested (1980) cultural dimensions score in Iran and Germany ......................... 51
Figure 7. Comparison of four groups mean on components of (CEMS) ............................... 87
Figure 8. Group comparison of cognitive emotion regulation variables (CERQ) ................ 90
Figure 9. Comparison of German children & Iranian student in PS-laxness........................ 91
Figure 10. Mean differences between groups ........................................................................ 93
9 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Abstract
The aim of this research project was to investigate relationships between dysfunctional emotion
regulation strategies and psychopathology in children from two different cultures. This cross-
cultural study compared the level of psychopathology from 141 German (individualistic culture)
and 128 Iranian children (collectivistic culture). The design of the study allowed to compare
Iranian children (N=103) living in Iran, German children living in Germany (N=118), Iranian
children living in Germany (N=23) and German children (N=24) living in Iran. The project also
analyzed whether different strategies of emotion regulation as well as dysfunctional parenting
strategies were related to internalizing and externalizing problems. The following
questionnaires were used in this project: Children Emotion Management Scale (CEMS),
Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ), Parenting Scale (PS), Child Behavior
Check List (CBCL), Youth Self Report (YSR), and Children Depression Inventory (CDI).
According to the results of the current study German and Iranian children reported about
different strategies to cope with emotions and to regulate their emotions. Differences could also
be seen in psychopathological symptoms (internalizing and externalizing behavior problems).
Moreover, correlations were found between dysfunctional strategies in emotion regulation and
symptoms of psychopathology in Iranian as well as German children. Logistic regression
analyses showed that dysregulation of sadness and anger predicted externalizing behavior
problems in Iranian children. Furthermore, negative parenting discipline predicted internalizing
behavior problems in Iranian as well as German children. So far, very few cross-cultural studies
compared strategies of emotion regulation of children from an individualistic (e.g. Germany) and
collectivistic culture (e. g. Iran). Moreover, to the best of my knowledge no study has provided a
comparison of dysfunctional emotion regulation strategies and psychopathology for German and
Iranian children by ages of 11-14 years. Limitations of the current study include the small
sample size of German children in Iran and Iranian children in Germany as well as the lack of
10 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
reports from some German and Iranian parents regarding their educational and occupational
status. Additionally, the data are only based on self-reports and the sample consisted of non-
clinical children.
1. Introduction
Researchers have shown that an inability to regulate emotions has been linked with
childhood psychopathology (Suveg & Zeman 2004; Zeman et al., 2002). Psychopathology
develops from a combination of several risk factors such as dysfunctional parenting discipline,
use of dysfunctional emotional strategies, social context and environmental factor. Zeman et al.
(2002) showed that different strategies of emotional coping, expressing or inhibition are related
to different behavior disorders. For example, poor anger coping and sadness inhibition predicted
externalization of aggressive behavior; maladaptive coping predicted inhibition of anger; and
inappropriate expression of anger and sadness predicted symptoms of depression and anxiety.
Emotion regulation in children is the most important topic or concept in the field of psychology,
especially for the development of clinical psychology. Unfortunately, there are limited studies of
the role of social factors such as culture in the development of emotion regulation in children.
Without knowing the role and values of cultures it is difficult to know how children regulate their
emotions. In Hofsted’s (1980) view, culture reflects shared values, meanings, and norms within
an organization or a nation. Understanding a group culture requires an extended interval
considerations rather than a surface manifestation of culture. By investigating the core of a
culture; we know how individuals think, and what is shared as values. Values are acquired early
in life through childhood socialization and education, and are often “stable in landscape but
change over time reflecting changes in culture” (Karahanna, Evaristo, & Srite, 2005). Cultures
11 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
are different in terms of ideologies, interpersonal relationship, source of distress, experience
and expression, symptomatic and interpretation of illness, help seeking, composition of the
family, maternal-infant interaction, and child-rearing practices all prime and shape an influence
on system (Laurence & Kirmayer, 2001).
Emotion regulation defines the processes by which individuals influence the experience and
expression of their emotions and emotion regulated at five points in the emotion generative
process (1) selection of the situation; (2) modification of the situation; ( 3) deployment of
attention; (4) change of cognitions; and (5) modulation of experiential, behavioral, or
physiological responses (Gross, 1998). Researchers showed that the modal model of emotion
regulation seems to map well onto the psychopathology of common emotional disorders in
youth (Trosper et al., 2009). Gross and John (2004) talked about two strategies of emotion
regulation: reappraisal and suppression. Reappraisal as an adaptive strategy can help
individuals reduce the negative emotion by changing the situation, attention and cognition. In
contrast, suppression is a maladaptive strategy, and a person is deliberately trying to stop
thinking about the negative or positive emotion in the difficult situation. Suppression is
consciously inhibiting emotion-expressive behavior. Calkins (1994) mentioned internal and
external factors affecting the development of emotion regulation skills. Parents as an external
factor can influence and guide their children’s development of emotion regulation within their
cultural context, especially for young children (Calkins & Johnson, 1998; Denham, Zoller, &
Couchoud, 1994; Kopp, 1989).
Familial factors are particularly important for explaining the origins of behavior problems in
children. Children learn to interpret, manage and express their emotions from the primary
caretakers or parents. This supports the argument that parents from different cultures contribute
to the modal model of emotion regulation (Matsumoto, 2005, 2008). For example the first
(situation selection) research, of a families with a history of depression produced considerable
12 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
data showing differences in the family atmosphere and home environment of depressed youth
and children of depressed parents (Matsumoto, 2005; Gross et al., 2003; McKeown et al., 1997;
Thompson and Calkins (1996). McKeown et al. (1997) concentrated on social withdrawal and
they noted that a person with depression has less interest in pleasurable activities. This model
is detrimental of situation selection. These studies demonstrate that when parents use model
avoidant coping and attend more greatly to threatening cues, they are more likely to have
children who lack the ability to regulate fear and anxiety effectively. Types of parental
attachment and parental discipline (parental rearing) with children are the foundation of
maladaptive or adaptive behavior and likely lead to psychopathological problems in children.
Research also supported that insecure attachments are associated with the development of
disorders (e.g., Warren, Huston, Egeland & Sroufe, 1997; Brumariu & Kerns, 2010). However,
Sroufe et al. (2005) in their Minnesota longitudinal study did find inappropriate attachments were
not always associated with behavior problems in children, as children with secure attachment
also showed behavior problems in childhood and some form of psychiatry diagnosis by late
adolescence. A combination of other parenting variables and attachments are strong predictors
for behavior problems in children. In another study Muris et al. (2003b) found that both insecure
attachment and negative parent rearing are important factors for internalizing and externalizing
symptoms in children.
Culture, parents and society are factors in the development of cognition and emotion
regulation in children. This cross-cultural study is focused primarily on psychopathology related
to emotion regulation and cognitive emotion regulation strategies and is designed to compare
components of the affective, behavioral and cognitive systems on internalizing and externalizing
behaviors in two different ethnic groups. Furthermore, the roles of emotion regulation strategies,
cognitive emotion regulation strategies and dysfunctional parenting discipline on internalizing
and externalizing behaviors of German and Iranian children in non-clinical groups.
13 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
According to Gross’ (2001) explanation emotion regulation, a culture’s effect is on antecedent
focused strategies (such as reappraisal) and response focused strategy. For the reason that
cultures differ in their worldviews, ideologies, values and concepts of the self when it comes to
study the individuals (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, 1998; Matsumoto, 2005; Schwartz, in press;
Schwartz & Bardi. 2001).
There are a variety of dimensions on which one can find differences between Iranian children,
with their “collective culture” and German children with their “individualistic culture” (age 11-14
Yrs). These cultural differences might be seen in such aspects as emotion regulation strategies,
use of cognitive emotion regulation strategies, depression and self-reported internalizing and
externalizing behaviors. Due to cultural differences, there are also some differences in parenting
discipline and parental reporting of internalizing and externalizing behaviors.
As there are correlations among parenting discipline and CEMS, CERQ and psychopathology in
both countries, it is expected that negative parental discipline, dysfunctional cognitive strategies
and certain types of emotion regulation have an effect on the development of internalizing and
externalizing symptoms in both groups. However, Iranian children displayed more internalizing
symptoms and rumination strategies, anger inhibition and sadness inhibition. These hypotheses
were based on previous cross cultural studies (Matsumoto, 2007, Matsumoto, et al., 2008;
Gross & John, 2003; Okasaki, 2002; McCare, 2002, McCare, et al., 2005 ) reporting that Asian
children displayed more emotional suppression which results in more internalizing symptoms
than European children (Campos et aI., 1989; Arrindell, et al., 2005; Trommsdorf & Rothbaum,
2008).
14 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
2. Theoretical Background
2.1. Theories and Concept of Emotion Regulation
2.1.1. Emotion
Emotions are considered to be inner feelings or states of mind that are associated with a
physical change and expressed by an outward behavior (Tooby & Cosmides, 1990). Individuals
can learn about their experiences, sensations, relationships and behaviors with the help of
emotions. The feeling and expression of emotions indicate some of the most basic human
experiences. Since psychologists have no consensus on what creates an emotion, the
definitions and theories about emotions vary. From earlier research on emotions, psychologists
have focused on the work of James, Freud and Darwin (Gross, 1998). William James said that
emotions existed in the “aesthetic sphere of the mind, its longings, its pleasure and pains”
(1884, P.188). Thus, emotions have different functions, such as evolutionary, social,
interpersonal and intrapersonal functions, decision making function, enhancing memory function
for important events, and function for communication and interpersonal interaction (Tooby &
Cosmide, 1990; Ekman, 1993; Oatley & Johnson-Larid, 1987; Gross & Thompson, 2007).
Interestingly, LeDoux (1996) stated “Everyone knows what emotion is until they are asked to
define it,” (p. 23).
Psychologists believed that emotions were represented in different ways, such as
physiological arousal, neurological activation, cognitive appraisal, attention and response
tendency (Thompson 1994). Biological processes prepare an individual to have a fast
reappraisal and thus respond in a suitable behavior towards favorable situations or to terminate
unfavorable ones (Cole et al., 2004). Emotions are thought to be triggered when a person is in a
situation that has connection with his /her goal of action (Lazarus, 1991a; Frijda, 1988; Gross
15 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
&Thompson, 2007). Based on this finding, the most important aspect is the attention that the
individual pays to the event. This event response also depends on the experience, behavior and
the physiology of individuals.
Emotions can be viewed as “episodic, relatively short-term, biologically based patterns of
perception, emotions are also part of experience, physiology, action, and communication that
occur in response to specific physical and social challenges and opportunities” (Keltner &
Gross, 1999).
Some researchers describe emotion as a multifaceted response to a potential personal aim,
including subjective experience, physiological activity, and behavior (Mauss et al., 2005;
Porges, 2007). In addition, emotions allow individuals to lead their attention to important
situations and motivate them to respond with action. Emotions reflect the individual’s meaning of
a situation in the way persons need to activate their appraisal system (Lazarus, 1991).
Developmental psychopathology emphasized the importance of emotional processes in normal
and atypical development (e.g., Cicchetti, 1984; Cicchetti & Cohen, 1995; Luthar, Burack,
Cicchetti, & Weisz, 1997; Sroufe & Rutter, 1984).
2.1.2. Emotion Regulation
For more than two decades researchers pondered about emotion regulation (ER) in children
and adults. They noted that there are relations between ER and outcomes such as mental
health, physical health, work performance and relation satisfaction (Gross & Muñoz, 1995;
Sapolsky, 2007; Diefendorff, Hall, Lord, & Strean, 2000; Murray, 2005). They were interested in
deepening their understanding of how individuals regulated their emotions in different situations
and what were the individual differences in regulation of emotions (e.g., Thompson, 1991 &
Gross, 1996). In reviewing the current research about emotion regulation, we can see that the
16 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
current focus is on how we attempt to regulate emotions and develop various regulatory
processes.
The concepts of regulation have been extensively studied in the field of child development.
The roots of emotion regulation studies date back to over a century ago e.g., the early
psychoanalytic theories about the nature of psychological defenses or unconscious attempts to
subvert emotional responses (Breuer & Freud, 1895/1957; Freud, 1946), psychological stress
and coping (Lazarus, 1986), attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969), and emotion theory (Frijida,
1986).
A more precise definition or characterization of emotion regulation has evolved over the
past 30 years. According to psychologists, emotion regulation can be viewed in seven different
fields namely biology, personality, health, development, clinical and social psychology (Gross,
1998). It is important to clarify the aim of emotion regulation. Emotion regulation is regarded not
only as the suppression of the emotional experience or arousal, but also as a tool that an
individual uses to function optimally on a day to day basis (Tortorella, 2008). Additionally, it can
involve upholding and increasing emotional arousal as well as inhibiting or suppressing it
(Masters, 1991).
The emotion regulatory processes refer to the influence of an individual on the experience
and expression of his/her emotions. These processes may be automatic or controlled, as well
as conscious or unconscious (Gross, 1998; Thompson, 1990). Recent research confirmed that
emotion regulation could be activated automatically (Mauss, Cook, & Gross, 2007). Emotion
regulation also involves changes to one or more aspects of the emotion including the eliciting
situation, attention, appraisal, subjective experience, behavior, or physiology. Furthermore,
emotion regulation can be seen as part of behavioral and cognitive strategies to change the
duration and intensity of an emotion (e.g., Bargh & Williams, 2007; Gross & Thompson, 2007).
17 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
According to Thompson (1994) emotion regulation was the “extrinsic and intrinsic processes
responsible for monitoring, evaluating and modifying emotional reactions, especially their
intensive and temporal features to accomplish one's goal”. He noted different ways to regulate
emotions “depending on (a) neurophysiological response, (b) attentional processes, (c)
construal / attribution, (d) access to coping resources, (e) exposure to environment, and(f)
response / behavior” (pp. 27-28). There are two dominant procedures: (a) extrinsic, which
included the manner in which caregivers shape and socialize their infant’s emotional responses
and the relationship that develops between infant and caregivers as a consequence of these
important interactions, and (b) intrinsic, which included the disposition or temperament of the
infant, and underlying both neural and physiological systems that support and are engaged in
the processes of emotional control. Eisenberg and Morris (2002) both agreed with Thompson
that emotion regulation can help to reduce intensity of internal feelings and also physiological
processes. Other researchers suggested that emotion regulation reduces positive emotions and
activates negative emotions (Masters, 1991; Parrott, 1993; Wegner & Bargh, 1998).
The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic manifestation of the emotions plays an
important role in distinguishing emotional regulation in children and adults. In the literature of
developmental psychology, these distinctions in emotion regulation are structurally separate
(Campos, Campos, & Barrett, 1989; Thompson, 1990, 1991). Nevertheless, more attention is
focused on the extrinsic function, because it is more noticeable in infancy and early childhood
(e.g., Cole et al., 2004). The regulation of emotion exists from an early point in infant
development with the function of extrinsic and intrinsic mechanisms and their effects on future
development. Usually, children learn the ability to regulate emotion through parents or other
caregivers. In this context, attachment theory (Bowllby, 1969/1982) is used to explain the
processes of emotion regulation skills in children (Cassidy, 1994; Sroufe, 2000). In literature
focusing on adult emotion regulation the emphasis is somewhat different (e.g., Izard, 1990;
18 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Gross & Levenson, 1993) and researchers in this field focus more on the intrinsic function
(Gross, 1998b). The intrinsic component also gives important insight into an individual’s ability
to regulate his/her emotions: “The intra- and extra- organismic factors by which emotional
arousal is redirected, controlled, modulated, and modified to enable an individual to function
adaptively in emotionally arousing situations” ( Ciccetti, Ganiban, and Barnett, 1991, p. 15).
A few additional definitions of emotion regulation are being proposed here. Eisenberg and
Fabes (1995) introduced three types of emotion regulation processes, which are considered as
cognitive strategies. These are (a) cognitive change, (b) behavioral strategies which attempt to
cope with the experience of emotion, and (c) identifying situations such as intentional control.
With regard to the different definitions about emotion regulation, researchers in this field tried
to explain emotion regulation with a variety of concepts such as conscious or unconscious,
change in psychological processes such as memory or physiological, intrinsic or extrinsic
processes, or a change in cognition. However, with regard to the general definition, Gross
developed the most convincing definition on emotion regulation. Gross (1998a), defined emotion
regulation as a broad construct covering a range of processes that may be conscious or
unconscious, automatic or controlled. He further defined it as “processes by which individuals
influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and
express these emotions”. He noted that these processes can include decreasing, maintaining,
or increasing both negative and positive emotions by using various cognitive processes such as
reappraisal, and suppression.
Gross & Thompson’s (2007) introduced processes of emotion regulation with the modal
model to further understand how individuals can regulate their emotion. The modal model
highlights five families of emotion regulatory processes that occur along the temporal course of
emotion generation. He described (a) situation selection, allowing one to approach situations
19 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
that are likely to produce pleasant feeling and avoid situations which are likely to evoke
unpleasant feelings, (b) situation modification, altering (revising) a situation so that its emotional
impact may be changed as well, (c) attention deployment, placing one’s attention on an aspect
of a situation that would elicit feelings inconsistent with the undesired emotional state, (d)
cognitive change or reappraisal, reinterpreting a situation to give it another meaning, and (e)
response modulation, influencing emotion response tendencies once they arise (Gross, 1998).
These five families sum up the most important emotion regulation strategies (Gross, 1998).
Figure 1 Process model of emotion regulation that shows five families of emotion regulation strategies
(Gross & Thompson, 2007). Figures added by permission from Prof. J. Gross.
These families are distinguished by the point in the emotion generative processes at which
they have their primary impact (Gross & John, 2004, Gross & John 2003 & Mauss; Cook, &
Gross, 2007). Gross and Thompson (2007) showed that these five processes are necessary to
the study of psychopathology as many disorders are due to impairment related to any one of
these processes. For example, individuals with generalized anxiety disorder, have difficulty in
attention deployment (MacLeod, Mathews, Tata, 1986).
Gross & John (2004) believed that there are two important and specific strategies for emotion
regulation. The first one is cognitive reappraisal (when an individual changes his thoughts about
20 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
a situation thus changing his emotions) and the second one is expressive suppression (when an
individual inner experience and outer expression differs).
Cognitive reappraisal is involved in the first four families of emotion regulation. Cognitive
reappraisal occurs early in emotion-generative process influencing both the experience and
subsequent expression of the emotion and is a form of cognitive change (antecedent focus
strategies). The definition of cognitive reappraisal is the process by which an individual’s
reinterprets an emotion eliciting a situation to change how we think about that situation in order
to decrease emotional impact (Gross, 1998). Reappraisal decrease negative emotion
experience and expression to produce efficient interpersonal behavior which is appropriately
focused on the interaction with others, and has no negative effects on physiology and memory.
An individual’s use of reappraisal in everyday life is related to having increased experience and
expression of positive emotions and decreased experience and expression of negative
emotions, more self-acceptance, personal growth, and better relationship with others as well as
experiencing lesser symptoms of depression (Gross, Richards, & John, in press). There is
experimental evidence that reappraisal increased positive emotion experience and expression
and decreased negative emotion experience and expression and enhanced interpersonal
functioning (Gross, Richards, & John, in press; Gross, 2001; Gross, 2002; Gross & John 2003;
Gross & John, 2004; Lazarus & Alfert, 1962).
Expressive suppression is a type of response modulation (response focus strategy), that
refers to the inhibition of ongoing emotional expressive behavior (Gross & Levenson, 1993).
These types of modulations appear later in the emotion generating process as compared to
reappraisal and they are responsible for the primary changes of the behavioral aspect of
emotion response tendencies with little impact on negative emotion experience and reducing
positive emotion experience, as well as cognitive suppression which impairs social information
for memory. Suppression is defined as a form of response modulation that is characteristic of
21 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
posttraumatic stress disorder (Roemer et al., 2001). Individuals who habitually use suppression
in everyday life not only have less life satisfaction and well-being, less social support, and less
optimistic attitude about the future but they also lack close relationship with others, have worse
interpersonal relationship and show at least more negative mood, symptoms of depression, and
higher level of psychopathology (Gross, Richards, & John, in press; Moore, Zoellner, &
Mollenholt, 2008). Researchers noted that the individual’s use of reappraisal and suppression is
affected by age such that older individuals reported greater use of reappraisal and lesser use of
suppression (Gross, Richards, & John, in press).
Gross also identified two aspects of emotion regulation: response focused and antecedent
focused emotion regulation. Response focused emotion regulation comprises more of
suppression or inhibition of emotion and is related to the maladaptive effect on an individual’s
wellbeing, social function and physical health.Antecedent focused emotion regulation consists
more of cognitive reappraisal and is accompanied by relatively adaptive profile response (e.g.,
Butler et aI. 2003; Davidson, MacGregor, Stuhr, Dixon, & MacLean, 2000; Gross & Levenson,
1997; Mauss & Gross, 2004; Muraven, Tice, & Baumeister, 1998) (Gross & John, 2004).
One important factor which facilitates social interaction is emotion expressive behavior
(Darwin, 1872, 1998). These views are supported by social functional analyses of emotion and
show the importance of emotion-expressive behavior in social interaction such as what is the
consequence of suppression and reappraisal for asocial functioning (e.g., Campos, Mumme,
Kermonia, & Campos, 1994).
It is important to bear in mind the individual and situational differences existing in emotion
regulation ability. The latter depends on the person’s immediate environment as well as the goal
and demands of the environment or situation. Gross and John (2002) showed by using
individual differences in suppression and reappraisal as a measure of social function that those
22 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
who used suppression showed less negative or positive emotions to others. Moreover, they had
more negative social consequences in casual conversation, less social support, decreased use
of emotional social support as well as decreased coping hindering the development of
emotionally close relationships in comparison to individuals who use more reappraisal(Gross,
Richards, & John, in press). Gross (2002), in an experimental study, showed that suppression
decreased both negative and positive emotion expressive behavior.
Furthermore, Gross found that there were individual differences in reappraisal and
suppression in memory in individuals such that those who scored higher on suppression had
worse memory than those who scored lower. In addition, reappraisal had no effect on objective
memory. Suppression thus makes the difference between inner experience and outer
expression in individuals (Higgins, 1987; Rogers, 1951).
One of the purposes of our study was to determine the effect of cultural and individual
differences in emotion regulation related to psychopathology. In the current research, we
considered different emotion regulation theories. Here we concentrated on Thompson (1994)
and Gross & John (2002), individuals and cultural differences to study children from two
different cultures and societies (individualistic and collectivistic) and focusing on Thompson’s
(1994) extrinsic processes, which included the manner in which caregivers shape and socialize
their children. Gross & John’s (2002) views on model processes of emotion regulation help to
identify the influence of situation and culture on psychopathology on individual from different
cultures. There are several approaches for the study of emotion regulation.
The two main factors that influence the development of children’s emotion regulation are
parents’ discipline and cultural context. In the next section, we aim to review the existing
literature on how children’s regulate their emotion by different parents’ disciplinary measures
23 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
and cultural context and also the relationship between emotion regulation and psychopathology.
2.1.3. Emotion Dysregulation and Dysfunctional Strategies in Emotion
Regulation
Emotion dysregulation is said to occur when individuals lack the ability to regulate the
experience and expression of emotions (Cole, Michel& O'Donnell Teti, 1994). The term emotion
dysregulation is mostly used in clinical setting. It is defined as a problem in emotion regulation
state due to the lack or insufficiency in regulatory strategies or failure to meet the developmental
tasks of emotional development (Cicchetti et al., 1995, 1991). When emotions are dysregulated,
the consequences are difficulties in coping with negative emotions. Individuals with adequate
emotion coping strategies (reappraisal, problem solving) are more efficient in dealing with
negative emotion and have better adjusting capacities in difficult situations (Nolen-Hoeksema et
al., 2008).
On the other hand, individuals with inadequate emotion strategies (suppression and
avoidant) or dysregulated emotion have inefficient management of negative emotion and have
difficulty in adjusting with negative situation. Emotional dysregulation results in social problems
through impaired communication and social dysfunction including deficits in conveying
information about peoples’ thoughts, feelings and objectives, coordinating social encounters and
guiding adaptive functioning (Denham 1986; Eisenberg et al., 2000). Thus, a significant cause
for behavioral problems, deficit in communication and understanding at school, home or in
society can be attributed to emotional dysregulation. The cause behind many pediatric mental
disorders could also be attributed poor emotion regulation (Dodge& Garber, 1991). Children
with emotional dysregulation show patterns of over-regulation and an inhibition of emotional
response. They have difficulty in regulating emotions as well as generating effective strategies,
24 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
thus their responses are less adaptive, more aggressive and avoidant in nature. Such children
with less effective strategies to deal with negative situations and stressors have more negative
experience and thereby are prone to higher risk of negative child outcome measures of,
internalizing and externalizing behaviors (see more in Mackler, 2009).
There are several factors which have an effect on regulation or dysregulation of emotions.
Genetics, insecure attachment, biological and environment risk factors, and parents with
symptoms of depression are associated with increased negative emotions and dysregulated
emotion in children (Cole, Luby, & Sullivan, 2008).
2.1.4. Coping, Cognitive Emotion regulation Strategies
Coping and emotion regulation are interlinked such that coping was defined as the regulation
of emotion in a negative or stressful situation (Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007). Monat &
Lazarus (1991, p.5) defined coping as “an individual's efforts to master demands (conditions of
harm, threat or challenge) that are appraised (or perceived) as exceeding or taxing his or her
resources”. In sum, coping is the ability to manage stressful situations and is determined by
cognitive and behavior processes. Studies conducted on coping have been more focused on
the relationships between cognitive reappraisal and mental health.
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) stated that coping was the ‘‘constantly changing cognitive and
behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as
taxing or exceeding the resources of the person’’ (p. 141). They explained this transactional
model with focus on emotional consequences of appraising situation, and they believed that
appraising a situation in different ways could lead to different emotional and behavioral
consequences. Two types of coping were described: (a) in problem focused coping (acting
25 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
directly on the stressor) a person attempts to change the situation itself by using problem
solving strategies such as finding different solutions and (b) emotion focused coping (dealing
with the accompanying emotions) a person displays behavior such as avoidance or a change in
attention which leads to cognitive reappraisal of the situation. Compas, Maclcarne, and
Fondacaro (1988) reported that adolescents and older children who used more problem focused
coping in difficult situation had more positive emotional and behavioral outcome while those who
used more emotional focused coping strategies such as aggressive actions had more
behavioral problems.
A literature search on coping showed gender differences in use of coping strategies with
female using more emotion focused coping whilst male used more problem focused coping
(Brems & Johnson, 1989; Stone & Neale, 1984).
Taylor (2009) mentioned that individuals may cope with stressful events by using avoidant
approach coping styles. Other researchers are of the opinion that coping methods could be
viewed in terms of cognitive and behavioral aspects, due to the broad definition of emotion
regulation and coping methods.
Cognitive processes consist of an individual’s perception and judgment. Perception includes
sensation and intuition while judgment is comprised of thoughts and feelings. Cognition or
cognitive processes help individuals regulate their emotions when facing negative situations.
Cognitive processes can be conscious (e.g., self-blame, other-blame, rumination and
catastrophizing) or unconscious (e.g., denial and projection) (Garnefski, Kraaij, & Spinhoven,
2001).
In recent years, Garnefski et al. (2001) investigated the cognitive emotion regulation theory
with only thought and acting as components of cognitive strategies and excluded behavior
strategies. Their aim was to find out how cognitive emotion regulation functioned in children and
26 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
how it affected emotional development. They collected data through a questionnaire which
evaluated only conscious emotion regulations in children when facing negative situations in
daily life.
The concept of cognitive emotion regulation consist of both changing the emotion experience
and a conscious response to stressful situation. Although coping and emotion regulation both
contain regulatory functions, there are some differences between these concepts. Emotion
regulation refers to the experience of both positive and negative emotions whereas coping
refers to adaptive behaviors in negative events or stressful situation. Coping refers to an
individual’s ability to manage and respond in stressful situations and reduce negative emotion
with cognitive and behavioral strategies (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Coping is further
distinguished from emotion regulation by its predominant focus on decreasing negative affect
and by its emphasis on much longer periods of time (e.g., coping with sorrow). Moods are
typically of longer duration and are less likely to involve responses to specific “objects” as
compared to emotions (Parkinson et al., 1996). Defenses usually are involved in regulation of
negative impulses such as aggression and other related negative emotion experience
particularly anxiety (Gross & Thompson, 2007). Defenses usually are unconscious and
automatic and are usually labeled as stable individual differences (Bond, Gardner, Christian, &
Sigal, 1983; Cramer, 2000).
Researchers reported that maladaptive strategies (e.g. rumination, avoidance, and suppression)
are more strongly related to psychopathology than adaptive strategies (acceptance, reappraisal,
and problem solving). They found that the relationship between emotion regulation strategies
and psychopathology vary by type of strategies and type of psychopathology, for example
avoidance has large effect on depression, medium to large effect on anxiety and medium effect
on eating disorders and substance-related disorders (Alado, Nolen-Hoeksman, & Schweizer,
2010). Gross believed coping, mood regulation and physiological defenses are three forms of
27 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
affect regulation that could be distinguished within emotion regulation (Gross, 1998).
Figure 2 Emotion regulation and related process (Gross 1998b). Figures added by permission from Prof.
J. Gross.
Researchers found that less adaptive coping was positively correlated with psychopathology
in adolescents or adults (Anderson et al., 1995; Garnefski & Kraij, 2001; Garnefski et al., 2002;
Hoeksema, 2000). Gross (1998) noted emotion regulation can regulate both positive and
negative emotion but coping was mostly focused on regulation of the negative emotions.
Gross et al. (2007) considered appraisal theories to demonstrate how individuals had
different emotional responses, appraisal and coping to the same situation. Studies of the
relationship between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and psychopathology in children
showed that low adaptive or maladaptive coping such as rumination and catastrophizing are
likely to be the cause for depression and anxiety in children (Garnefski & Kraaij, 2006;
Legerstee et al., 2010)., while rumination and self-blame were found to predict internalizing
problems (Garnefski, Kraaij, & Van Etten, 2005). Rumination was also found as a predictor for
depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004; Pourfaraj Omran, 2011) and depression was related to
reduction in emotional clarity (Rude & McCarthy, 2003).
28 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
2.2. Factors Affecting Emotion Regulation
2.2.1. Social Factor on Emotion Regulation and Coping in Children
Children’s abilities to perform positive emotion regulation and coping strategies depend on
prior development and social interactions including their culture, caregivers (family or others),
school and peer relationships, socialization processes, developmental status and organization
of the emotion system (Sarrni et al., 1998; Sroufe, 1996).
Super and Harkness (1986) noted that the effects of the differing features of communities on
children’s emotional development could be best conceptualized within the developmental niche
framework. They identified three subsystems of niche framework in order to explain the
processes of emotional development: (a) physical and social settings in which the child lives
(e.g., the architecture and the social demographics), (b) the custom or beliefs of childcare (e.g.,
socialization practices), and (c) the psychology of caretakers (e.g., their socialization goals and
belief).
Models of ecological theory and social learning theory as well as social cognitive theory
supported the fact that children learned behavior, coping skills and management or regulation
emotions by observation, imitation, and modeling of parents or care givers.
2.2.2. Environmental Factors
When studying the adolescent population, it is crucial to pay attention to the family
environment. The family environment is influenced by various factors including ethnic issues,
socio-economic status, cultural background, and perceptions of autonomy and support from the
parents. All of these factors contribute to form a unique environment for the adolescent to grow.
29 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Bronfenbrenner put forward the ecological theory to demonstrate the effect of all these factors
on the individual. This theory concentrates on child’s development within the context of the child
environment. It also defines different levels of environment, each having an effect on the child’s
development with some influences having a direct impact on the child and others having an
indirect impact, for example impact on parenting. Bronfenbrenner’s(1986) named four important
subsystems: 1) Microsystem - includes the relationships and interactions a child has with his
immediate surroundings (Berk, 2000); 2) Mesosystem – influences and comprised of immediate
environment such as family, peer and school and other people or institutions that have direct
influence on a child’s life; 3) Exosystem - consist of structures that do not interact directly with
the child, for instance community influences; 4) Macrosystem - broadest part of influence on
child development and consists of themes such as cultural values and surrounding laws. These
four subsystems are important to the development of a child and have an effect on emotion
regulation in a child. These subsystems combined as one system have an effect on human
development. Bronfenbrenner’s believed each system could have an effect in two ways and
thus called it bi-directional influences. To illustrate this bi-directionality consider how a parent’s
beliefs and behavior affects a child and in parallel how the child’s beliefs and behavior affects
the parent. Bi-directionality in the microsystem level, have the strongest impact on a child’s
cognitive and emotional development and growth. This theory has been applied to a wide array
of developmental topics including emotion development and the risk factors of emotion
regulation.
30 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Figure 3 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
2.2.4. Family Factor
A literature search on child development showed that parental factors play a great role in
emotional development in children (Thompson, 1994). There are several causes for
dysregulation of emotion (Hilt et al., 2011). Emotion regulation starts from right from infancy with
interactions between the caregiver and environment. Family and culture also play a role on
children development and their emotion regulation. Interactions between a child and his parents
are the first environment guiding the child on how to regulate his emotion. Caregivers are
responsible to help children manage emotion experience with diverse methods such as direct
intervention to reduce distress (Gekoski, Rovee–Collier, & Carulli–Rabinowitz, 1983; Lamb &
Malkin, 1986).
31 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
The social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) clarified how social functioning of a child depends
on their parents’ attributes. It is stated that modeling and observation are important to knowing
social context and interaction with another people and observation and modeling help children
learn how to interpret the same situation and behave in similar situations. Mouris et al. (2007)
noted that modeling and imitation transfer the similar experience from parent to the child.
Parents with positive or negative emotions encourage children’s to display the same emotions
such that children with positive emotion have more positive social interaction and vice versa
(Eisenberg et al., 2001).
Emotion regulation also depends on key factors affecting the child and family. Large families
with negative discipline and socioeconomic stress, (Guthman, Sameroff, &Cole, 2003) and
single parents with less support to cope with events (Calkins et al., 2007) are risk factors for
emotion regulation in children and predispose to psychopathology.
Calkins (1994) suggests that there are different factors that influence the development of
emotion regulation skills namely, external factors such as parenting style/practice. The early
development of emotion regulation skills is highly influenced by the quality of parent-child
relationship. There is evidence supporting the interaction between parents and children as the
key factor for regulation of emotion and development of cognition in children. This interaction
also serves as a medium through which children learn useful strategies to reduce emotional
arousal (Sroufe, 1996). Family factors play an important role in behavioral problems in youths.
Among various family factors is attachment. Attachment refers to that affective and close
relationship between children and their parents or caregivers during times of stress or external
threat which provide a sense of security for the infant and significantly influence the child’s
adaptation to a variety of development (Bowlby, 1988). Bowlby (1973) found that there were
individual differences in emotion regulation and attachment system. The sense of attachment
security helps to manage secure emotion regulation which is supportive for healthy relationship
32 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
and efficient coping (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2002). A person with a sense of attachment security
and supportive interaction learns to reduce distress, and tries to seek help from others for
problem solving. He is also doted with self-confidence which allows him to open cognitive
structure for new information and deal realistically with the environment as well as has optimistic
mental representations which promote self-soothing reappraisal of aversive events, assist in
problem solving and sustain effective emotion regulation.
As a result a person with secure attachment learns how to adequately express distress and
hence nurtures an increasingly balanced way of experiencing and expressing emotions with a
real goal in mind and without anxiety about loss of relationship (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003). It
was found that children with constructive coping and successful emotion regulation were
associated with secure attachment (Contreras et al., 2000). Moreover Main & Goldwyn, (1984)
showed that with regards to classification of the attachment between adolescents and their
parents, the adolescents with more secure attachment had higher emotion regulation and were
lower in anxiety and hostility as compared with those with insecure attachment groups (Kobak &
Sceery, 1988). Parents providing low care and acceptance coupled with high level of rejection
induced anxiety in children through development of a dysfunctional cognitive schema with more
influence towards threat and negative outcomes or sense of insecurity (Vasey & dads, 2001).
Research has demonstrated that there are correlations between insecure infant attachment and
later development of mental health problems (Kobak, Sudler, & Gamble, 1991). Internalizing
behavior problems such as depression and anxiety are the result of insecure attachment, for
example adolescents with insecure attachment have low self-worth and negative explanation
which are symptoms of depression (Cumming & Cicchetti, 1990; Kobak, Sudler, & Gamble,
1991). Furthermore, other studies show that externalizing behaviors and delinquent behaviors
such as anger and hostility are consequences of insecure attachments in adolescents (Allen et
al., in press; Greenberg & Speltz, 1988; Patterson, DeBaryshe, & Ramsey, 1989).
33 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
The use of different parental disciplinary measures from the first years of life has an effect on
emotion regulation and behavior problem in children. Arnold et al. (1993) discussed three
dysfunctional disciplines between parents and child associated with increased child
misbehavior: overreactivity (responding in an emotionally overcharged manner with threats and
physical punishment), laxness (failure to respond consistently to misbehavior) and verbosity
(lengthy discussion such as lecturing and lengthy verbal reprimand such as nagging, to address
misbehavior). Research showed that mothers using overreactivity was associated with
externalizing behavior disorders in preschool children and children up to 9 years old (O’Leary,
Slep, & Reid, 1999, Arnold et al., 1993, Prinzie et al., 2006). Evidence regarding laxness and
permissive discipline showed association with behavior problems such as oppositional disorders
and conduct disorders (e.g., McCord et al., 1961; Patterson, 1976; Snyder, 1977).Another study
supported contextual risk factor for externalizing behavior in dysfunctional parenting (Dishion &
Patterson, 2006). Baumrind’s (1971) researched about classification of parenting styles on the
dimensions of warmth /responsiveness and demandingness/control effect on children. Her work
identified three parenting styles (authoritarian, authoritative and permissive).
Authoritarian parents are often harsh, exert high levels of control and are lacking in warmth.
Children (5-11 years old) with authoritarian parents were associated with behavior problem such
as aggression (Amato & Fowler, 2002). On the other hand, children of authoritative parents who
are responsive and warm show better adjustment (Baumrind’s, 1996).
A study conducted in Iran demonstrated that authoritative parenting helps children in
developing better short term self-regulation e.g., impulse self-control (Mortezanajad et al.,
2009). Permissive parents fail in maintaining the balance between control and warmth and
were also linked to delinquency and aggression (Haapasalo & Tremblay, 1994). Furthermore,
studies found that positive parental expressions were related to social competency and negative
34 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
parental expressions were related to externalizing behavior over the regulation of emotion
(Eisenberg et al., 2001b).
2.3. Psychopathology and Emotion Dysregulation
Emotions can be harmful especially if there is inefficient management of emotions over a
long time period thus resulting in formation of many psychiatric symptoms (Davidson, 2000;
Phillips, Drevets, Rauch, & Lane, 2003). The relevance behind studying emotional regulation
originates from the field of psychopathology on one hand, and the field of cognitive behavioral
therapy on the other hand. Emotion dysregulation is considered as one of the most fundamental
forms of psychopathology (Berenbaum, Raghavan, Le, Vernon, & Gomez, 2003; Bradley, 2003;
Cicchetti, Ackerman, & Izard, 1995). Thompson (1994) defined optimal emotion regulation as
the ability to adjust and succeed in social function, as well as reduce or control arousal
situations, modulate and change emotional experience, when individuals have inability to use of
these behavior means there are dysregulation in emotion.
Emotion dysregulation can be found in mental disorders (fourth edition; American Psychiatric
Association, 1994) with over 50% in Axis I disorders and 100% in Axis II disorders (Gross,
1998). Many childhood disorders or child psychopathology involve difficulty in managing
emotion regulation. Researchers noted disturbance in interpersonal relationships as a key factor
for psychopathology in individuals (See, e.g., Bowlby, 1973; Sameroff & Emde, 1989). A series
of studies reported that children and adolescents with adequate emotion regulation skills have
better relationship and social behavior as compared with children who lack sufficient emotion
regulation skills (Denham et al., 2003; Eisenberg et al., 1995; Rydell, Berlin, & Bohlin, 2003;
Spinard et al., 2006).
35 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Researchers showed that children possessing emotion regulation skill adjust better with
different situations in later development (Denham et al., 2003; Rydell et al., 2003; Spinard et al.,
2006). Evidence also predicts that emotion regulation is related to the development of behavior
problem in children and adolescents. Poor emotion regulation and poor emotional
understanding are responsible for dysregulation of emotion and psychopathology in children.
Children with difficulty in emotion regulation are unsuccessful to regulate of emotion, thus the
term dysregulation of emotion. Emotion dysregulation is defined as the use of inflexible
strategies which might specifically affect the cognitive and interpersonal functioning (Cole et al.,
1994). Dysregulation of emotions occurs an individual responses to situations are too intense
(exhibit over regulation) or too weak (exhibit under regulation) in a continuum (Kennan, 2000).
Emotion dysregulation plays an important role in creating physiological disorders, biological
disorders, stress-induced disorders and psychological disorders (Hilt et al., 2011, Gross, 1998).
It should be pointed out that usually psychological disorders are linked to biology (Macklem,
2008).
Emotion dysregulation has roots in both internalizing and externalizing disorders.
Externalizing disorders refer to difficulty in decreasing negative emotion, inhibiting behavior,
impaired attentional control, weak emotional understanding (appears to be related to general
cognitive development) and expression and focus on negative aspects in situation. Internalizing
disorders refer to emotional problems or mood disorders. Individuals with internalizing problem
show difficulty in decreasing negative emotion, inhibiting emotional expression, understanding
emotional experiences and tend to choose avoidant or aggressive strategies to deal with
negative emotion (Gjone & Stevenson 1997; Martin 2003; Macklem, 2008).
In a study comparing two groups of children with and without anxiety disorder, it was found
that children with poor emotional understanding had problem to adjust or regulate negative
emotion and had anxiety disorder (Southam-Gerow & Kendall, 2000; Suveg & Zeman, 2004).
36 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Poor emotional understanding and difficulty to manage negative situations are related to
different disorders such as aggression and eating disorder (especially in female adolescents),
while reduced ability to manage negative emotion has been linked to depression in adolescents
(Bohnert, Crnic, & Lim, 2003; Dearing et al., 2002; Eisenberg et al., 2000; Shields &Cicchetti,
1998; Sim & Zeman, 2005, 2006; Silk, Steinberg, & Morris, 2003). The early behavioral problem
in children and youths depend on emotion management in childhood with over regulation of
emotions as the cause for internalizing behavior problem such as depression and anxiety and
under regulation of emotion as the cause for externalizing behavior problem such as aggression
(Mullin & Hinshaw, 2007). If an individual is unable to regulate negative emotion such as anger
and acts out, it is indicative of externalizing disorders and difficulty to regulate negative emotion
such as anxiety relates to internalizing disorder (Gross, 1998b). Most research support
suppression as a regulatory strategy in psychopathology. Suppression is a focused response
which directly acts to inhibit emotional expression (Gross & Thompson, 2007). Comparison of
group of nonclinical and clinical group such as patients with generalized anxiety disorder,
patients used more suppression to decrease emotional experience (Mennin et al., 2002).
Some research indicates that suppression has been linked with cognitive maladaptive
strategies and psychological problem such as internalizing and externalizing behavior. For
example individuals with depression have difficulty expressing their emotions and they use more
maladaptive cognitive strategies such as rumination and catastrophizing (Mashhadi et al., 2011;
Garnefski & Kraaij, 2006; Zeman et al., 2004). Research in Iran by Yousefi et al., (2008)
showed that rumination was positively correlated with depression. Zeman et al. (2001)
investigated the relationship between psychopathology and emotional management method
such as (inhibition, suppression of emotional expression, dysregulated expression, and emotion
regulation coping). It was found that maladaptive coping, dysregulation of expression, and
inhibition of expression with negative emotion are symptoms of behavior problem. Thus, anger,
37 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
dysregulation of expressions of anger and sadness and maladaptive coping with anger
predicted symptoms of depression and anxiety in contrast to only anger coping and sadness
inhibition were linked to externalizing behaviors such as aggressive behavior (Zeman et al.,
2002). In another research which compared children with anxiety disorder and without anxiety
disorder the result showed more dysregulated expression of worry, sadness and anger in
children with anxiety disorder as compared to children without anxiety. Interestingly, there were
sex differences in emotion management in girls with and without anxiety disorders who reported
less adaptive emotion coping than boys (Zeman et al., 2004).
Recent research undoubtedly points out that difficulty in regulation of emotions play a role in
most forms of psychopathology (Bradley, 1990, 2000; Casey, 1996; Cicchetti et al., 1995).
Fleener (1999) noted that children who later were diagnosed as borderline personality disorder
were primarily unable to regulate their emotions (see more in chapter 2 Emotion Dysregulation).
The symptoms of borderline personality disorder appear in children as from fourth to sixth grade
(see more in chapter 2 Emotion Dysregulation, Crick, Murray-Close, & Woods2005). Moreover,
most physiological symptoms and disorders such as pain, smoking, cutting, eating disorders
and addictions are associated with emotion dysregulation (see more in chapter 2 Emotion
Dysregulation). Still along the lines of psychopathology and emotion dysregulation, we are
going to explain briefly the relationship between internalizing and externalizing disorder in
children with emotion dysregulation.
2.3.1. Internalizing Behavior Problem in Children
Kovacs and Delvin (1998) characterized internalizing disorders as “conditions whose central
feature is disordered mood or emotion” (p.47). Children with internalizing behavior problems had
over-regulation of emotion and showed social withdrawal, somatic complaints, and loneliness
38 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
(Cole, Michel, & Teti, 1994, Mullin & Hinshaw, 2007; Zeman, Shipman, & Suveg, 2002).
Previous research had showed that children from second grade have ability to develop
internalizing behavior problem such as anxiety and depression (Hymel et al., 1990).
Internalizing behavior problems affect the child social interaction. Children with internalizing
disorder use more maladaptive cognitive strategies to regulate emotion, and most common
ones are rumination, and suppression. Rumination was strongly positively correlated with
depression and anxiety (Alado, Nolen-Hoeksman, & Schweizer, 2010).
In contrast with recent research, there is also evidence supporting the fact that internalizing
disorder depends on factors such as emotion regulation in infancy, childhood and social factors
as well as interpersonal relationships. Patterns of emotion regulation are strongly associated
with disease symptoms. Gross (1998) found that difficulties in regulating negative emotions
were related to internalizing disorders such as anxiety and depression.
2.3.1.1. Depression
Depression is regarded as an internalizing disorder. A person with depression might have a
variety of symptoms such as low mood, lowered interest in normal activity, hopelessness and
low self-esteem (Blumberg & Izard, 1985). A depressive person also might have physical
symptoms (Segrin, 2000; Wicks-Nelson & Israel, 1997) such as difficulty for eating and sleeping
(Emslie, Mayes, & Hughes, 2000; Carlson, 2000) and weight loss or gain.
Several studies noted that depression was related to suppression and dysfunctional cognitive
emotion regulation strategies (see Ehring et al., 2008; Gross & Muñoz, 1995). There were also
some studies which had shown that the level of depression was related to emotion dysfunction
and emotion dysregulation. Individuals with depression showed dysfunctional cognitive emotion
39 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
regulation strategies (e.g., catastrophizing, rumination) and lesser use of functional cognitive
strategies (Positive refocus, positive reappraisal) (Garnefski & Kraaij, 2001, 2006). A recent
experimental study compared individuals suffering from depression and anxiety disorder with
healthy controls and found that the group with depression and anxiety disorder showed higher
level of emotion suppression than the control group when watching a film eliciting negative
mood (Campbell-Sills et al., 2006).Gender differences in rate of depression might be explained
by the tendency to use more rumination by girls than boys. Tennant (2002) found that loss event
had higher association with depression.
2.3.1.2. Anxiety
Anxiety disorder is common in children and adolescents. Studies showed a higher rate of
anxiety disorder in females as compared to males. Moreover, a younger age in females
showed a stronger link between anxiety and emotion dysregulation (Zahn-Waxler et al., 2008).
Research showed that children and adolescents with high levels of negative experience
reported more impairment in the expression of worry and had more anger and sadness as
compared to children without anxiety disorder (Suveg & Zeman, 2004). Children with anxiety
disorder also have problem in psychosocial function, interpersonal relationship, school
performance, and attentional control. They made use of maladaptive cognitive strategies such
as rejection and suppression to experience and express their feelings (Gross & Levenson,
1997). Individuals with anxiety problem were also using other maladaptive cognitive strategies
such as rumination, catastrophizing, self-blame and, other-blame (Martin & Dahlen, 2005;
Garnefski et al., 2001; Amstadter, 2008).
40 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Research based on gender differences in the rate of anxiety disorder showed that females
had more anxiety disorders than males in all types of anxiety disorder (Kashani & Orvaschel,
1990). Another research conducted by Bender et al., (2012) showed that there were more
female adolescents with anxiety disorder in clinical settings than male adolescents and females
reported a higher degree of restriction in accessing effective emotion regulation strategies and
non- acceptance of negative emotion as compared to males.
2.3.2. Externalizing Behavior Problem in Children
Children with externalizing problem have more social problems and difficulty to cope with
situations. These problems are dealt with using verbal aggression and delinquent behavior
which consequently lead to oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder.
Children with dysfunctional emotion or under regulation of emotion show externalizing behavior
disorder (e.g., hyperactivity, defiance and aggression) and also have difficulty to adjust with
situations, as well as exhibit an under controlled anger and sadness responses (Zeman et al.,
2002). Eisenberg and colleagues (2001a) in a longitudinal study showed that children with
externalizing behavior problems had difficulty to control the expression and attentional
processes in negative emotion, and also had lower level of effortful regulation or control (e.g.,
attention and voluntary inhibition) and higher impulsivity. Children who experience negative
events are more prone to have externalizing problem and higher levels of antisocial behavior
and aggression in stressful situations. Evidence suggested that externalizing disorder was more
prevalent in boys than in girls (Dubow, Edwards, & Ippolito, 1997; Morales & Guerra, 2006;
Tennant, 2002).
41 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Mediator (e.g., gender)
Mediator (e.g., gender) Mediator (e.g., gender)
Figure 4 Biosocial Interaction Model of Childhood Externalizing Behavior by Raine, Brennan, Farrington, and Mednick (1997)
This figure outlines the conceptual model for studying childhood externalizing behavior. Above
in the figure are the predictors and below is the outcome. Psychosocial and biological factors
are predictors for childhood externalizing behavior. Each factor can give rise directly to
externalizing behavior. And also show that there are some risk factors influence in both
biological factors and social factors. Two examples of externalizing disorders developed by
dysfunctional emotion regulation strategies in children and youth are oppositional defiant
disorder and conduct disorder.
42 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
2.3.2.1. Oppositional Defiant Disorder
Studies on children with oppositional defiant disorder found that the children had more
problems with parents and peers as compared to other psychiatric diagnoses, for example
conduct disorder. Children who have Oppositional defiant disorder has difficulty to show
negative emotion such as anger and inability in social function (Frankel F, Feinberg, 2002;
Burke, Pardini & Loeber, 2008). Children diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder often lose
their temper, argue with adults, are defiant to authority and deliberately disturb others. This
disorder usually starts by the age of six years and is the cause for development of conduct
disorder in adolescents and antisocial personality disorder later in adults. However, this does
not imply that all adolescents with conduct disorder will have antisocial personality disorder or
other serious problem later in life (Hinshaw, 1994; Moffitt, 1993). Hinshaw’s study showed that
the risk factors for oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder include family discord,
socioeconomic disadvantages and antisocial behavior in the parents (Hinshaw, 1994).
2.3.2.2. Conduct Disorder
Conduct disorder comprises of a group of behavioral and emotional problems in children and
adolescents. “Children and adolescents with this disorder have difficulty on following rule and
behaving in a socially acceptable way” (American Academy of Adolescent and Child Psychiatry
2004, July). Children and adolescents with conduct disorder show behavioral and emotional
problems, such as aggression, and antisocial behavior. Usually individuals with this disorder
show serious characterized by a persistent misbehavior as a core feature of this disorder. The
behaviors of individuals with conduct disorders consist of: (a) aggression towards people and
43 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
animals, (b) destruction of property, (c) deceitfulness or theft, (d) and serious violations of rules.
Aggression is one component of conduct disorder (APA, 1994). In general, aggression is found
to be more common in boys than in girls in conduct disorder (Farrington, 2001). The early
symptoms of conduct disorder are predictors for future antisocial behavior (Loeber, Burke, &
Pardini, 2009). Some disorders are comorbid with conduct disorder such as depression, anxiety,
substance abuse (Drabick et al., 2006). Emotion dysregulation theory noted that individuals with
conduct disorder showed aggressive and antisocial behavior (Davidson, Putnam, & Larson,
2000).
In addition, research on children with externalizing problems such as conduct disorder found
that when compared to age-matched children with internalizing problems they had lower levels
of emotion regulation and control, and also showed insufficient emotion recognition with
attention on their facial expression (Blair et al., 2001; Eisenberg et al., 2001a). Empirical
evidence suggested that aggressive behavior in individuals was as a result of lack of emotion
regulation abilities (Card & Little, 2006; Frick et al., 2003).
2.4. Cross Culture Study
This chapter reviews the literature regarding cultural differences. Focus is laid on the concept
of culture and its importance in the field of emotion, emotion regulation, cognition, and self. The
most important cultural difference between Germany and Iran is the self.
44 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
2.4.1. Concept of Culture
There are several definitions of culture. Culture is defined by a set of symbolic meanings or
in context of variables that have been created by humans from different groups. Culture is
viewed as a factor which could explain differences in emotion, cognition, learning and behavior,
action and thinking in different people. Culture in this thesis is defined as shared “attitudes,
beliefs, categorizations, expectations, norms, roles, self-definitions, values, and other such
elements of subjective culture found among individuals whose interactions were facilitated by
shared language, historical period, and geographic region” (Triandis, 1972, p. 3). Usually, such
elements of subjective culture have helped a cultural group adjust to its environment, and as a
result these elements have been transmitted through socialization, modeling, and other forms of
communication from one generation to another. A more popular definition of culture is from
Hofstede. According to him, culture is ‘‘the collective programming of the mind which
distinguishes the members of one human group from another’’ (Hofstede, 1980). Shweder, 1991
believed culture to be the key to how individuals think, feel, behave and interact in a real
situation. In culture or cross cultural study, it is important to know not only about the concept of
cultures but also of individual differences and self.
2.4.2. Dimensions of Culture
Hofsted's 1980 research on different cultures identified four important dimensions: (a)
collectivism versus individualism or orientation toward individual or group (the way in which
people live together and the relationship that exists between individuals and the community); (b)
masculinity versus femininity, the former stressing achievement and material success, the latter
45 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
stressing harmony and caring, the extent of social roles in families, schools peer groups and
through the media; (c) power distance, describing the willingness to tolerate differences in
power and authority, and avoiding uncertainty; willingness to tolerate ambiguity demonstrate
peoples’ preference to either structured or unstructured situation; and (d) long versus short term
orientation, referring to the degree to which cultures encourage delayed gratification of material,
social, and emotional needs among its members and the degree to which the society upholds
traditional values. High or low dimensions predispose people to resist or accept change. It has
been found that collectivism is at one end and individualism is at the other end. Most of the
other identified cultural dimensions correlate empirically to those of Hofstede. Cultural
differences in communication by Hall's, (1976) and Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey (1988) showed
that in individualist culture, members used high context communication and emphasized on
indirectness, implicitness and used more nonverbal expression and in individualistic culture,
member used more, low context communication and emphasized on direct explicit and verbal
expressions. The most important dimension explaining cultural differences is individualism
versus collectivism.
2.4.2.1. Differences between individualism and collectivism – Individualism
versus collectivism
Is an important dimension in determining similarities and differences between cultures and
their behavioral patterns? Examples of individualist cultures are the United States of America
and other western countries while Korea and other Asian countries are examples of collectivist
cultures (Triandis, 1988). Triandis (1995) defined individualistic and collectivist cultures with four
attributes namely the self, goals, relationships and antecedents of behaviors. People in different
cultures have different set of values, perceptions, self-construal, behaviors, communication,
emotions, cognition and judgments (Ting-Toomey, 1988; Hofstede, 1980; Triandis, 1988, 1990).
46 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
In Individualist cultures, members’ focus is primarily on themselves and their immediate
families. Their communication is subject to changes in specific circumstances with specific in-
groups such as family, religion, profession and social clubs. They have less commitment and
conformity with in- group, and their personal goals are more important than the in- group goals.
In contrast, members in collectivist cultures identify with the in-group, thus more attention is paid
on the well-being of the group rather than their own well-being (e.g., family, work group).
Moreover, in collectivist cultures members cannot separate themselves from the in-groups of
which they are members and they have to adopt with groups, the in-group affects
communication in many different aspects of a person’s life (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). In
collectivist cultures members have deep relationships (Triandis, 1989), strong conformity and
commitment (Bond & Smith, 1996) with the in-group. The group goals are more important than
the personal goals, and there is more consideration and respect to social norms as opposed to
personal or own attitudes (Triandis, 2004).
The group’s priority is on the in-group rather than the out-group, with the distinction more
marked in collectivist cultures than individualist cultures. In collectivist cultures for example in
Japan, classmates and neighbors are important in-group whereas in individualist cultures such
as Australia (Trandis, 1990), and china the important in-group is the family (Bond, 1991).
Hall (1976) put forward a frame work to find differences in individualism and collectivism
culture with high and low context communication. Individuals in individualist cultures use low
context communication which is characterized by being directly explicit with others and
emphasis is on person based information to predict each other’s behavior. On the other hand,
individuals in collectivist cultures use high context communication which is characterized as
being indirect, and emphasize the group based information to predict each other’s behavior
(Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988; Gudykunst & Nishida, 1986a).
47 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Matsumoto (1991) noted that emotion expression is an important factor characterizing the
differences between individualist and collectivist cultures. Members of collectivist culture display
positive emotions towards in-group to maintain harmony and cohesion. Moreover, Matsumoto
(2008) reported that collectivist cultures had less negative emotion expression towards in-group.
In contrast, members in individualist cultures have more positive and negative emotions
expression towards the in-group.
Triandis (2004) noted members in collectivist cultures see the self as interdependent with the in-
group and any changes in the self change depend on the in-group. Behavior is seen as a result
of external factors such as norms and roles in collectivist cultures while in individualist cultures
behavior is determined by internal factors such as attitudes and personality which are
unchangeable and contribute to stability of the self. Individualist and collectivist cultures show
differences in attributions of similarity between the self and comparison to others, with emphasis
on independent and interdependent self-construal. Members in collectivist cultures (e.g., India)
have interdependent self-construal, and their knowledge about others is being more detailed
and clear as opposed to their knowledge about the self. Members in individualist cultures such
as in America and western countries have independent selves and their self-knowledge is more
elaborated than their knowledge of others (Markus & Kitayama, 1991).
According to Markus & Kitayama, 1991; and Singelis & Sharkey, 1995, people with
independent self-construal from individualist cultures manage their feelings and actions with
reference to self rather those to others. In contrast, individuals with interdependent self-
construal from collectivist cultures manage their behaviors, feelings and actions with respect to
the cognition, emotion and behaviors of others since they have more social relationship, and
their behavior management is defined as per the group norms.
48 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
2.4.2.2. The Self
The self is associated with all aspects of human behaviors, thoughts, emotions and cognition
(Triandis 1989). To understand an individual’s behavior in different cultures, it is necessary to
recognize the individual’s characteristics with respect to the tendencies of behaviors in the
cultural level (Gudykunst & Matsumoto, 1996). An individual’s characteristics are shaped by the
individual’s concepts of the self. Self-concept refers to an individual’s self-perception and
depends on (a) how individuals experience and interpret the environment (b) influence from
others’ evaluations and reinforcements (Shavelson & Bolus, 1982). Self- concept is important
and affects an individual’s assumptions, concerns and expectations from the environment as
well as one’s behavior towards others. The influence of self in individualist and collectivist
cultures affect communication, behavior, individual personality orientation, and individual values
(Kashima, 1989; Markus and Kitayama, 1991). It was hypothesized that the different
components of culture such as ideals, values, rules, attitudes, opinions, beliefs, affect self-
construal of its members. Self-construal in individualist and collectivist cultures has different
cognitive, emotional and motivational consequences.
The concept of self needs to be distinguished from the independent and interdependent
views, Markus and Kitayama, 1991 mentioned that individualist cultures (e.g., in western
country, US) had independent self-construal appearing in individuals with personal or private
thoughts or feelings and action. Thus, the self had a delineated uniqueness, and was
autonomous and independent. People in this culture laid emphasis on personal goals and
attributions, expressions of self and were direct with others. Singelis and Brown, 1995 found
that independent construal had low context communication and was negatively correlated with
embarrassment. Meanwhile, people in collectivist cultures (e.g., Asian, Japan, African, Latin
American and Southern European cultures) had interdependent self-construal, and were
49 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
associated with values such as harmony, cohesion and cooperation. Individuals in this culture
were part of others, boosted others’ goals, brought realization to the groups’ attribution, and
were indirect with others (Markus and Kitayama, 1991). Singelis and Brown, (1995) identified
interdependent self-construal as having high context communication.
Their model
Culture Self-construa l Cognition, emotion and motivation
(Value, attitudes, behavior, norms, etc.)
The evidence
Country Cognition, emotion and motivation
Figure 5 Comparison of the logic underlying the Markus& Kitayama (1991) model
2.4.3. Cultural differences between Germany and Iran
For the purpose of this research it is important to know cultural differences between Germany
and Iran in emotion, cognition, and communication to understand cultural differences. However,
a detailed account of all cultural differences is beyond the scope of this thesis.
Previous studies showed that Eastern and Asian countries were collectivist cultures while
western countries were individualist cultures (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1995).
Values, norms and beliefs of western countries such as Germany have laid stress on the
independence and autonomy of the self, and on personal goals. In Middle Eastern countries
such as Iran interdependent construal have emphasized a strong commitment and the values of
cohesiveness. In collective cultures the self was viewed as more committed to the group and
there was focused on harmony and cohesiveness (Diener &Lucas, 2004).
50 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
According to Bani-Asadi (1984), Iranian culture was influenced by different cultures. This can
be observed through the three main cultural facets: ancient culture for about 6000 years
followed by the Islamic culture for about 1400 years and finally the western culture for about 200
years. If each time period of the Iranian culture was considered using Hofested dimensions, it
would be concluded that Iran was different because of the influence of these three cultural
facets. Motamedi (2006) and Bani- Asadi (1984) proved that Iran in ancient culture was a
collectivist culture with high power distance, highly masculine and weak in uncertainty
avoidance. Iran in its Islamic culture were individualist and collectivist with low power distance
and both masculine and feminine. However, under the influence of western culture, Iranians
were more individualist with low power distance and strong uncertainty avoidance and more
masculine. Reviewing the whole history of Iran from Hofstede’s (1991) viewpoint, indicates that
in most of the dimensions Iran lies in the middle of the two extremes, that is in the middle of
individualism and collectivism. Yet, the characteristics of power distance and uncertainty
avoidance in Iran makes it a feminine society. Iran in ancient culture was collectivism High
power distance weak in uncertainty avoidance more masculinity.
Based on Hofested's study, German culture scored high in individualism, masculinity,
uncertainty avoidance, and low power distance when compared to Iran (see in figure 6).
51 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Figure 6 Hofested (1980) cultural dimensions score in Iran and Germany
2.4.3.1. Cognition
Several studies in the field of cultural psychology reported cognitive differences between
western and eastern cultures. These differences might be accounted due to differences in social
practice and social structures and might be a consequence of ancient histories, philosophies,
and sociologies. European cultures were heavily influenced by the ancient Greek (e.g.,
Aristotelian) thinking and values. East Asian culture was influenced by Confucian values and
thinking (Lioyd, 1996). There is a difference between the western and eastern philosophy
characterized by pragmatic and intuitive versus formal logic and rational (Lioyd, 1990). Iran was
influenced by Zoroastrian philosophy which is an ethical philosophy based on the primacy of
52 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
good thoughts (pendar-e-nik), good words (goftar-e-nik), and good deeds (kerdar-e-nik)
(Kreyenbroek, 2009). Zoroastrianism through the works of Zoroaster had a significant influence
on Greek philosophy and Roman philosophy. Several ancient Greek writers and philosophers
believed Zoroastrian philosophy as "the most famous and most useful" philosophy (Nock, 1929).
Germany is an individualist culture with interdependent dimensions, while Iran is a collectivist
culture with dependent dimensions. Nisbett et al. (2001) reported members in an individualist
culture had different cognitive styles or different patterns of thinking and perception as opposed
to members in a collectivist culture. In the latter, members had more holistic cognitive styles
characterized by (a) thematic and family-resemblance-based categorization of objects, (b) a
focus on contextual information, (c) and relationships in visual attention, and (d) an emphasis on
situational causes in attribution. The holistic way is based on experience –knowledge combined
with dialecticism. In individualistic cultures, members had more analytic cognitive styles
characterized by (a) taxonomic and rule-based classification of objects, (b) low focus in visual
attention, (c) dispositional bias in causal attribution, and(d) use of formal logic in reasoning.
2.4.3.2. Emotion
Emotions help individuals to respond in different situations. In Iranian cultures most of the
negative emotions and physical feelings are termed narahati (Pliskin, 1987). Narahati is used in
different languages to show high range of negative emotions such as not feeling good, troubled,
worried, and feeling nervous. Good (1977) showed that in Iranian culture patients reported more
somatic complaints such as weakness, nervousness, chest pain, and digestive problems. Since
Iranian culture is a collectivist culture it could be speculated that somatization is more common
than psychological distress. In this study, the effects of culture effect on the perception of
53 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
emotions, is seen in the light of a dimension differentiating between individualist and collectivist
cultures. In individualist culture, it was easier and more comfortable to express emotions as
compared to collective culture (Matsumoto, 2008).
2.5. Cross-Cultural Studies in Emotion Regulation
2.5.1. Culture, cross cultural studies and psychology
Cultural psychology has a growing emphasis on the effects of sociocultural processes on
human psychology. Through this perspective, researchers studied culture and emotion as being
interdependent, and showed that the effects of culture on emotion influenced the understanding
of cultural processes (Kitayama & Markus, 1994).
Cross culture psychology is a method used to determine the how and whys culture change
human thought and behavior. The first psychologist to identify a relationship between culture
and basic psychological processes was W. H. R. Rivers (1901). In history, psychology and
culture were used to characterize people who shared heritage and in individuals from diverse
cultures to understand abnormal behaviors, social behaviors and modal personality. Berry,
Poortinga, Segall, and Dasen (1992) explained that cross-cultural psychology consisted in
finding the “similarity and differences in individual functioning in various cultural and ethnic
groups; of the relationship between psychological variables and social cultural, ecological, and
biological variables in these variables” (P. 2).
A review of the world's psychological literature during the past century showed that many
psychologists have been interested in culture and cross-cultural studies with culture as an
intervening variable in comparison to human thoughts and behavior. Early sociocultural theories
54 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
included Ruth Benedict, Ralph Linton, and Margaret Mead, whose investigations showed that
an individual’s personality development was reflected by the components of society such as
norms, values, ideas, immediate family and other groups. Studies conducted by Westermeyer &
Janca (1977) clarified that there was a relationship between social culture and mental disorders.
They had showed that the pattern of physical and mental disorder would change as there was
change in the sociocultural settings. Researchers in the field of clinical psychology were
interested in cross-cultural studies in the hope of detecting a disorder having the same
symptoms when using the same diagnostic techniques (Kleinman, 1995). A study carried out by
the National Institute of Mental Health examined a group of patient with schizophrenia in India,
Denmark, Colombia, Nigeria and the United Kingdom found similar symptoms in patients as well
as some differences regarding the course of that disorder which was better for developing
countries than developed countries. Research in China showed that somatization was a way to
experience psychic distress (Kleinman, 1982). Cross-cultural studies in depression found
different symptoms in different countries and cultures for example, in Taiwan and China, people
reported low rates of depression and a higher stress level manifesting as physical problems
such as fatigue, weakness and other somatic complaints, whereas in the Western society
depression was a frequent reaction to individual stress (American Psychiatric Association, 1994;
Kaiser, Katz& Shaw, 1998; Kleinman, 1986).
Clinical psychologists are interested in cross-cultural studies as they are keen to understand
the assessment and evaluation of mental disorders, the psychopathology and how emotional
disorders are influenced by culture and different types of treatment in different countries (Lee
&Sue chapter 15 hand books of culture and psychology). Psychologists tried to explain the
relationship between culture and psychology by attention in self (Markus & Kitayama, 1991) and
also the relationship between individuals and the in-group, commonly known as individualism
and collectivism (Hofstede, 1980; Triandis, chapter 3 hand book of culture &psychology). The
55 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
important dimension in cultural psychology to understand psychological functioning was the
construct of individualist and collectivist selves (see M. H. Bond&Smith, 1996; Smith &Bond,
1999).
2.5.2. Cross-Cultural Study on Emotion Regulation and Cognitive Emotion
Regulation
Culture and emotion regulation have become important concepts in different field of
psychology such as clinical, personality and social psychology.
Researchers have showed the need to investigate emotion regulation from different cultures
for three main reasons. Firstly, it is believed that human development should be conceptualized
as resulting ongoing transactions between the developing person and their social environment
(Bronfenbrenner, 1986). Individuals learn how to regulate emotions from interactional processes
and these interactions are influenced by culture (Saarni, 1998). Secondly, there is evidence
supporting similarities and differences in adults’ communication and coping with positive and
negative emotions (Mesquita & Frijida, 1992). Finally, studies on cultures and emotions are
important from the developmental psychopathology perspective (Cicchetti et al., 1995; Cole et
al., 1994).
Several studies showed culture differences in emotion regulation as different cultures
approved of different emotion expressions. Emotion regulation strategies are influenced by
different cultures through differing ideals, beliefs, attitudes and values. Researchers found that
emotion regulation strategies in diverse cultures had different social outcomes due to different
prevailing ideals, beliefs and values which regulate thoughts, behaviors and perception of self
and environment (Bulter et al., 2003; Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003, John & Gross, 2004).
56 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
The processes and outcomes of emotion regulation would depend upon on the conceptions of
self (independent versus interdependent) and goals (promotion and prevention). In Western
cultures, the self was regarded as independent and emphasis is laid on the promotion of
personal goals (Lee, Aaker & Gardner, 2000) while in Asian culture the self was interdependent,
with less self goals so as to preserve group harmony and elude or avoid hurting groups (Heine
& Lehman, 1997). A number of studies have examined cultural differences by related self-
construal differences in emotionality. Markus and Kitayama (1991) showed that there were
culture differences in cognition, emotion and motivation and those differences occurred due to a
variety of self-construal: individualistic cultures had independent self-construal and collective
cultures had interdependent self-construal. Studies also showed that cultural differences could
be observed on a number of cultural dimensions which provide researchers meaningful ways to
understand the elements of culture.
Hofstede (1980) identified different dimensions to compare different cultures (masculinity
versus femininity, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, long
versus short term orientation) and investigators mentioned that each dimensions had a direct
effect on emotion and emotion regulation on members of each culture. For instance high
uncertainty avoidance was associated with high level of anxiety because of ambiguous situation
and on the other hand, long term orientation favored long-term relationships thus, increasing the
likelihood of future good relationships through regulated emotional reactions. Matsumoto
reported that culture had different effects on emotion regulation strategies. He showed that
three dimensions of culture namely uncertainty avoidance, long versus short term orientation,
and affective autonomy were significantly associated with emotion regulation. He reported that
members in a culture with high uncertainty avoidance and high long-term orientation used more
suppression and less reappraisal strategies as emotions were seen as threatening with lasting
57 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
perspective on interpersonal relationship. Members of collective cultures use more suppression
and less reappraisal in contrast of members in individualistic cultures (Matsumoto, 2008).
Members in cultures with high power distance and high hierarchy experienced problem in
self-regulation and were associated with lowered emotion regulation strategies with less
appraisal and more suppression as in these cultures maintenance of harmony and cohesion
were more important (Matsumoto, 2007b, Matsumoto, et al., 2008).
Other studies showed if attention was paid to ideologies in values and concept of the self in
cultures, cultural differences in emotion regulation strategies, could be distinguished by the
Model process of emotion regulation proposed by Gross and John. The model process consists
of five points (1) situation selection, (2) situation modification, (3) attention deployment, (4)
cognitive change, and (5) modulation of experiential and behavioral or physiological response.
The first four points are related to antecedent focused or reappraisal while the fifth one related
to response focus. Culture could have an effect on antecedent focus as it is dependent on
cognitive reappraisal of members construing in emotion-eliciting situations and their response in
those situations (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, 1998; Matsumoto, 2005; Schwartz, in press;
Schwartz & Bardi, 2001). Matsumoto (2006) showed that there were cultural differences by
modal model. Matsumoto (2006) explained cultural differences in part of his work through the
Gross model. He compared collectivist and individualist cultures on modified situations and
attention deployment, which represented of antecedent, focused responses and found that
differences were due to deferring ideologies.
Members in collectivist cultures had less ability to change or modify situation than members
in individualist cultures. Moreover, members in collectivist cultures showed less anger than
those in individualist cultures.
58 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Furthermore, members in high power distance or high status differentiating cultures were
also affected in attention deployment. Gross and John (2003) focused more on cognitive
change and modulation of response subparts of their model. They defined cognitive changes as
the way to reinterpret a situation which changed the emotional impact, and modulation response
as expressive suppression which represented inhibition of emotion expressive behavior. These
two aspects were important factors in finding cultural differences in emotion regulation.
Researchers used suppression and reappraisal to compare members in individualist and
collectivist cultures. It was found that members in individualist cultures with independent self
and egalitarianism used more reappraisal and less suppression due to the emphasis on the
value emotions and free expression, which was contrary to that in collectivist cultures (Gross &
John, 2003). Asian Americans reported a high level of suppression when compared to
European Americans (Okasaki, 2002; McCare, 2002, McCare, et al., 2005) thus demonstrating
cultural differences on extraversion and neuroticism.
Mutsumato et al., (2005a) found that differences in type of personality such as extraversion
and neuroticism could be used to differentiate cultural differences in emotion regulation. He
compared Japanese and Americans on emotion regulation strategies, and found that Japanese
had more suppression than Americans and Americans had more reappraisal strategies. There
are cultural differences in emotional expression (example, facial expression) as well. Friesen
(1972) conducted an experiment with a group of Japanese and a group of European. Both
groups were showed the same facial expressions through a movie and it was found that
Japanese showed more positive expressions and less negative expressions as compared to
European. It was concluded that Japanese might be using more suppressed emotion than
European.
Matsumoto et al. (2008) compared the dimensions of collectivism and individualism
dimension and found that individualism was characterized by greater emotional expressivity.
59 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Heinrichs, et al., (2006) compared the effect of social values on social anxiety in Japan, South
Korea and Spain as representatives of collectivist cultures and Australia, Canada, Germany,
Netherlands and the United States as representatives of individualist cultures. They found that
collectivist cultures with strict social norms had an effect on social anxiety. Comparison was also
made to other collectivist cultures namely East Asian and Latin American countries and it was
found that Latin Americans reported less social anxiety than East Asians as in Latin America
social harmony was not necessary to increase self-consciousness and therefore could not lead
to increased social anxiety.
Arrindell et al. (2005) compared Latin American and East Asian as collectivist countries with
North American and European as individualist countries, and reported more social anxiety in
collectivist cultures. However, Repee et al. (2004) reported that an impaired quality of life by
social anxiety was higher in individualist cultures than in collectivist cultures (East Asian
countries) as it was culturally acceptable for members in collectivist cultures to have more
socially reticent behaviors. It should be pointed out that only differences in social anxiety were
not sufficient to explain the differences between collectivist and individualist cultures.
A review of several studies showed that there were cultural differences on positive and
negative emotions expression. Majority of research on emotion regulation was in Western
countries with more focus on positive emotions and less on negative emotions.
Most researchers agreed that Western countries laid more focus on positive emotions (pride
& self-esteem) and less on negative emotions (anxiety & depression), (Trommsdorff &
Rothbaum, 2008). Members in individualist cultures used more positive emotions (Pride, self-
esteem) and less negative (Anxiety, depression) versus members of collectivist culture (Asian
countries) (Campos et aI., 1989). Other studies showed that collectivist cultures concealed both
positive and negative emotions as compared to individualist cultures. In a study, comparing
60 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Iranian and Dutch, Novin et al., 2008 found that Iranians people concealed more positive and
negative emotion with close family than peer as compared Dutch people.
There is also evidence showing cultural differences in cognitive emotion regulation strategies
and coping styles. One study comparing English speaking from western countries to English
speaking from Asian countries showed that people in Western countries used more external
target coping strategies. External target refers to changes in the environment to cope with
stressful situation. On the other hand, people in Asian countries used more internal target
coping strategies. Internal target coping refers to changes within the self to cope with stressful
situation (Tweed, white, Lehman, 2004). Resent research showed that different countries used
different cognitive emotion regulation strategies. For instance, Zhu and colleagues (2008)
compared their results from China with those from an America by Martin & Dahlen, 2005. It was
found that China as a collectivist culture reported higher levels of self-blame and blaming others
while America as an individualist culture reported high levels of rumination, catastrophizing,
positive reappraisal, focus on planning, and putting in to perspective.
Triandis (1995) noted that individualism and collectivism shared differences in four
dimensions namely, goals, self, relationships and determinant of behaviors. Collectivist cultures
laid more emphasis on in- group and used more blaming others to increase social harmony
while in individualist cultures the personal goal was more important thus the members used
more putting into perspective , refocus on planning and positive reappraisal. These strategies
helped in self- motivation and goal achievement. In another research by Wong Kai Yan (2009)
compared cognitive emotion regulation strategies between North America and Hong Kong.
Participants from North America demonstrated high levels of positive reappraisal and
acceptance whereas participants from Hong Kong demonstrated high levels of self-blame, other
blame and catastrophizing.
61 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Research on culture and cognition is aimed at finding how individuals obtain knowledge of
objects in their environment and which processes are involved (recognition, labeling analysis
categorization, thinking reasoning and planning). All aspects of cultures exert an influence on
members in society, and parents or caregivers transmit the roles and norms of culture in
children to help children manage and regulate their emotion and behaviors.
Definitions of emotion regulation prove that it is dependent on the nature and emotion
generation (Campos et aI., 1989). Trommsdorff and Rothbaum (2008) showed that cultural
differences in child-rearing had an effect on development of self, goals and emotion regulation.
They mentioned that there was a difference in rearing (nurturing) children in Western and Asian
cultures in terms of positive and negative emotions, self-esteem, promotion and prevention of
goals, independent and interdependent self and expression and suppression of emotions.
Result from their research showed that the development of emotion regulation in nonwestern
culture was related to empathy, interpersonal adjustment and norm assimilation whereas in
western culture, the development of emotion regulation was related to self-expression and
autonomy. In Western culture, emotion expression was assumed to be open while in Asian
culture it was assumed that expression of emotion was inhibited at least in formal public context
so as not to disturb others. Japanese children expressed more distress and anxiety with
intimate others (family) in a pronounced nonverbal manner, while members from Western
culture verbally expressed distress in public (Trommsdorff & Friedlmeier, 1993, 1999). Studies
also showed that when comparing preschool children from Germany and India, German children
were able to show and only express frustrations and problems in contrast with Indian children
who had less display of emotions (Trommsdorff, 2006; Trommsdorff et al., 2006).
In the United States, suppression of emotion is considered as a maladaptive form of regulation
(Gross, 1999, 2002; Gross & John, 2003; John & Gross, 2004) which is in direct contrast with
cultures with interdependent self suppression which are more tolerant and accept such
62 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
strategies to attain and maintain social harmony. Chinese children used inhibition as an
adaptive behavior supported by their culture (Chen et al., 1998). Suppression, particularly of
negative emotions was more common in nonwestern countries and resulted in more distress in
nonwestern countries (see more Trommsdorff et aI. 2007, for children). Suppression was more
associated with avoidant attachment and social withdrawal and less trust to others while for
Western Europeans suppression was for self-protection and associated with fear and anger
(Gross & John, 2003). Based on Western socialization, this could be explained by self-esteem
as the core of a child development and the child self-esteem was supported by a range of
positive parenting practices such that the child had a sense of autonomy and uniqueness
amongst other aspects of an independent self (Chao, 1994).
Asian parents when compared to Western parents were less likely to provide positive and
stable parenting practices for children’s behavior (Trommsdorff & Kornadt, 2003). They focused
more on development of self-critical attributions and self- improvement and tried to convey
sense of an interdependent self. For instance, European American mothers believed that self-
esteem was important for health development. Taiwanese mothers viewed it as unimportant or
indicated sense of frustration, obstinacy and unwillingness (Miller, Wang, sandel & Cho, 2002).
Emotion regulations also include processes of cognition. Members in collectivist cultures used
more suppression and this strategy was correlated with use of dysfunctional cognitive strategies
or coping which in turn correlated with internalizing behavior problem.
63 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
2.5.3. Goal of Cross Cultural Studies
Several researchers suggested that cross-cultural research could increase the knowledge on
differences in human behavior and emotional development, and hence generate ideas about
what caused normal and abnormal behavior (Weisz et al., 1997). Most studies on human
development conducted by cross cultural psychologists were focused on culturally mediated
psychological differences in emotion, motivation, social cognition, personality, somatic
functioning, moral evaluation and self-organization (Shweder & Sullivan, 1993). To understand
the essential psychological functioning of humans, the concept of a universal psychology needs
to be put forward. As example is human aggression (Lonner, 1980). The core perspective in
cross-cultural psychology is its focus on culture and individual behavior as one entity to explore
differences in different individuals (Miller, 1997).
Cross cultural studies help to improve or develop psychological theories by testing validity of
one or more theories in different cultures, for example determining the relationship between
collectivist cultures and moral development. It was found that collectivist cultures had a different
degree in collectivity and moral development (Triandis & Brislin, 1984). Cross cultural theories
also discussed culture as an antecedent to behavior or cause of behavior in members of a
culture (Lonner & Adampoulos, 1997). Researchers Since culture could not be controlled or
manipulated, it was used as an independent variable and it was found that several aspects of
culture reflected on an individual’s thoughts and behaviors. It was tested and confirmed that
psychological theories in perception, cognition, development, personality, social and clinical
psychology were universal (Triandis et al., 1980). Stevenson-Hinde (1998) produced a model
for cross cultural development research on parenting. Cross cultural human development
reviews the similarities and differences in development processes through expressed behavior
in individuals and groups (Gardiner, 1999). Berry (2000) proposed that the goals of cross-
64 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
cultural psychology were “to transport current hypotheses and conclusions about human
behavior to other cultural contexts in order to test their validity”, “to explore new cultural systems
to discover psychological phenomena not available in the first culture”, and “to integrate
psychological knowledge gained from these two activities, and to generate a more pan-human
psychology that would be valid for all people” (p. 198).
2.5.4. Summary
This chapter has presented brief description about different approaches of emotion, emotion
regulation, psychopathology and cultural dimensions. It has reviewed relevant studies with
regard to cultural differences between one Asian country, Iran, and one European country,
Germany, respectively. The reviews contain cross-cultural comparisons of emotional
expression, coping, parent discipline and psychopathology. Cultural systems contain values,
beliefs and norms and therefore members have a similar theory about how they express their
emotions and understand the behaviors of others. Previous studies introduced general patterns
of Iranian culture exhibiting more collectivism, obedience, hierarchy and harmony. The core
characteristics of German culture include individualism, low context communication and
objectivism. Different cultural values impact on how individuals express emotions in different
situations, how they evaluate them and recognize symptoms of behavior problems of
themselves and others. For example, in Iranian culture, modulation of one’s behavior to keep
respect to older and social harmony are valued.
As a result, the direct expression of negative emotions is inhibited and use of suppression is
common between individuals and indirect communication is commonly applied. According to
research by clinical psychologists, inhibition or suppression of emotions are the important
factors for individuals to use dysfunctional coping and develop symptoms of psychopathology.
65 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Although previous research has shown that cultural values and norms impact on individual
behavior, studies of different cultures are known which could contribute to the understanding of
signs and reactions against behavioral problems among individuals according to their cultural
values . We need to consider more the fact that cultural scripts guide how people choose to
regulate their emotions.
In sum, we demonstrate how children from two different cultures, the German and the Iranian
one, express anger and sadness emotions and how they cope with negative situations. We also
evaluate the relation between psychopathology and types of emotion regulation strategies.
Since the family background of children from two countries is different, parents’ disciplines are
factors which influence symptoms of behavior problems in children, and therefore the parents
are also involved in this study. As parents are known as the most important source of
observation of their children, we also evaluated parenting views about the symptoms of
behavior problems of their children.
In order to compare the roles of dysfunctional emotion regulation and psychopathology in
German children and Iranian children, I used self-report questionnaire experiences filled in by
children from both countries as well as a parent self- report questionnaire about which discipline
they have. In addition to that, I reported their views about the symptoms for behavior problems
of their children with the help of another questionnaire.
I attempted to provide a framework to detect symptoms of behavior problems in children
influenced by different factors, such as cultural background, parents’ discipline, types of
regulation of emotions and coping strategies to assist treatment of children from different
cultures.
66 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
3. Hypotheses
The goal of the current cross-cultural study was to find the relation between emotion
dysregulation and cognitive coping strategies and negative parenting discipline with
psychological problems (including internalizing and externalizing symptoms) in children.
In this study, we investigated emotion regulation strategies, coping strategies and influence
of parenting discipline on psychopathology in German and Iranian school-children using self-
report questionnaires.
In order to control the influence of the social and cultural environment, we included two
additional groups of Iranian children living in Germany and German children living in Iran. The
same questionnaires CDI, CERQ, YSR, CBCL and Ps were used to evaluate outbreak of
internalizing and externalizing symptoms and type of emotion regulation strategies in these
participants compare to children living in their home country to clear that culture, environment
and relationship influence on regulation of emotions and symptoms of behavior problems in
children. According to several studies children from Asian country with collective culture showed
more internalizing and externalizing symptoms and showed more inhibition and suppression
than European children with individualistic culture (Campos et aI., 1989; Arrindell, et al., 2005;
Trommsdorff & Rothbaum, 2008; Matsumoto, 2007, Matsumoto, et al., 2008; Gross & John,
2003; Okasaki, 2002; McCare, 2002, McCare, et al., 2005). Due to previous studies it was
expected that Iranian children would show more internalizing and externalizing symptoms as
well as more inhibition or suppression than German children. Concerning the association
between emotion regulation and psychopathological symptoms, it was assumed the association
was greater in Iranian children than German children.
67 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
The Hypotheses of the Current Study are:
1. There are differences in regulation or management of expressive emotion (CEMS; Zeman, et
al., 2001) between German children and Iranian children.
2. There are differences in cognitive emotion regulation strategies (CERQ; Garnefski et al.,
2001; Garnefski, Kraaij, & Spinhoven, 2002) between German children and Iranian children.
3. There are differences in parenting discipline (PS; Arnold, O'Leary, Wolff, and Acker, 1993)
between German children and Iranian children.
4. There are differences in internalizing and externalizing symptoms (YSR, CBCL; T.M.
Achenbach, 1991) between German children and Iranian children and their parents.
5. There are correlation between parenting discipline (PS; Arnold, O'Leary, Wolff, and Acker,
1993) and CEMS (Zeman, et al., 2001), CERQ (Garnefski et al., 2001; Garnefski, Kraaij, &
Spinhoven, 2002) and psychopathology (YSR, CBCL; T.M. Achenbach, 1991) in both countries.
It is expected that negative parental discipline, dysfunctional cognitive strategies and type of
regulation of emotion on development of internalizing and externalizing symptoms in both
groups.
6. There is a correlation between parent and child measures of psychopathology (YSR, CBCL;
T.M. Achenbach, 1991) indicating parent-child agreement regarding symptoms. At the same
time children report more symptoms than their parents on average.
7. Dysfunctional strategies in emotion regulation (Zeman, et al., 2001), cognitive emotion
regulation (Garnefski et al., 2001; Garnefski, Kraaij, & Spinhoven, 2002) and parenting
discipline (PS; Arnold, O'Leary, Wolff, and Acker, 1993) predict psychopathology (YSR, CBCL;
T.M. Achenbach, 1991) in children and youth in a multivariate regression model.
68 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
These hypotheses were based on previous cross cultural studies (Matsumoto, 2007,
Matsumoto, et al., 2008; Gross & John, 2003; Okasaki, 2002; McCare, 2002, McCare, et al.,
2005) reporting that Asian children displayed more emotional suppression which results in more
internalizing symptoms than European children (Campos et aI., 1989; Arrindell, et al., 2005;
Trommsdorff & Rothbaum, 2008).
4. Methods
4.1. Participants and Procedures
The Iranian sample in Iran was collected between September and November 2010. The
German sample collected in Germany from December 2010 till May 2011. The German sample
in Iran was collected in September 2011 while the Iranian sample in Germany was collected
between February and June 2012. The age of all participants ranged from eleven to fourteen
years.
The Iranian sample in Iran consisted of N= 103 children of which n= 47 were girls and n= 56
were boys and the German sample in Germany contained N= 118 children comprising of n= 80
girls and n= 38 boys. Parents of children from both these groups participated in this study.
German student sample in Iran consisted of n= 24 children and Iranian student sample in
Germany were n= 23 children.
300 children and parents were originally selected to participate in the study in Iran and also 300
in Germany. We received 103 completed questionnaires from Iranian children and their parents,
and 118 from the German group. As for German children in Iran as well as Iranian children in
69 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Germany, 40 children got questionnaires. From these groups we obtained 24 and 23 completed
responses.
The entire sample was derived from the normal population and the children were native
speakers. There are however non-negligible differences between the types of schools in Iran
and Germany. Iranian schools cater only single-sex education while German schools provide
mixed gender education. All participants were explained about the nature and goals of this study
and all willingly signed informed consents.
4.2. Measures
4.2.1. Children’s Emotion Management Scale (CEMS).
The Children’s Emotion Management Scale (CEMS; Zeman, et al., 2001) was employed in
this study to measure children’s perceptions of their anger, sadness, happiness, and pride
management styles. Cronbach’s alpha was used to measure the internal consistency. The
Cronbach's alpha for the overall CEMS in our sample was α = .764. The Cronbach's alpha for
the overall CEMS in sadness and anger in our samples showed good reliability. The Cronbach's
alpha in Iranian children in Iran was α = .713, for German children in Germany was α = .785, for
German children in Iran was α = .715 and for Iranian children in Germany was α = .672. The
normal acceptable level of Cronbach’s α is .6 (Nunnally, 1978).
The CEMS includes three subscales: (a) inhibition (b) dysregulated expression (c) emotion
regulation coping. The inhibition scale assesses over-controlled outward emotional expression
such that a child might be feeling (e.g., sad or angry) but doesn’t show it externally. The
dysregulated expression scale assesses under-controlled expression or inappropriate
70 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
expression of emotions (e.g., screaming). The emotion regulation coping scales assesses a
child’s ability for adaptive and controlled emotions and response to emotions in a healthy
manner.
Children’s Emotion Management Scale (CEMS) Anger (CEMA)
The CEMS anger is comprised of 13 items. Children responded to the questionnaire using a
3 point likert scale: 1 (hardly ever), 2 (sometimes), and 3 (often). The children were asked to
think of a time when they felt angry and then answer the questions. Items covered all three
subscales: (a) inhibition evaluated by four questions (e.g., “I hide my anger”), (b) dysregulated
expression evaluated by three questions (e.g., “I do things like slam doors when I'm mad”), and
(c) emotion regulation coping management evaluated by four questions (e.g., “When I am
feeling sad, I do something totally different until I calm down”). Examination of the psychometric
properties of the CEMS indicated alpha coefficients ranging from 0.62 to 0.77 and test-retest
reliability ranged from 0.61 to 0.80 for the individual scales (Zeman et al., 2001).
Children’s Emotion Management Scale (CEMS) Sadness (CEMS)
The sadness management scale is similar in structure and content as the anger
management scale. Likewise, it uses the same 3 point response scale and measures inhibition,
dysregulated expression, and emotion regulation coping. The children’s sadness management
scale consists of 14 questions. Four questions assess sadness inhibition (e.g. “I hold my sad
feeling in”), three questions measure sadness dysregulation (e.g. “I whine/fuss about what’s
making me sad”), and four questions assess sadness coping (e.g. “I try to calmly deal with what
is making me sad”).
71 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
4.2.2. Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire long –Version (CERQ)
The cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire long version was developed by Garnesfski
and colleagues (Garnefski et al., 2001; Garnefski, Kraaij, & Spinhoven, 2002). The CERQ is a
self-report questionnaire measuring nine cognitive coping strategies (five functional and four
dysfunctional emotion regulation strategies) in both normal and clinical population of children
and adolescents. Subjects are assessed after they have thought of a negative experience or
stressful event. This questionnaire is very useful to explore the relationship between cognitive
coping strategies/emotional dysfunction and different kinds of psychopathology. Literature
search revealed that dysfunctional coping strategies were positively correlated with behavioral
disorders such as anxiety and depression (e.g., Garnefski et al., 2001a; Garnefski et al., 2001b;
Garnefski et al., 2002 a). Cronbach’s alpha was used to measure the internal consistency (The
Cronbach's alpha for the overall CERQ in our samples showed good reliability.
The Cronbach's alpha for Iranian children in Iran was α =0.843, for German children in
Germany was α =0.891, for German children in Iran was α =0.829 and for Iranian children in
Germany was α =0.916. The normal acceptable level of Cronbach’s α was set at 0.6 (Nunnally,
1978).
The CERQ contains 36 items for assessing cognitive coping strategies. All CERQ subscales
consist of 4 items, subjects answer in from a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never), 2
(sometimes), 3 (regularly), 4 (often), 5 (always), with higher scores indicating higher levels of
using a particular cognitive emotion regulation strategy. The nine subscales are self-blame (e.g.,
“I feel that I am the one who is responsible for what has happened”), other blame (e.g., “I feel
that others are responsible for what has happened”), rumination (e.g., “I often think about how I
feel about what I have experienced”), catastrophizing (“I keep thinking about how terrible it is
what I have experienced”), putting into perspective (e.g., “I tell myself there are worse things in
72 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
life”), positive refocusing (e.g., “I think about pleasant experiences”), positive reappraisal (e.g., “I
look for the positive sides to the matter”), acceptance (e.g., “I think that I have to accept the
situation”) and refocus on planning (e.g., “I think about a plan of what I can do best”). The
questionnaire demonstrated good internal consistencies, test-retest reliabilities, factorial and
construct validities (Garnefski, Kraaij, & Spinhoven, 2002). The CERQ is an established
instrument in clinical settings. CERQ in its Iranian version was validated by Hassani (2010). The
German version was used by Mohr, (2006) and validated in a sample of N = 136 non-clinical
participants (Ehring, in preparation). The factor structure could be replicated using a principal
component analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation. Apart from planning (α= .53), all subscales
showed adequate internal consistencies (.75 < α < .89). The construct validity of the measure
was supported by significant correlation with other emotion regulation measures. Internal
consistencies were adequate in the current study (.72 < α < .85).
4.2.3. Youth Self-Report (YSR)
Youth self-report questionnaire was developed by T.M. Achenbach for adolescent’s
between11 and 18 years old. The YSR is a self-report questionnaire divided into two parts 1)
Competencies and 2) Problems (T.M. Achenbach, 1991). The questionnaire contains items
concerning activities, social relationships and academic performance as well as items assessing
emotional and behavioral problems during the preceding 6 months, and 16 socially desirable
items. The response format for the problem item is 0 (not true), 1 (somewhat true) and 2 (very
true). The YSR consists of eight subscales: withdrawn, somatic complaints, anxious/depressed,
rule-breaking behavior or delinquent behavior, aggressive behavior, social problems, thought
problems and attention problems. The YSR also allows examination of two groups of
syndromes: internalizing problems and externalizing problems. Internalizing problems
73 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
comprises of social withdrawal, somatic complaints, and anxiety/depression scales, while
externalizing problems include delinquent behavior and aggressive behavior scales. The
German translation did by Döpfner et al., (1998) and translated into Farsi by Minaei (2003).
Cronbach’s alpha was used to measure the internal consistency. The Cronbach's alpha for the
overall YSR in our samples had excellent reliability α =.929. The Cronbach's alpha in Iranian
children in Iran sample was α =.950, for German children in Germany was α =.930, for German
children in Iran was α =.874 and for Iranian children in Germany was α =.948. The normal
acceptable level of Cronbach’s α was set at .6 (Nunnally, 1978).
4.2.4. Children Behavior CheckList (CBCL)
The Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach, 1991, parent report version for 4-18 year
old children) is widely validated instrument with adequate reliability and validity when describing
child behavior (Achenbach, 1991). The Cronbach's alpha for the overall CBCL in our samples
showed good reliability α =.971. The Cronbach's alpha in Iranian children in Iran sample was α
=.972, for German children in Germany was α =.928.
The Child Behavior Checklist/4-18 (CBCL/4-118) was the first of what later became a
multiaxial empirically based set of measures for assessing children through parents. This form
includes two sections; the first section contains 13 questions assessing children's competence
in four areas of educational, social, overall activities and competence; the second part is about
behavioral and emotional problems in the past 6 months and includes 113 items which are
scored as 0 (not true), 1 (somewhat true) and 2 (very true).The instrument measures the
following eight syndromes: social withdrawal, somatic complaints, anxiety/depression, social
problems, thought problems, attention problems, rule-breaking behavior or delinquent behavior,
74 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
and aggressive behavior. The CBCL is the only measure that contains the sex problems scale.
In addition to focusing on a child’s behavior as defined by one of the eight syndrome scales, the
CBCL also allows the examination of two broad groupings of syndromes: internalizing problems
and externalizing problems. Internalizing Problems combines of three syndromes, Social
Withdrawal, Somatic Complaints, and Anxiety/Depression scales. While Externalizing combines
the Delinquent Behavior and Aggressive Behavior scales. The questionnaire translated in
German by Döpfner et al., (1998) and translated into Farsi by Minaei (2003).
4.2.5. Children Depression Inventory (CDI)
Children depression inventory was developed by Kovacs (Kovacs, 1985, 1992). The
children’s depression inventory is comprised of 27 items and is a self-report questionnaire for
the assessment of depression in children and adolescents aged between 7 and17 years. Each
CDI item consists of three choices, scored from 0 to 2 in the direction of increasing severity.
The children choose the answer that best fit how they have been feeling over the past two
weeks. The CDI showed high internal consistency and stability, and was validated for both
normal and clinical samples. The questionnaire translated in German language by Stiensmeier-
Pelester et al. (2000) and translated in Farsi by institute Azmonyar Poya. Cronbach’s alpha was
used to measure the internal consistency. The Cronbach's alpha in Iranian children in Iran was
α =.806, for German children in Germany was α =.820, for German children in Iran was α =.694
and for Iranian children in Germany was α =.638. The Cronbach's alpha for the overall CDI in
our samples showed good reliability, Cronbach’s α ≥.6 (Nunnally, 1978).
4.2.6. Parenting Scale (PS)
75 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Parenting Scale (Arnold, O'Leary, Wolff, and Acker, 1993) is a 30-item self-report
questionnaire originally developed to assess the disciplinary practices of parents of preschool
children, and was also used to assess disciplinary measures of parents of middle school
children.
The original scale contains 30 items on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from a high
probability to use an effective discipline strategy to a high probability of making a discipline
mistake. The questionnaire measures three dysfunctional subscales (a) overreactivity, (b)
laxness, (c) verbosity, the overreactivity subscale contains 10 items, laxness subscale has 10
items and verbosity consists of 7 items.
The questionnaire has adequate test–retest reliability and was validated against behavioral
observations of parenting (Arnold et al., 1993). Cronbach’s alphas was 0.78 for mothers and
0.76 for fathers. The German version translated by Naumann, et al. (2010) and they add five
questions to the original questionnaire and the questionnaire had good reliability to use. Farsi
version of parenting scale translated by institute Azmonyar Poya. The questionnaire showed
good reliability to use in Iran too.
4.2.7. Psychometric Properties
Reliability indicates the quality of measurement repeatable and constancy in the research
result if it were to be repeated. Namely, if measurements under similar conditions (by similar
observation unit and measurement tool) at different places and times were performed, results of
the measurement should be similar. To determine the measurement reliability, Cronbach Alpha
method was used. This method to examine inner adjustment questionnaire questions was used
76 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
and more questions and component of measurement scale be more adjustment to each other,
that scale was more reliable.
Value of this coefficient was varying between zero to one, and values of upper than 0.7
indicate proper reliability of measurement tool. Reliability test by Cronbach Alfa method was
conducted on scales, if scale had little reliability; we increased value of reliability by elimination
and / or correction of its components. Examination of measurement scales reliability showed
that most of them had proper reliability (see Table 1).
77 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Variables Number of
Items Cronbach’s
Alfa
Depression 27 0.81
P-Internalizing Iran 33 0.91
Germany 31 0.88
P-Externalizing Iran 35 0.93
Germany 33 0.85
C-Internalizing Iran 33 0.9
Germany 31 0.88
C-Externalizing Iran 35 0.86
Germany 30 0.86
CEMS
Sadness inhibition 4 0.7
Sadness dysegulation 3 0.72
Sadness coping 5 0.63
Anger inhibition 4 0.68
Anger dysegulation 3 0.67
Anger coping 4 0.76
CERQ
Rumination 4 0.7
Catastrophizing 4 0.67
Self-blame 4 0.64
Other-blame 4 0.65
Acceptance 4 0.63
Positive reappraisal 4 0.67
Putting into perspective 4 0.64
Positive refocusing 4 0.79
Planning 4 0.71
PS
Laxness Iran 11 0.7
Germany 9 0.75
over reactivity Iran 10 0.7
Germany 13 0.81
Verbosity Iran 7 0.69
Germany 5 0.62
Table 1 Psychometric properties of the scale
78 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
5. Results
In this project SPSS20 and LISREL software ver. 8.5 for data analysis were used. The
analysis used frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation values to describe the
variables.
To relate inferential statistic and hypothesis spearmen correlation test, one way variance
analysis test, multivariable and regression test were employed. A confidence level of 95% was
considered, the alpha level to test the hypothesis was 0.05.
The study used a sample size of 269 subjects’ Iranian sample in Iran (II) 103, German sample in
Germany (GG) 118, and German resident in Iran (GI) 24, Iranian resident in Germany (IG) 23.
5.1. Descriptive Findings
In order to better understand the nature of the population and being more familiar with
research variables and choose the right statistical methods, it was necessary to describe the
statistical data before analyzing them. Also, statistical description of the data was one step
towards discriminating pattern governs for those and bases to make clear links between
variables being applied (Khorshidi & Ghoreishi, 1381: 254).
79 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
5.1.1 Description of Background Variables
5.1.1.1 Gender Variables Description
Results in table 2 showed the gender distribution among the German and Iranian test
subjects.
GENDER Germany Iran
% Frequency % Frequency
Female 5656 87 6555 67
Male 5656 64 6556 66
Total 411 441 411 415
Table 2 Frequency of gender variable
5.1.1.2. Description of Parent Educational Level Variable
The parent education level was reported in table 3. It should be mentioned that this variable has
been described only amongst the Iranian children parent population since most of German parents did
not answer this question. According to the result, 69% of fathers and 53.4% of mothers had a college
education. We received answers from 103 fathers and 101 mothers of which 2 did not answer.
80 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Table 3 Description of parent educational level variable
5.1.1.3. Description of Parent Occupation
Table 4 shows the information regarding the type jobs parents held at the time of this
analysis. The German student parents did not elect to answer this question description of parent
occupation pertains to the parents of Iranian children. The results showed that among fathers,
57 (%55) had self-employee, 38 (%37) were employees and 7 persons (%7) were retired.
Mothers were categorized into two groups, housewife (home maker) and having a self-
employee. 71 (%70) mothers were self-employed and 30 mothers were qualified as housewife
(home maker) (%30). 2 of the mothers did not mention their occupation.
Education Level
Mother Father
% Frequency % Frequency
High School Attended 7558 78 4756 41
High School Diploma 7157 74 4755 45
Some College 7657 76 7757 71
Bachelor Degree 7757 75 5154 54
Master Degree 7 7 657 5
PhD 5 5 651 6
Total 411 414 411 415
Unclear 7
81 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Table 4 Description of parent occupation
5.1.1.4. Description of the Children Age
The mean and standard deviation of the age variable was shown in table 5. Those two
variables were separately presented for Iranian and German children. According to this the
mean age of the Iranian children was 12.31 years with a standard deviation of 0.80. The mean
age and standard deviation amongst the German student’s was 12.89 and 0.85 respectively.
Table 5 Age of Iranian and German children
5.1.2. Description of Main Variables of the Research
Job
Mother Father
% Frequency % Frequency
Self Employed 70.3 81 55.3 68
Employed 57 36.9 ـــ ـــ
Retired 8 6.8 ـــ ـــ
Home maker 29.7 51 ـــ ـــ
Other 4 4 ـــ ـــ
Total 411 414 411 415
Unclear 7
Variable
Germany Iran
Mean SD Mean SD
Age 12.89 .85 12.31 .80
82 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
5.1.2.1. Description of Emotion Regulation Variables
The emotion regulation variable included six components which were examined for their mean
and standard deviation in table 6. The six components include sadness inhibition, sadness
dysregulation, sadness coping, anger dysregulation and anger coping.
Variables II GG IG GI
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Sadness
Inhibition 1.79 .51 1.60 .40 1.88 .48 2.09 .63
Sadness
Dysregulation 4558 .48 7511 .48 4588 .55 4510 .50
Sadness
Coping 4515 .61 7518 .47 7544 .41 7547 .48
Anger
Inhibition 4581 .46 4575 .51 4584 .55 4568 .51
Anger
Dysregulation 4566 .42 4577 .45 4571 .63 7577 .54
Anger Coping 7514 .49 7545 .44 7515 .67 4581 .45
Iranian children in Iran(II), German children in Germany(GG), Iranian children in Germany(IG), German children in Iran (GI) Table 6 Groups differences in CEMS subscales
5.1.2.2. Description of Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies Variables
The cognitive emotion regulation strategies were described in table 7. According to this table,
the mean and standard deviation of the nine components of this variable were reported. The
components include rumination, catastrophizing, self-blame, other-blame, acceptance, positive
reappraisal, putting into perspective, positive refocusing and planning.
83 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Iranian children in Iran(II), German children in Germany(GG), Iranian children in Germany(IG), German children in Iran (GI) Table 7 Groups differences in CERQ subscales
5.1.2.3. Description of Children Depression Inventory (CDI), Parenting
scale (PS), Youth Self Report (YSR) and Child Behavior Check List (CBCL)
Variables
The results in table 8 pertain to description of depression among all 4 subject groups, the
parenting scale which includes subcategories of parental laxness, parental overreactivity and
parental verbosity were measured among Iranian children in Iran and German Children in
Germany. Child Behavior Check List with its subscales Internalizing and Externalizing was
measured among Iranian parents in Iran and German parents in Germany. The Youth Self
Report with its subscales related to Internalization and Externalization was measured amongst
all 4 groups.
Variables II GG IG GI
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Depression .47 .26 .38 .22 .73 .19 .46 .18
PS- laxness 3.57 .71 2.50 .72 ــ ــ ــ ــ
PS- over reactivity 3.33 .92 3.19 .81 ــ ــ ــ ــ
PS- verbosity 4.31 .92 4.21 .87 ــ ــ ــ ــ
CBCL
Internalizing .32 .27 .15 .18 ــ ــ ــ ــ
Externalizing .25 .26 .11 .12 ــ ــ ــ ــ
YSR Internalizing .39 .28 .27 .21 .35 .34 .39 .24
Externalizing .42 .23 .30 .21 .47 .21 .51 .28
84 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Variables II GG IG GI
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Depression .47 .26 .38 .22 .73 .19 .46 .18
PS- laxness 3.57 .71 2.50 .72 ــ ــ ــ ــ
PS- over reactivity 3.33 .92 3.19 .81 ــ ــ ــ ــ
PS- verbosity 4.31 .92 4.21 .87 ــ ــ ــ ــ
CBCL Internalizing .32 .27 .15 .18 ــ ــ ــ ــ
Externalizing .25 .26 .11 .12 ــ ــ ــ ــ
YSR Internalizing .39 .28 .27 .21 .35 .34 .39 .24
Externalizing .42 .23 .30 .21 .47 .21 .51 .28
Iranian children in Iran(II), German children in Germany(GG), Iranian children in Germany(IG), German children in Iran (GI), PS-laxness= Parent-laxness, PS-overreactivity=Parent-overreactivity, Ps-verbosity=Parent-verbosity. Table 8 Groups differences in CDI, PS, YSR, and CBCL subscales
5.2. Inferential Findings
To test the hypothesis of comparison groups on research variables one way analysis of
variance test or ANOVA was used. We compared between two and four groups per test and
noted the number of the comparing groups. Results were reported in tables 9 to 12.
5.2.1. Group Comparison on Emotion Regulation Variables (CEMS)
The test for country differences regarding emotion regulation variables (CEMS; Hypothesis 1)
Four groups were compared and results documented in table 9. Results showed that mean of
variables Sadness inhibition (F [3,254] = 4.172, p= .007, 2=.05) Sadness dysregulation (F
85 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
[3,254] =7.949, p= .005, 2=.08), Anger inhibition (F [3,250] = 4.350, p= .005, 2=.05), anger
dysregulation (F [3,250] =33.234, p< .005, 2=.28) variables and Anger coping variable (F
[3,250] =3.458, p= .017, 2=.04) were different among the comparing group. The analysis
showed that mean of all studied variables except “sadness coping” were significantly different
among the comparing groups. At least there was a mean difference between two groups in each
of the variables.
Note. **p<.01, *p<.05
Table 9 Summary of analysis of variance to compare groups on the variables CEMS
Results of those variables with significant differences between groups were reported in table 10.
We used POST HOC to compare pair groups of variables, and because the numbers of groups
were not equal we applied the Scheffe’s test. Figure 7 presented the mean of variables of all
comparing groups.
In four of the five variables with significant differences we demonstrated differences between
the groups of Iranian children and German children in Iran, while the fifth, anger coping showed
it between German children and German children in Iran. The variables sadness dysregulation,
Variable Source Df Sum of square
Mean square
F P value
Sadness inhibition
Between Groups 5 5547 4516 6548 .007
Within Group 761 5555 .25
Sadness dysregulation
Between Groups 5 6577 4557 8516 .000
Within Group 766 6751 .205
Sadness coping
Between Groups 5 4575 .42 4517 .116
Within Group 766 6558 .211
Anger inhibition
Between Groups 5 7577 .961 6556 .005
Within Group 761 6657 .221
Anger dysregulation
Between Groups 5 7657 8.27 5557 .000
Within Group 761 5757 .249
Anger coping Between Groups 5 8551 1.01
5566 .017 Within Group 761 8551 .292
86 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
anger inhibition and anger dysregulation additionally exhibited significant variances between the
groups of Iranian children and German children. For the variable anger dysregulation we found
statistical proven differences between Iranian children and all three other groups as well as
between Iranian children in Germany and German children in Iran.
Variables Groups compared Mean
difference P value
Sadness inhibition
Iranian children vs. German children resident Iran -.38 .010
Sadness dysegulation
Iranian children vs. German children -.27 .000
Iranian children vs. German children resident Iran -.35 .009
Anger inhibition
Iranian children vs. German children .198 .044
Iranian children vs. German children resident Iran .32 .003
Anger dysegulation
Iranian children vs. German children -.62 .000
Iranian children vs. German children resident Iran -.84 .000
Iranian children vs. Iranian children resident Germany
-.43 .004
German children resident Iran vs. Iranian children resident Germany
.41 .049
Anger coping
German children vs. German children resident Iran .38 .023
Note. **p<.01, *p<.05
Table 10 Scheffe's test for paired comparison groups
87 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Figure 7 Comparison of four groups mean on components of (CEMS)
5.2.2. Group Comparison on Cognitive Emotion Regulation Variables
(CERQ)
The test for country differences regarding cognitive emotion regulation variables (CERQ;
Hypothesis 2) four groups were compared and results documented in table 11, cognitive
emotion regulation variables among four research groups (Iranian children, German children,
German children resident in Iran, and Iranian children resident in Germany were examined and
compared. Figure 7 showed the mean of variables of the comparing groups.
Our analysis revealed significant mean differences among comparing groups rumination
(F[3,250]=6.207, p< .05, 2=.07), catastrophizing (F[3,252]=3.808, p= .011, 2=.04), other-
blame (F[3,252]=10.77, p< .005, 2=.11), positive reappraisal (F[3,252]=5.274, p= .002,
2,01
1,7 1,55
1,38
1,79
2,16
1,83 1,82 2
1,6 1,7 1,47
2,22
1,9 2,09 2,06
1,71 1,81
1,38
1,88
Anger coping Anger inhibition Anger dysregulation Sadnessdysregulation
Sadness inhibition
CEMS Iranian German Iranian in Germany Germans in Iran
88 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
2=.06) variables and planning variable (F[3,252]=3.603, p= .014, 2= .04). At least two groups
of those variables exhibited different means.
Means of comparing groups of the variables self-blame, acceptance and putting into perspective
displayed no significant differences.
Variable Source Df Sum
squares Mean
squares F P value
Rumination Between Group 3 4654 6584
5571 .000 Within Group 250 47151 .76
Catastrophizing Between Group 3 8571 7565
5571 .011 Within Group 252 45157 .638
Self-blame Between Group 3 0.97 .326
.68 .563 Within Group 252 47154 .477
Other-blame Between Group 3 4656 6576
4154 .000 Within Group 252 47157 .477
Acceptance Between Group 3 5565 4546
4551 .188 Within Group 252 48156 .712
Positive reappraisal
Between Group 3 4754 6515 6578 .002
Within Group 252 41657 .771
Putting into perspective
Between Group 3 7541 .703 .96 .412
Within Group 252 47655 .732
Positive refocusing
Between Group 3 7756 8561 8556 .000
Within Group 252 76851 4517
Planning Between Group 3 7518 7511
5551 .014 Within Group 252 71154 .83
Note. **p<.01, *p<.05
Table 11 Summary of analysis of variance to compare groups of the variables CERQ
According to the Scheffe’s test as reported in table 12 there were statistically significant
differences between the groups of Iranian children and German children for all variables except
the other blame variable. Nevertheless, other blame showed significant differences between
German children in Iran and the three groups of Iranian children, Iranian children in Germany
and also German children.
89 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Note. **p<.01, *p<.05
Table 12 Scheffe's test for paired comparison groups
Variable Groups compared Mean
difference p.value
Rumination Iranian children vs. German children
.51 .001
Catastrophizing Iranian children vs. German children
.36 .014
Other-blame German children resident Iran vs. Iranian children
.62 .002
German children resident Iran vs. German children
.84 .000
German children resident Iran vs. Iranian children resident in Germany
.69 .009
Positive reappraisal
Iranian children vs. German children
.85 .003
Positive refocusing
Iranian children vs. German children
.70 .000
Planning Iranian children vs. German children
.38 .033
90 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Figure 8 Groups mean comparison of cognitive emotion regulation variables (CERQ)
5.2.3. Groups Comparison of Component of Parent Scale (PS)
The test for country differences regarding parenting discipline (PS; Hypothesis 3) in table 13,
PS- verbosity, PS- over-reactivity, and PS-laxness variables were examined and compared
between the two research groups of Iranian and German children. To evaluate the significance
of differences, ANOVA test or One Way variance analysis was used. Means of the compared
groups were presented in Figure 9. Results showed that the mean of the PS- laxness variable
(F [1,190] =108.183, p< .001, 2=.36) was statistically different between the two groups, while
the other two variables had p > .05 and were therefore not significantly different.
2,92
2,39
2,12
3,2 3,15
3,47
2,41
2,28
1,89
2,54
2,68
3,09
2,44
2,24
2,74 2,63
3,1
3,45
2,66
2,23 2,04
2,91 2,89 3,08
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
Rumination Catastrophising Other-blame positive refocus Positivereappraisal
Planning
CERQ Iranian German Iranian in Germany Germans in Iran
91 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Variable Source df Sum of square
Mean square
F p Value
PS- laxness Between Group 1 665644 665644 108.183 .000
Within Group 190 .97.317 .512
PS- over reactivity
Between Group 1 .873 .873 1.182 .278
Within Group 191 4615557 .739
PS- verbosity Between Group 1 .465 .465 .578 .448
Within Group 190 4675185 .805
Note. **p<.01, *p<.05, PS-laxness = Parent-laxness, PS-overreactivity=Parent-overreactivity, Ps-verbosity=Parent-verbosity.
Table 13 Summary of analysis of variance to compare the two groups on the variables Parent discipline
Figure 9 Comparison of German children & Iranian children in PS-laxness
5.2.4. Group Comparison on Components of Depression, CBCL and YSR
Variables
The test for country differences regarding in internalizing, depression and externalizing
symptoms (YSR, CDI, CBCL; Hypothesis 4) in table 14, depression and YSR variables were
examined and compared among the research groups. The comparison of groups on CBCL
(internalizing, externalizing) variables included only two groups of Iranian and German children.
3,57
2,5
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
Iranian German
Laxness
92 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
All other variables were comparing the same four groups of Iranian children, German children,
German children resident in Iran and Iranian children in Germany.
To test for significance the ANOVA test or One Way variance analysis was used. In Figure 10,
the mean of variables of the compared groups were presented.
Our analysis confirmed that, there were significant mean differences among groups of the
depression variable(F [3,259] = 15.353, p< .001, 2=.15) as well as internalizing (CBCL)
variable (F [1,198] = 23.313, p< .001, 2=.12), externalizing (CBCL) variable (F[1,197]=23.313,
p< 0.001, 2=.11), Internalizing (YSR) variable (F [3,263] = 5.209, p= .002, 2=.06) and finally
on externalizing (YSR) variable (F [3,258] = 9.948, p< .001, 2=.1).
Variable Source Df Sum of square
Mean square
F p Value
Depression Between Group 3 7567 0.82 4655 .000
Within Group 259 4551 0.05
P-Internalizing Between Group 1 4561 4561 7851 .000
Within Group 198 4155 0.05
P-Externalizing Between Group 1 0.97 0.97 7555 .000
Within Group 197 7574 0.04
C-Internalizing Between Group 3 0.99 0.33 6571 .002
Within Group 263 4558 0.06
C-Externalizing Between Group 3 4564 0.50 1516 .000
Within Group 258 4551 0.05
Note. **p<.01, *p<.05 P-Internalizing= Parent- Internalizing (CBCL), P-Externalizing= Parent- Externalizing (CBCL), C-Internalizing= children- Internalizing (YSR), C-Externalizing= children- Externalizing (YSR). Table 14 Summary of analysis of variance to compare groups on the variables CDI, YSR, CBCL
93 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Figure 10 Mean differences between groups
Results of the Scheffe test were displayed in table 15. Examination of groups mean on
depression variable showed significant differences in the means among the following groups:
The depression variable for Iranian children in Germany showed an increased mean compared
to all other groups. Also the results of Iranian children were higher than German children.
For the on internalizing (CBCL) variable German parents conveyed decreased values
compared to the other three groups.
0,47
0,39 0,42
0,32
0,25
0,38
0,27 0,3
0,15 0,11
0,46
0,39
0,51
0,73
0,35
0,47
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
Depression C-Internalizing C-Externalizing P-Internalizing P-Externalizing
CDI, YSR, CBCL Iran Germany Germans in Iran Iranian in German
94 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Variables Groups compared Mean
differences p Value
Depression Iranian children vs. German children .09 .024
Iranian children vs. Iranian children resident in Germany
-.26 .000
German children vs. Iranian children resident in Germany
-.35 .000
German children resident in Iran vs. Iranian children resident in Germany
-.27 .002
C-Internalizing Iranian children vs. German children .13 .004
C-Externalizing
Iranian children vs. German children .12 .002
German children vs. German children resident in Iran
-.21 .001
German children vs. Iranian children resident in Germany
-.17 .013
Note. **p<.01, *p<.05 C-Internalizing= children- Internalizing (YSR), C-Externalizing= children- Externalizing (YSR) Table 15 Scheffe's test for paired comparison groups
5.2.5. Examination of Research Variables Correlation from CEMS, CERQ,
PS, YSR, CBCL, CDI
There are correlation between parenting discipline (PS; Arnold, O'Leary, Wolff, and Acker,
1993) and CEMS (Zeman, et al., 2001), CERQ (Garnefski et al., 2001; Garnefski, Kraaij, &
Spinhoven, 2002) and psychopathology (YSR, CBCL; T.M. Achenbach, 1991) in both countries.
It is expected that negative parental discipline, dysfunctional cognitive strategies and type of
regulation of emotion have an influence on development of internalizing and externalizing
symptoms in both groups (Hypothesis 5).
There is a correlation between parent and child measures of psychopathology (YSR, CBCL;
T.M. Achenbach, 1991) indicating parent-child agreement regarding symptoms. At the same
time children report more symptoms than their parents on average (Hypothesis 6).
In tables 16 to 20 correlation among research variables were examined.
95 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
To examine the correlation and the relationship among these research variables, Spearman
correlation coefficient or Spearman rank was used.
Results of the correlation among components of cognitive emotion regulation and emotion
regulation strategies were reported in table 16.
Among Iranian children:
Among Iranian children there were correlations between the catastrophizing variable and the
sadness inhibition variable (.224), positive reappraisal variable and the sadness coping (0.390),
anger inhibition (.215), anger dysregulation (-.292) and anger coping (.407), the putting into
perspective variable and anger dysregulation variable (-.262), the positive refocusing and
sadness coping (.220), anger dysregulation (-.285) and anger coping (.264), between planning
variable and sadness coping (.269), and lastly anger dysregulation (-.258) and anger coping
(.372).
Among German children:
Correlations were observed between rumination variable and sadness dysregulation (.262),
catastrophizing and sadness dysregulation (.225), the acceptance variable with the sadness
inhibition (.286) and sadness coping (.414).
96 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Note. **p<.01, *p<.05. AC - Anger Coping, SC – Sadness Coping, AD – Anger Dysregulation, SD – Sadness Dysregulation, AI – Anger Inhibition, SI – Sadness Inhibition Table 16 Correlation between CEMS and CERQ
In table 17 correlations amongst the components of cognitive emotion regulation strategies with
basic variables of research were examined. To examine correlations between variables,
Spearman correlation coefficient was used.
Variables AC AD AI SC SD SI
Rumination Iran .063 -.067 .110 .042 .128 .180
Germany -.003 .177 -.096 -.022 .262** -.029
Catastrophizating Iran -.132 .006 -.059 .011 .185 .224*
Germany -.003 .144 -.035 -.055 .225* .007
Self-blame Iran .140 -.099 .130 .019 .066 .067
Germany -.016 .057 -.053 .046 .051 .141
Other-blame Iran .082 .021 .037 -.041 .063 .034
Germany -.096 .134 -.070 -.044 .132 .124
Acceptance Iran .187 .028 .126 .190 .157 .165
Germany .331 .002 .089 .414** -.079 .286**
Positive reappraisal Iran .407** -.292** .215* .390** -.082 .114
Germany -.004 .003 -.027 .103 .003 -.050
Putting into perspective Iran .166 -.262* .071 .148 .094 .052
Germany .177 -.082 .004 .178 .035 .022
Positive refocusing Iran .264** -.285** .157 .220* -.132 .019
Germany .130 .039 -.050 .080 .096 .028
Planning Iran .372** -.258* .154 .269** -.121 .092
Germany .021 .079 -.084 .155 .106 .047
97 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Among Iranian children: According to the results, rumination and internalizing (YSR) (0.209),
catastrophizing and depression (0.219), other-blame and depression (0.254) as well as positive
reappraisal and depression (-0.347) showed statistically significant correlations.
Among German children:
Among German children rumination and PS verbosity were significantly, yet negatively
correlated (-.297). Additionally there were correlations between catastrophizing and depression
(-0.296), internalizing (YSR) (.299) and PS verbosity (-.322), self-blame and depression (.329),
internalizing (YSR) (.226) and externalizing (YSR) (.204), other-blame and depression (0.272),
acceptance and PS laxness (.224), positive reappraisal and externalizing (YSR) (.236) and PS
laxness (-.299) variable, positive refocusing and PS verbosity (-.205), as well as planning and
PS verbosity (-.246) proved to be statistically significant.
98 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Variables PS-V PS-O PS-L C-Ext
C- Int
P-Ext
P- Int
Dep
Rumination Iran .117 .178 1765- .471 .209* 1775- .151 .451
Germany .297** -.062 -.108 .183 .089 .028 .128 .183
Catastrophizating Iran .012 .105 .027 .153 .189 .069 .061 .219*
Germany .322** .098 -.151 .183 .299** .079 .069 .296 **
Self-blame Iran -.120 .014 .008 .122 .164 .042 .050 .092
Germany -.088 .056 -.055 .204* .226* .072 .199 .329**
Other-blame Iran .127 .088 -.058 .029 .071 .014 .020 .254*
Germany -.090 .001 -.067 .198* .179 .025 .106 .272**
Acceptance Iran -.121 .086 .075 .048 .062 .105 .002 .254
Germany -.070 .136 .224* .051 .009 .125 .122 .026
Positive reappraisal
Iran -.007 .058 .059 .188 .012 .140 .056 .347**
Germany -.156 -.064 .299** .027 .001 .236* .017 .017
Putting into perspective
Iran -.143 .068 .076 .106 .161 .015 .072 .097
Germany -.187 .201 .120 .075 .036 .081 .022 .046
Positive refocusing
Iran -.013 .167 .129 .099 .085 .068 .111 .288
Germany -.205* .095 .058 .113 .020 .043 .163 .097
Planning Iran -.027 .158 .217* .166 -.006 -.027 -.093 -.278
Germany -.246* -.138 -.149 .043 -.017 .099 1145/- .073
Note. **p<.01, *p<.05. PS-V= PS-Verbosity, P-Int= Parent- Internalizing (CBCL), P-Ext= Parent- Externalizing (CBCL), C-Int= children- Internalizing (YSR), C-Ext= children- Externalizing (YSR), PS-l= Parent-laxness, PS-o=Parent-overreactivity, Ps-v=Parent-verbosity. Table 17 Correlation between CERQ with PS, CDI, YSR, CBCL
In table 18, correlations between the emotional regulation variables with other research
variables were examined. To examine the relationship between these variables, Spearman
correlation coefficient was used. Results of the correlation were separately described in the
Iranian and German student sections.
99 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Among Iranian children:
There was a statistically significant correlation between depression variable and sadness
dysregulation (0.346), sadness coping (-.333), anger dysregulation (.271) variables and anger
coping (-.228) variable.
There was also a correlation between internalizing (CBCL) and sadness dysregulation (.293)
variable, between externalizing (CBCL) variable and sadness dysregulation (.310) as well as the
anger dysregulation (.332) variables.
This study also showed correlations between internalizing (YSR) variable and sadness
dysregulation (.373), sadness coping (-.241), anger dysregulation (.243) variables.
Finally correlations between externalizing (YSR) variable and sadness dysregulation (.344) and
anger dysregulation (.407) variables were found to be significant.
Among German children:
There was correlation between depression variable and sadness inhibition (.225) variables,
sadness dysregulation (.240) variable, between Internalizing (CBCL) variable and sadness
inhibition (.289) variable, with externalizing (YSR) variable and sadness dysregulation (.213),
anger inhibition (-.211), anger dysregulation (.223) and anger coping (-.254) variables. There
was a correlation between PS laxness and anger coping (-.202) variable.
100 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Note. **p<.01, *p<.05. AC - Anger Coping, SC – Sadness Coping, AD – Anger Dysregulation, SD – Sadness Dysregulation, AI – Anger Inhibition, SI – Sadness Inhibition, P-Internalizing= Parent- Internalizing (CBCL), P-Externalizing= Parent- Externalizing (CBCL), C-Internalizing= children- Internalizing (YSR), C-Externalizing= children- Externalizing (YSR), PS-laxness= Parent-laxness, PS-overreactivity=Parent-overreactivity, Ps-verbosity=Parent-verbosity. Table 18 Correlation between CEMS with CDI, PS, CBCL, YSR
In table 19, the correlation matrix among research variables and at statistic sample of Iranian
children were listed. The result showed that, there was significant correlation between following
variables:
Variables AC AD AI SC SD SI
Depression Iran -.228** .271** 1575- **5555- **565 . .448
Germany 4655- .741 .167 4855- .240*. .225
P-Internalizing Iran -.004 .116 .129 -.194 .293** .058
Germany 1445- .471 .481 .176 .167 .289**
P-Externalizing Iran 4175- .332** 184 1775- .310** .477
Germany 4785- .444 .157 .146 1675- .455
C-Internalizing Iran 114. .243* 117. *7645- **585 . .467
Germany 4745- .178 .161 4465- .487 .488
C-Externalizing Iran 7115- .407** 4665- 4115- .344** .185
Germany **7665- .223* *7445- 1645- .213* .447
PS laxness Iran .454 1545- .175 .181 4185- 1555-
Germany *7175- 4415- 4575- 4645- 4475- 4755-
PS over reactivity Iran .165 .478 .165 1155- .456 1515-
Germany 4165- .447 .447 .174 1475- .461
PS verbosity
Iran .187 .115 .476 .447 1455- .185
Germany 4815- .171 .118 .157 4575- .467
101 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
The results showed there were significant correlations between the depression variable and
internalizing (CBCL) (.419), externalizing (CBCL) (.399), internalizing (YSR) (.527), externalizing
(YSR) (.389) and PS overreactivity (.264) variables.
Statistically significant interactions noted between internalizing (CBCL) variable with
externalizing (CBCL) (0.656) variables, internalizing (YSR) (.726), externalizing (YSR) (.386)
variables.
Externalizing (CBCL) variable was shown to significantly related to internalizing (YSR) (.622)
variable, externalizing (YSR) (.540) variable and PS overreactivity (.207) variable.
There were significant correlations between internalizing (YSR) variable with externalizing
(YSR) (0.681) and PS overreactivity (.204) variables.
There was significant correlation between PS overreactivity with PS verbosity (.233) variable.
Finally, there was significant correlation between externalizing (YSR) variable with PS
overreactivity (.240) variable.
102 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Note. **p<.01, *p<.05. P-Internalizing= Parent- Internalizing (CBCL), P-Externalizing= Parent- Externalizing (CBCL), C-Internalizing= children- Internalizing (YSR), C-Externalizing= children- Externalizing (YSR), PS-laxness= Parent-laxness, PS-overreactivity=Parent-overreactivity, Ps-verbosity=Parent-verbosity. Table 19 Correlation matrix of research variables in Iran
In table 20, the correlation matrix among research variables and of a statistic sample of German
children were shown. Results displayed that significant statistical correlations exist between the
following variables: There were significant correlations noted between depression variable with
internalizing (CBCL) (.387), externalizing (CBCL) (.399), internalizing (YSR) (.494), externalizing
(YSR) (.499) and PS overreactivity (.244) variables.
Also significant correlations were seen between internalizing (CBCL) variable with externalizing
(CBCL) (0.558), internalizing (YSR) (.650), externalizing (YSR) (.294) and PS overreactivity
(.236) variables.
There were statically significant correlations between externalizing (CBCL) variable with
internalizing (YSR) (-.287), externalizing (YSR) (.384) and PS- overreactivity (.239) variables.
Also there were significant correlations between PS- laxness variable and PS- overreactivity
(.278) and PS- verbosity (.265) variables.
Variable 4 7 5 6 6 5 8 7
1. Depression ــ
2. P-internalizing .419** ــ
3. P-externalizing .399** .656** ــ
4. C.Internalizing .527** .726** .622** ــ
5. C.Externalizing .389** .386** .540** .681** ــ
6. Ps-laxness -.111 -.097 -.044 -.048 -.035 ــ
7. Ps-overreactivity .264** .172 .207** .204* .240* .169 ــ
8. Ps-verbosity -.164 -.102 -.062 -.121 -.107 .200 .233* ــ
103 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Note. **p<.01, *p<.05 P-Internalizing= Parent- Internalizing (CBCL), P-Externalizing= Parent-Externalizing (CBCL), C-Internalizing= children-Internalizing (YSR), C-Externalizing= children-Externalizing (YSR), PS-laxness= Parent-laxness, PS-overreactivity=Parent-overreactivity, Ps-verbosity=Parent-verbosity.
Table 20 Correlation matrix of research variables in Germany
5.3. Multivariate Regression Test
Dysfunctional Strategies in Emotion Regulation (Zeman, et al., 2001), cognitive emotion
regulation (Garnefski et al., 2001; Garnefski, Kraaij, & Spinhoven, 2002) and Parenting
Discipline (PS; Arnold, O'Leary, Wolff, and Acker, 1993) predict Psychopathology (YSR, CBCL;
T.M. Achenbach, 1991) in Children and Youth in a multivariate regression model (Hypothesis 7).
5.3.1. Examination of Predictor Variable Effect on Internalizing (YSR)
among Iranian Children.
With the multivariate regression analysis, dependent variable variance through relative
participation and linear combination of two or multi dependent variable was estimated and
Variable 4 7 5 6 6 5 8 7
1. Depression ــ
2. P-internalizing .387** ــ
3. P-externalizing .399** .558** -
4. C.Internalizing .494** .650** .287** ــ
5. C.Externalizing .494** .294** .384** .424** ــ
6. Ps-laxness -.104 -.036 -.179 .123 .050 ــ
7. Ps-overreactivity .244* .236* .239* .213* .180 .278** ــ
8. Ps-verbosity .196 .197 .107 .127 .018 .265** .166 ــ
104 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
explained. Therefore, with the multivariate regression analysis, there was no dependent variable
and set of independent variable.
In this section, using the multivariate regression test, we examined simultaneous effects of
rumination, overreactivity, sadness dysregulation, sadness coping and anger dysregulation
variables on internalizing (YSR) variable. It should be mentioned that on regression test only set
of variables as a predictor variable enter into test that displayed a significant correlation with
dependent variable internalizing (YSR).The results were documented in table 21. In this table,
value of non-standardized regression coefficient (β), standardized regression coefficient (Beta),
standard error (SE), significance level (P-value) and determination coefficient value (R2) were
reported. Method of regression test conduct was simultaneous method (Enter). The "Enter"
method enters all variables at the same time.
Dependent variable
Independent variable
B SE Beta Sign R2
C-Internalizing
Constant .136 .222
.54 .16
Rumination .037 .032 .117 .253
Overreactivity .05 .031 .164 .109
Sadness Dysreg. .043 .075 .063 .571
Sadness Coping -.116 .060 -.202 .057
Anger Dysreg. .106 .065 .181 .105
n = 90 C-Internalizing= children- Internalizing (YSR), Sadness Dysreg= Sadness Dysregulation, Anger Dysreg= Anger Dysregulation Table 21 Multiple regression analysis to predict internalizing (YSR) in Iranian children
105 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Analysis of variables simultaneously (enter method) effect showed that none of independent or
predictors variables that entered into regression test, exposed a meaningful effect on
internalizing (YSR) variable. The results of the correlation indicated an existence of a
meaningful relation between independent variables and internalizing (YSR). But, results of the
regression test revealed that, when assess effect of all above variables, there was no significant
effect on the dependent variable internalizing (YSR) (p> .05).
5.3.2. Examination of Predictor Variables Effect on Internalizing (YSR)
Variable among German Children
In this section, using multivariate regression test, we examined simultaneous effect of
variables among German children. For this regression test only a set of variables as predictor
variables enter into test that had a significant relation with the dependent variable internalizing
(YSR). The results were documented in table 22. In this table, values of non-standardized
regression coefficient (β), standardized regression coefficient (Beta), standard error (SE),
significance level (P-value) and the determination coefficient value (R2) were stated. Method of
regression test conduct was simultaneous method (Enter). The "Enter" method enters all
variables at the same time.
Dependent variable
Independent variable
B SE Beta Sign R2
C-Internalizing
Constant -.121 .103 .243 .19
Rumination .064 .033 .206 .055
Overreactivity .081 .03 .28 .009
Sadness Dysreg. .022 .025 .084 .38
n = 95 C-Internalizing= children- Internalizing (YSR), Sadness Dysreg= Sadness Dysregulation, Anger Dysreg= Anger Dysregulation Table 22 Multiple regression analysis to predict internalizing (YSR) in German children
106 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Examination of variable simultaneously effects with the multivariate regression test showed that
among predictor variables that entered into regression model (rumination, overreactivity,
sadness dysregulation), only the overreactivity variable revealed a significant effect (p=.009) on
internalizing (YSR), while other predictor variable indicated no significant effect (p>.05). Results
showed that, the effect value (regression standardized coefficient or Beta) of the overreactivity
variable on the internalizing (YSR) variable among German children was equal to .28. Out of
those facts we concluded that the overreactivity variable had an effect on the internalizing (YSR)
variable and its direction was positive.
5.3.3. Examination of Predictor Variables Effect on Externalizing (YSR)
Variable among Iranian Children
Continued, using multivariate regression test, we analyzed the simultaneous effect of
sadness dysregulation, anger dysregulation, overreactivity variables on externalizing (YSR)
variable among Iranian children. It should be mentioned that for the regression test only that set
of variables as a predictor variable was entered into the test which had significant relations with
the dependent variable externalizing (YSR). Results of the multivariate regression test were
displayed in table 23. Values of non-standardized regression coefficient (β), standardized
regression coefficient (Beta), standard error (SE), significance level (R2) were reported. Method
of regression test conducted was simultaneous method (Enter). The "Enter" method enters all
variables at the same time.
107 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
n = 88 C-Externalizing= children- Externalizing (YSR), Sadness Dysreg= Sadness Dysregulation, Anger Dysreg= Anger Dysregulation Table 23 Multiple regression analysis to predict externalizing (YSR) for Iranian children
Analysis of variables simultaneously (enter method) effect indicates that among predictor
variables entered into regression model (anger dysregulation, overreactivity, sadness
dysregulation), only sadness dysregulation variables (p=.042), anger dysregulation (p=.005)
displayed a significant effect on the externalizing (YSR) variable, while overreactivity predictor
variable in presence of other predictor variables, had no significant effect (p>.05). Results
showed that the effect value of (regression standardized coefficient or Beta) anger dysregulation
variable on externalizing (YSR) variable among Iranian children equal to (.302) and direction of
this effect was positive. Also value of standardized regression coefficient for sadness
dysregulation variable equals to (.215) and its direction was positive. As a result it can be said
that among predictor variables entered into the regression model (anger dysregulation,
overreactivity, sadness dysregulation) sadness dysregulation, anger dysregulation variables had
a direct effect on externalizing (YSR) variable. Additional the value of the determination
coefficient (R2) equals to (.12), thus it can be concluded that the predictor variables of this model
could explain and predict 12 percent of externalizing (YSR) variable change.
Dependent variable
Independent variable
B SE Beta Sign R2
C-Externalizing
Constant -.071 .117
.546
.22 Sadness Dysreg .121 .059 .215 .042
Anger Dysreg .015 .052 .302 .005
Overreactivity .032 .026 .121 .221
108 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
5.3.4. Examination of Predictor Variables Effect on Externalizing (YSR)
Variable among German Children
Again using multivariate regression test the simultaneous effect of self-blame, other-blame,
sadness dysregulation, anger, inhibition, anger dysregulation and anger coping variables on
externalizing (YSR) variable among German children was examined.
As previous it should be known that on regression test the only set of variable used as a
predictor variable entering into test had a significant relation with dependent variable
externalizing (YSR). All mentioned predictor variables had significant relation with dependent or
criterion variable externalizing (YSR). Results of the multivariate regression test were listed in
table 24. In this table, values of non-standardized regression coefficient (β), standardized
regression coefficient (Beta), standard error (SE), significance level (P-value) and determination
coefficient value(R2 )has been reported. Method of regression test conducted was simultaneous
methods (Enter). The "Enter" method enters all variables at the same time
Dependent variable
Independent variable
B SE Beta Sign R2
C-Externalizing
Constant .133 .169
.434
475/
Self-blame .030 .027 .108 .273
Other blame .027 .033 .084 .403
Sadness Dysreg .023 .047 .049 .654
Anger Inhibition -.033 .055 -.063 .542
Anger Dysreg. .081 .045 .182 .077
Anger Coping -.050 .047 -.109 .294
n = 114 C-Externalizing= children- Externalizing (YSR), Sadness Dysreg= Sadness Dysregulation, Anger Dysreg= Anger Dysregulation Table 24 Multiple regression analysis to predict externalizing (YSR) in German children
109 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Examination of the variables simultaneously (enter method) effect indicated that among
predictor variables entered into regression model (self-blame, other-blame, sadness
dysregulation, anger inhibition, anger dysregulation, anger coping) none of them had a
significant effect on externalizing (YSR) dependent variable.
5.3.5. Examination of Predictor Variables Effect on Depression Variable
among Iranian Children
Using multivariate regression simultaneous (enter method) effect of PS-laxness, PS-
overeactivity and PS-verbosity on depression variable among Iranian children was investigated.
As previous it should be mentioned that on regression test only the set of variables were used
as predictor variable entering in to test which had a significant correlation with the dependent
variable or criterion variable depression. Results of the regression test were shown in table 25.
In this table, values of non-standardized regression coefficient (β), standardized coefficient
(Beta), standard error (SE), significance level (P-value) and determination coefficient value (R2)
were reported. Method of regression test performed was simultaneous methods (Enter).
Dependent variable
Independent variable
B SE Beta P-
value R2
Depression
Constant .716 .172
.000
.13 Laxness -.064 .036 -.176 .082
Overreactivity .083 .029 .292 .006
Verbosity -.066 .029 -.236 .023
n = 95
Table 25 Multiple regression analysis to predict Depression in Iranian children
110 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Examination of variables simultaneously (enter method) effect indicated that among predictor
variables entered into regression model (PS-laxness, PS- overeactivity and PS-verbosity), PS-
overreactivity variable (p= .006), PS-verbosity variable (p= .023) had a significant effect on
depression variable and PS-laxness predictor variable in presence of other predictor variables,
had no significant effect on depression (p< .05). Results concluded that the effect value of the
regression standardized coefficient or Beta PS-overreactivity on depression among Iranian
children equal to (.292) and direction of this effect was positive. Also value of standardized
regression coefficient for verbosity variable equal to (-.263) and direction of this effect was
negative. As a result can be said that among predictor variables entered in to regression model
(PS-laxness, PS-overeactivity and PS-verbosity), PS-overeactivity and PS-verbosity had a
directed effect on depression variable. Also, the value of determination coefficient (R2) equals to
(0.13) that indicates that predictor variables of this model could explain and predict 13 percent
of depression variable change.
5.3.6. Examination of Predictor Variables Effect on Depression Variable
among German Children
By using multivariate regression, simultaneous (enter method) effect of PS-laxness, PS-
overeactivity and PS-verbosity on depression variable among German children was conducted.
On the regression test only the set of variable as predictor variable entering in to the test which
had a significant correlation with dependent variable or criterion variable depression. Results of
regression test can be reviewed in table 26. In this table, values of non-standardized regression
coefficient (β), standardized coefficient (Beta), standard error (SE), significance level (P-value)
and determination coefficient value (R2 ) were been reported. The method of regression test
111 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
performed was simultaneous methods (Enter). The "Enter" method enters all variables at the
same time.
Dependent variable
Independent variable
B SE Beta P-
value R2
Depression
Constant .118 .134
.38
.11 Laxness -.067 .032 -.215 .043
over reactivity .058 .028 .214 .037
Verbosity .054 .026 .212 .044
n = 95 Table 26 Multiple regression analysis to predict Depression in German children
Examination of variables simultaneously (enter method) effect indicated that among predictor
variables entered into regression model (PS-laxness, PS-overeactivity and PS-verbosity)
PS_overreactivity variable (p= .037), PS-verbosity variable (p= .044) and PS-laxness (p= .043)
had a significant effect on the depression variable. Results exhibited that the effect value of
regression standardized coefficient or Beta PS-overreactivity on depression among German
children equal to (.214). Also the value of standardized regression coefficient for verbosity
variable was equal to (.212) and the value of standardized regression coefficient for laxness
variable equal to (-.215). As a result can be said that among predictor variables entered in to
regression model PS-laxness, PS-overeactivity and PS-verbosity, had a direct effect on the
depression variable. Also, value of determination coefficient (R2) equals to (.11) that shows that
predictor variables of this model could explain and predict 11 percent of depression variable
change.
112 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
6. Discussion
The goal of this study was to investigate the relationship between dysfunctional strategies in
emotion regulation and psychopathology in children and youth. To examine the fact, this
research compared the different effective variables in Iranian and German children.
The study population included 269 children between 11-14 years in total which were divided in 4
groups. The first 2 groups with the bigger sample size included Iranian children based in Iran
(n= 103; F= 47%, M= 53%) and German children based in Germany (n=119; F=66%, M=34%).
There were also two other smaller groups of participants including: German children resident in
Iran (n=24) and Iranian participants resident in Germany (n=23).
To find differences in emotion regulation strategies, Children emotion management scale
(CEMS) was used as well as cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire (CERQ) to determine
the cognitive emotion regulation strategies. To determine the negative parental discipline
between Iranian and German parents, parenting discipline questionnaire was used. Youth self-
report, child behavior check list and child depression inventory were also used to find the
symptoms of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems as well as depression
differences in both countries. In this section, the results of the current study will be discussed,
and conclusions will be drawn. To confirm the hypothesis considered above, the results of the
data analysis will be discussed one by one.
As noted before, there are several reasons behind the behavioral problems in children such as
parents discipline, peers, environment, regulation of emotions, etc. (Gross,1998; Suveg &
Zeman, 2004; Zeman et al., 2002; Mullin & Hinshaw, 2007; Zeman et al., 2001; Bradley, 1990,
2000; Casey, 1996; Cicchetti et al., 1995 Oftadehal, 2012; Garnefski et al., 2005; Wood et al.,
2003; Oh et al., 2002; Coplan et al., 2002; Barber & Harmon 2002; Samany, 2001;,Samay &
Sadeghi, 2011; Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995; See more, Arnold et al., 1993). We investigated
113 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
variables to determine the influence of cultural differences in individualistic as well as collective
cultures.
The data from different studies confirms that there are cultural differences in the expression and
regulation of emotion and coping strategies (Matsumoto, 2007, Matsumoto, et al., 2008; Gross
& John, 2003; Okasaki, 2002; McCare, 2002, McCare, et al., 2005; Bulter et al., 2003; Gross,
2002; Gross & John, 2003, John & Gross, 2004; Zhu & colleagues ,2008).
The primary goal of this study was to determine the cultural differences in emotion regulation
behavior, coping strategies, parenting discipline and rate of symptoms of behavior problem in
children between 11-14 years old.
To determine the fact of cultural differences in emotion regulation behavior (Hypothesis 1), the
children emotion management scale (CEMS) (Zeman et al., 2001) was used. The results
supported the hypothesis that German and Iranian children have significant differences in
sadness and anger inhibition as well as anger and sadness dysregulation. Analysis of data
showed that II reported more anger inhibition than GG (p= .044).
GG showed higher level of anger and sadness dysregulation compare to II (p< .005, p< .005).
These differences in anger inhabitation and express anger could depend on cultural norms
apart of race. For example, express anger as a part of emotional behavior in German culture is
freer than Asian culture (Morelen & Zeman, 2008). Finally GI had a higher sadness inhibition
level compare to II (p= .010). This result supported the hypothesis that there are differences to
regulate of emotion in children ages 11-14 years from different countries. Comparison of all
groups indicated that even GI and IG showed significant differences with children lives in same
country as they born. The goal of comparison between these two samples was to determine, if
the acculturate or residency in living in another country rather than the place they born, has an
effect on the use of emotion regulation strategies. The results also elucidated this question.
114 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
It is noticeable that the children who live in another country as they born are influenced by the
new country’s culture. Research by Bronfenbrenner’s (1986) showed the structures of the
macro system have an influence on child’s social behavioral, cultural values, national customs
and surrounding laws development. Another research also found that Indian immigrant children
in Britain had the habit of sharing emotions and express emotions with others (e.g., friend,
sibling, parent and grandparent) which was totally different from children who live in India.
These findings confirmed that Indian children residing in Britain express emotions as like as
people with individualistic culture and children residing in India express emotions as like as
people with collective culture (Singh-Manoux & Finkenauer, 2001).
The results of previous researches on emotion regulation strategies in different countries,
confirm the result of our study in case of inhibition and dysregulation in emotion expression. For
example Matsumoto (2008) reported that people with collective culture use more suppression
strategies compare to people with individualistic culture. He also reported that the culture of
people with long term orientation was related to lower level emotion expression. This research
has been shown that suppression is usually related with inhibition emotion while in Asian
cultures it might be not associated with negative emotion. However research has been noted
that the daily use of inhibition is associated with reduction of relationship with peers and
closeness with others and the people who use this strategy showed fewer emotions with others
(Matsumoto 2007). In contrast, expression emotions emphasize the interdependence and
closeness with others. Although in Western European countries, suppress or inhibition of
emotions are same as self- protective aims (Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003; John & Gross,
2004). A research by Scherer (1977) reported that social emotion and appraisal are different by
cultural context .In Asian culture most of the times, inhibition expression is a normal behavior in
public because they don’t like to disturbing harmony or upsetting others which can be explained
with formal context of Asian cultures (Taylor et al., 2004). Despite this fact, some other
115 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
researches in china as a country with collective culture indicated a negative association
between inhibition and social adjustment (Chen, Cen, Li, & He, 2005; Trommsdorff &
Rothbaum, 2008). Inhibition expression has been seen as an adaptive behavior in Chinese
children (Chen et al., 1998). In Western countries such as Germany, preschool children
express their anger or distress easier than Indian children (Trommsdorff, 2006b; Trommsdorff,
Mishra, von Suchodoletz, Heikamp, & Merkel, 2006). Results of these researches confirmed our
results, as we found that Iranian children use more inhibition strategies compared to German
children. Moreover, people with collectivist cultures showed less anger than those in
individualist cultures (Matsumoto 2008). Research by Novin et al., (2008) reported that Iranian
children concealed anger by more attention to pro-social motives. This is important for Iranian
children to regulate their emotions within the family and to ensure positive outcomes for
themselves and others.
The current study also found that there are cultural differences in the use of cognitive emotion
regulation strategies CERQ (Hypothesis 2), in children age 11-14 years.
To prove those differences existed on cognitive emotion regulation strategies such as functional
and dysfunctional strategies we used the Scheffe traceable test. The analysis showed a
significant difference between German and Iranian children. The II group reported higher level
of rumination (p= .001), catastrophizing (p= .001), positive reappraisal (p= .003), positive
refocusing (p< .000) and planning (p= .033) variables compared to the GG group.
There were also some significant differences on the other-blame variable among groups where
we examined the mean differences. The outcome was that only the GI group reported
statistically higher values than the other groups. Compared with II (p= .002), GG (p< .001) and
IG (p= .009). The strongest mean difference was seen between GI and GG.
These results supported the hypothesis that individuals with different cultural contexts have
different perception of events and learn how to express their emotions.
116 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
The result of our study is concurred with other studies like Markus and Kitayama, 1991;
Matsumoto, 2008 which argued that expressing of emotions and use of different emotion
strategies depend on cultural context and how individuals sense and experience events. In
collective groups individuals must learn to conceal or suppress their expression themselves.
Earlier studies supported cognitive emotion regulation should be examined by the role of
cultural values (Zhu & colleagues, 2008; Triandis1995). In collective cultures individuals use
catastrophizing strategies (Kitayama et al., 2006) when premise that it would not harm and had
no effect on interpersonal relationships. It seems that individuals from collective cultures predict
others feedback and seek help and attention from them. Research by Lévesque et al., (2002)
supported this idea that catastrophizing actually brings individuals together and increases
interpersonal relationships.
Other results of the current study were cultural differences in parenting disciplines (Hypothesis
3). The comparison of parenting disciplines between German and Iranian parents, showed
differences just in the PS- laxness and not on the PS- overreactivity or PS- verbosity. The
results indicated that the two groups of German and Iranian parents had very strong differences
(p<.000) between each other on PS_ laxness variable. The mean for Iranian parents was
significantly greater than for German parents. Another research by Blair Irvine et al., 1999
reported that the parents had greater differences in PS-laxness and PS- overreactivity discipline
than PS- verbosity, which had no real differences.
Some other researches indicated that there are differences in parenting disciplines in Asian
countries compare to European and American countries. In fact, American parents were more
similar to European parents (Dornbusch et al., 1987; Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992;
Pong, Hao, &Gardner, 2005). According to previous researches on different values and beliefs
of individuals in different cultures (Markus& Kitayama, 1991; Matsumoto1991, Ting-Toomey,
1988; Hofstede, 1980; Triandis, 1988, 1990, 2004) the concept of parental disciplines such as
117 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
laxness, overreactivity and verbosity had not the same meaning and cannot be equally
explained in non-western countries. For example, a research by Nelson et al., 2006 indicated
that parental psychological control had different meanings for parents and children in different
cultures.
(Hypothesis 4), There are differences in internalizing and externalizing symptoms YSR, CBCL
between German children and Iranian children and their parents.
German children residing in Iran reported higher externalizing symptoms than German children
living in Germany (p=.001) and Iranian children residing in Germany (p=. 013).
Our results about children living in another country than were they born, along with some other
findings proved that the problems scores of immigrant’s children were higher than those
obtained by children in the host country, as well as by children in the native country, on both
parent and self-reports. These findings may help us to understand the individual’s problems
within a cultural context and may guide more diagnosed treatment strategies (Verhulst et al,
2003) Comparison of self-reports symptoms of behavior problems in German and Iranian
children showed that Iranian children in Iran reported more internalizing and externalizing
behavioral symptoms. Cultural differences can be a reason for children to report behavior
problems differently. Evaluation studies in seven countries (Australia, China, Israel, Jamaica,
The Netherlands, Turkey and the United States) on behavioral problems of youth ages 11-18
years revealed that culture context had an effect on the report of youth’s behavioral problems.
For example, Chinese and Jamaican youths reported higher internalizing values while Israeli
and Dutch had the lowest internalizing problems compared to other countries in study group
(Verhulst et al., 2003). Sandoval, et al. (2006) added the comparison of Spanish individuals to
the Verhulst et al. (2003) study with their higher levels of psychopathology because of cultural
differences.
118 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
In our study adolescent’s behavioral and emotional problems were measured by child behavior
check lists (CBCL). The analysis of the child behavior check lists showed cultural differences
between parent’s reports of symptoms of internalizing and externalizing behavior. The data
reported confirmed that Iranian children have more symptoms of internalizing (MD= .17) and
externalizing (MD=.14) behavior problems. The comparison of data in a cross-national research
on CBCL, collected from American, Dutch, French Canadian and Chilean parents, indicated that
there are differences in details of parental explanation of children problems depending on their
nationalities (Achenbach et al., 1987). Another research by Duhig et al. (2000) found that the
parents with moderate socio-economic status reported higher internalizing and externalizing
symptoms. A Turkish study also showed that Turkish parents scored their children more anxious
and depressed than Dutch parents (Mijnke, et al., 2003; Bengi-Arslan et al., 1997). These data
confirmed the result of Duhig study. However, Bengi-Arslan et al. (1997) described the
differences in parental reports with cultural differences, because the influence of a collective
culture gives a higher value to obedience and conformity than to autonomy.
Hypothesis 5. There are correlation between parenting discipline (PS; Arnold, O'Leary, Wolff,
and Acker, 1993) and CEMS (Zeman, et al., 2001), CERQ (Garnefski et al., 2001; Garnefski,
Kraaij, & Spinhoven, 2002) and psychopathology (YSR, CBCL; T.M. Achenbach, 1991) in both
countries. It is expected that negative parental discipline, dysfunctional cognitive strategies and
type of regulation of emotion have an influence on development of internalizing and
externalizing symptoms in both groups.
The target of this study was to examine the correlation and influence of emotion regulations,
cognitive emotion regulation strategies and parental disciplines on the psychopathology
development in children ages 11-14 in Iran and Germany (Hypothesis; 5).
119 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
It was expected that negative parental discipline, dysfunctional cognitive strategies and type of
regulation of emotion have an influence on the development of internalizing and externalizing
symptoms in both groups but calculation of Spearman rank correlation (correlation coefficient) of
our data showed that only some subscales of parenting discipline, CEMS and CERQ with
psychopathology in both groups were moderately or weakly correlated. The results of CEMS
indicated that in Iranian children there were moderate positive correlation between depression
(r= .27; r= .35), internalizing(r= .24; r= .37) and externalizing (r= .42; r= .34) with anger
dysregulation and sadness dysregulation respectively. There were also a moderate negative
correlation between depression with sadness coping (r= -.33) and anger coping (r= -.23) and a
weak negative correlation between sadness coping and internalizing behaviors (r=-.24) which
confirms that in Iranian children increasing the coping with anger and also coping with sadness
were reduced the level of depression and internalizing behaviors. However, In German children
the correlations between depression with sadness inhibition (r= .23) and with sadness
dysregulation (r= .24) were weak. Moreover there were also some positive correlations between
externalizing behaviors with sadness dysregulation (r= .21) and anger dysregulation (r= .22) in
these children. In contrast negative correlation were found between externalizing behavioral
problems with coping with anger (r= -.25) and anger inhibition (r= -.21). Regarding to our
findings, some other studies concurred that dysfunctional emotion regulation strategies
increases internalizing and externalizing symptoms in individuals (Gross, 1998; Suveg & Zeman
2004; Zeman et al., 2002; Mullin & Hinshaw, 2007; Zeman et al., 2001; Bradley, 1990, 2000;
Casey, 1996; Cicchetti et al., 1995). Cognitive regulation is which depends on human life and
can help manage emotions in negative and difficult events (Garnefski et al., 2007, 2009). To
know more about the relation between cognitive emotion regulation and symptoms of
psychopathology in children we examined correlation between CERQ and YSR between
German and Iranian children. The result showed a positive correlation in Iranian children
120 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
between rumination and internalizing and also a positive correlation between catastrophizing
and other-blame with depression. Moreover, positive reappraisal had negative correlation with
depression in these children. A research by Oftadehal et al. (2012) on Iranian youths also
reported that the other- blame is associated with anxiety related symptoms while stress has
negative correlation with positive refocusing and positive reappraisal.
Other study in Iran by Mashhadi et al. (2011) compared functional and dysfunctional cognitive
emotion regulation strategies with internalizing behavior problems development. The result of
this study indicated that self-blame, other-blame, Catastrophizing and rumination had positive
correlation with depression and anxiety. Although self-blame, positive refocus, Catastrophizing
and rumination were associated with anxiety. Moreover, other-blame, Catastrophizing,
rumination, positive refocus, acceptance and planning were also associated with depression in
children.
Oftadehal (2012) clarified why Iranians do not seem to relate the adverse events to their own
responsibility with cultural schemas. He explains that the root in their deterministic beliefs
denoting the adversity is not necessarily under their control and receives influence from other
sources. Therefore the act of blaming others for one’s own weaknesses possibly stems from the
cultural schemas (Oftadehal et al., 2012).
In German children some other variables were correlated such as catastrophizing with
internalizing behavior problems and also depression, internalizing and externalizing with self-
blame and finally, other-blame had correlation with depression.
Western studies result are in contrast with eastern studies result in case of other-blame
correlation with depression which can be explained with differences in cultural background of
study populations.
A research stated that, there is a positive relationship between other-blame and
psychopathology for e.g. depression, anxiety, hostility, neuroticism, and obsession-compulsion
121 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
(Garnefski et al., 2002). To support the results of our study, earlier experimental researches
showed that other-blame capably were associated with depression, anxiety and suicidality
(Garnefski, et al., 2001, 2002, 2002; Wijk-Herbrink et al., 2011). Another studies have stated
that, dysfunctional cognitive coping methods such as self-blame and catastrophizing were
positively correlated with depression (Garnefski et al., 2001; Shaver& Drown, 1986).
The result of our study also showed that dysfunctional cognitive strategies had relation with
internalizing and externalizing problems. Therefore, cognitive strategies can be the basis for
mental health problems development (Samany, 2003; Samany & Sadeghi, 2012; Lovibond and
Lovibond, 1995; Garnefski et al., 2002, 2004, 2009, 2005). Some other studies in Iran (Samany,
2003; Samany & Sadeghi, 2012) also showed that dysfunctional cognitive emotion strategies
were positively correlated with internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Therefore,
functional cognitive emotion strategies were negatively correlated with internalizing and
externalizing behavior problems.
Our result also confirmed this hypothesis that there are correlations between depression,
internalizing and externalizing with Ps-overreactivity in Iranian children. The same correlations
also exist for German children’s data. Research has shown that, negative parental disciplines
are also causes of developing behavior problem in children (Arnold et al., 1993).
Hypothesis 6.There is a correlation between parent and child measures of psychopathology
(YSR, CBCL; T.M. Achenbach, 1991) indicating parent-child agreement regarding symptoms. At
the same time children report more symptoms than their parents on average.
The comparison of data reported by parents about their children with children report of
themselves about internalizing and externalizing behavior symptoms in both countries (Iran vs..
Germany) showed that children report significantly more behavioral problems than their parents.
The other researches in Turkey (Stanger, et al., 1993; Mijnke, et al., 2003), Jamaica and US
(Lambert, et al.,1998) also confirmed that children report their problems significantly more than
122 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
their parents. The comparison between parental reports (CBCL/4–18) and self-reports (YSR) of
individuals 11-19 years in a normal Dutch population exposed that youth, reported many more
problems than their parents which were significantly more in case of externalizing than
internalizing problems (Verhulst & van der Ende.,1992). There were several explanations why
children reported more behaviors problems compared to their parents; Usually self- reports
depend on the conception, individuals satisfaction of his/her behavior and self- judgment,
feelings and fantasies in different situation while parental reports are based on their
discussions, children behavior at home and what teacher and peer report about their children.
However, children control their emotions at home as they grow up (Žukauskienė, et al., 2004).
Adolescence and puberty is a time that individuals have more attention on their peers than
parents and their focus shifts from parents to peers. They prefer to spend more time with age-
mates and escape from parents. Spending fewer hours at home prevents
Parents from observing the problems, therefore many psychological mechanisms like emotional
and behavioral problems are unfolded dynamically when they are with peers. It seems that
adolescents tend to keep their problems to themselves and do not share them with their parents
anymore (Begovac et al., 2004).
Our study also found that the children report significantly more behavioral and emotional
problems than their parents which can generate the knowledge for further researches. However,
the parents who try hard to create a secure, stable and positive sense of self for their children,
link them more with internalizing behavior problem and increase the risk of low self-esteem and
depression in them (Barber, 1996).
Hypothesis 7: Dysfunctional Strategies in Emotion Regulation (Zeman, et al., 2001), cognitive
emotion regulation (Garnefski et al., 2001; Garnefski, Kraaij, & Spinhoven, 2002) and Parenting
Discipline (PS; Arnold, O'Leary, Wolff, and Acker, 1993) predict Psychopathology (YSR, CDI;
123 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
T.M. Achenbach, 1991) in Children and Youth in a multivariate regression model and thus are
supported as risk factors.
Test the hypothesis 7 from analysis of variables the calculation of our data from Iranian sample
with regression analyze was failed to predict Internalizing symptoms and in German groups
internalizing predicted by sadness dysregulation, externalizing symptoms in Iranian sample
predicted by sadness and anger dysregulation but in German sample externalizing symptom
was not predict by emotion regulation strategies. Researched by (Zeman et al., 2001; Suveg &
Zeman 2004; Zeman et al., 2002) showed that different strategies of emotion, coping,
expressive or inhibition is related to the different behavior disorders. For example poor anger
coping and sadness inhibition predicted externalizing also shown that dysfunctional emotion
strategies predicted of internalizing and externalizing symptoms of behavior problem in children.
Garnefski et al. (2005) had confirmed that dysfunctional cognitive emotion regulation strategies
are associated with internalizing and externalizing problems. Despite this findings, the
calculation of our data with regression analyze was failed to find any association between
Internalizing, externalizing and depression with cognitive emotion strategies which can be
explained with differences in study population.
Our study data were collected from healthy children who had not real internalizing and
externalizing problems to predict internalizing and externalizing problems from dysfunctional
cognitive and emotion regulation strategies.
Moreover, regression analysis of data predicted the depression from PS-overreactivity and PS-
verbosity in Iranian children while in German children depression predicted from three negative
disciplines PS-laxness, PS-overreactivity and PS- verbosity. Several researches indicated
authoritarian parenting (PS-overreactivity) linked to anxiety in western cultures but not usual in
non-western culture (Wood et al., 2003; Oh et al., 2002). Other studies have also shown
124 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
negative parental disciplines are also causes of developing behavior problem in children
(Dishion & Patterson, 2006; Arnold et al., 1993).
Conclusion:
The results of current study showed the importance of raising knowledge about emotional and
behavioral problems in children from different cultures and the effect of culture on children
residing in other country rather than where they born. The comparison of our study results on
individuals relationship, values, beliefs and the role of emotion expression in individualistic and
collectivistic cultures with other studies in these areas, indicated that in Iranian children with
collectivistic dimension, the use of sadness and anger dysregulation can be a reason of braking
the role and harmony in group and might ended up with their rejection from family and society
as a result of developed internalizing and externalizing symptoms in children.
In contrast, when the children use sadness and anger coping or inhibition, they are more
accepted by family, peer and society and they do not show the symptoms of behavioral
problems. The result confirmed that family is an important part of children's development to
avoid mental health problem. The sum up of our data and the result of series of studies on
psychopathology which had been mentioned before, indicated that there are many factors like
family socio-economic status, social and cultural role of country where the people live and peer
or classmates which might influence the way in which children grow healthy and learn. We can
conclude that the family and environment together play a strong role to shape children's
emotion and behavior to build up a successful life.
Therapeutic challenges by help of clinical psychologist in children with dysfunctional emotion. A
clinical psychologist can help children deal with stress and behavioral or emotional problems. A
125 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
large number of studies have been conducted on the treatment of children and adolescents with
externalizing and internalizing disorder. Investigators reported more psychological disorders
such as depression and anxiety disorders resulting from dysregulation of emotion or deficit in
emotion regulation or insufficient emotion regulation skills. Therefore, based on these reasons,
psychotherapists believed that it was important to help individuals learn to cope with negative
emotions such that they can reappraise and modulate their emotion in a more positive way.
By means of observation learning, psychotherapists showed patients how to regulate their
emotions. The modeling hypotheses suggest that children learn from parents and others
regarding the expression and management of emotions. Parents taught children which emotions
were acceptable and expected in the family environment, and how to manage the experience of
those emotions (Denham et al., 1997). Treatment by cognitive behavior therapy helps the
patient to regulate his emotion and change cognition to a positive emotion thereby reducing the
symptoms of negative emotion. Cognitive behavioral therapy is the most suitable treatment for
internalizing disorders in children. Research in cognitive behavioral treatment showed that 60-
70% of children with anxiety disorder with this treatment had reductions in anxiety symptoms
(Kendall et al., 2005). Cognitive behavioral therapy is also an effective treatment for depression
(e.g., Rush, Beck, Kovacs, Weissenburger, & Hollon, 1982). In cognitive behavioral therapy,
aims are also in aiding patient to change dysfunctional attitude and automatic thought
(DeRubeis et al., 1990) change into attributional style (Seligman et al., 1988)
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) developed by Linehan (1993) consists of a series of steps of
this therapy which are connected with increasing the emotion regulation strategies in patient
and decreasing maladaptive behavior and dysfunctional emotion, this therapy use in many
disorder (e.g., borderline personality and self-injury).
126 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Limitations
There were some limitations in the current study which might have affected the result. First of
all, the study collected data from non-clinical samples (ordinary children in Germany and Iran)
and the prevalence of internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems in both countries
cannot be referred to individuals who suffered from any clinical problem.
Additionally, the political situation and security concerns during the data collection, made the
sample size of Iranian children in Germany and German children in Iran, relatively small
compared to the German children in Germany and Iranian children in Iran.
Secondary, the current data were conducted using self-report questionnaires which might cause
that participants have not reported accurate psychological symptoms in relation to the current
study.
Moreover, most of questionnaires were developed for western societies. It means that some of
the items might have been designed for western rather than non-western countries. The
questionnaires we used for our study were translated from English to German and Farsi to
determine their validity in various groups. However, the methodologies of translations in cross
cultural studies are very important and might make huge differences from one culture to
another. For example, some part of questionnaires might change during the translation because
of language limitations or personal decision of researchers or translators. Despite these facts,
questionnaires used in the current study were valid enough to be used in further studies in
related areas.
Finally, considering the theoretical backgrounds instead of a questionnaire which can
demonstrate the differences between individualistic and collective cultures in Germany and Iran
might result some errors in final data.
127 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
Considering these limitations might provide more accurate results in further studies which need
to directly explain the effect of parenting discipline on children, different emotion regulation
strategies and cognitive emotion regulation strategies divided by functional and dysfunctional
strategies in regards to psychopathology.
Despite some limitations, the current cross-cultural study showed a high prevalence of
internalizing and externalizing in Iran and that parenting discipline plays as a similar role as
predicted in the processes of emotion regulation to internalizing, externalizing and depression
symptoms in German as well as Iranian children.
128 Dysfunctional Emotion Regulation Strategies and Psychopathology
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Appendix
Index of Appendixes 1. Parenting Scale (PS)
2. Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ)
3. Children Emotion Management Scale (CEMS)
4. Youth Self Report (YSR)
5. Child Behavior Check List (CBCL)
6. Children Depression Inventory (CDI)