archival documentation research satwinder kaur bains sasi … · sasi 2018 a comprehensive list of...
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ARCHIVALDOCUMENTATIONRESEARCHSatwinderKaurBains
SASI2018
AcomprehensivelistofarchivaldocumentationofSouthAsianCanadianhistory1900-1988.
In1900everysectorofBritishColumbiawasopposedtoanyincreaseintheChineseandJapaneseimmigrantstothecountry.Furtherthegovernmentenactedataxof$50oneveryChineseimmigrantwhichwasincreasedto$100intheyear1900.(Page5)JohnNelson,TheCanadianProvinces,(Toronto,1924)-http://www.torontopubliclibrary.ca/detail.jsp?Entt=RDM2113604&R=2113604
Inyear1902,coronationofEdwardVIIinitiatedthesouthAsianimmigration.OnJune3,1902theHongKongcontingentwhichwasmadeupof(43membersofHongKongvolunteers,fourteenfromthefirstChineseandeitherfifteenortwentythreefromtheHongKongRegiment,Punjabis)arrivedinVictoria,EmpressofJapan.ThecontingentwhenarrivedinVancouver,thePunjabicontingentattractedthemostattention,sincetheyhadearlierdistinguishedthemselvesduringthesiegeofPekingin1900.OnJune4,thePunjabicontingentwasinspectedbymajorgeneralSirCharlesParsons,whowasthenheadofthearmedforcesinCanada.LondonTimes,July23,1902,Page11-http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/archive/VancouverWeeklyAdvertiser,June18,1902–CanbePurchasedat-http://www.commonwealthimaging.com/media/user/Commonwealth_Imaging_Catalogue.pdfVictoriaDailytimes,June3,1902-http://newspaperarchive.com/serp-lockdown-v25?plan=18410&utm_expid=169807139.03Oy5PhWQwej4UUrUcll7A.2&gclid=COqJyIersckCFQeUfgodme0A-Q/&utm_referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.ca%2F(Page6)
TheSikhcontingentleftbytraintoMontrealwheretheyembarkedforEnglandwiththeCanadiancontingentonJune14,1902.AfterreturningtoCanada,thecontingentretracedtheirpaththroughVancouverandleftforHongKongOnempressofchinaonSeptember8.Londontimes,August13,1902–Signupathttp://www.newspapers.com/newspage/33180862/VancouverdailyColonist,September7,1902,page3https://gvpl.ca/using-the-library/our-collection/microfilm-and-microfiche(Page6)
Bythemid-yearof1903,fivemenhadlandedinVancouverandfiveinVictoria.Altogetherabout30mencameinthe1903-04asimmigrantstoCanada.
ThetablebelowdepictsthesouthAsianimmigrationtoCanadainthefiscalyears1904-07.W.G.Parmele,DeputyMinisterofTradeandCommercetoJ.A.smart,DeputyMinisteroftheinterior,October15,1904,PublicArchivesofCanada(PAC),ImmigrationBranchRecords(Henceforth,RG76),#536999,partI.(Page7)
SouthAsianimmigrationtoCanada,year1904-07FiscalyearNumber1904-05451905-063871906-0721241907-082623TOTAL5179
HindooImmigrationtoCanada,“n.d.,RG76,#536999,Pt.I(Page7).
Infall1904,ThomasMcGigan,Vancouvercityclerksentamangrylettertothesuperintendentofimmigrationthatthesenewimmigrantswerenotwantedandthereisnowork(employment)fortheseimmigrantsandneitherwilltheybeabletostandtheclimateofCanadawhichissodifferentfromtheirhomecountry.Accordingtohim,theimmigrantswereledtobelievebytheshippingcompanies,thattheycansecureimmediateemploymentatwagesfarbeyondthedreamsoforientalinhisowncountry.Theseletterswerefullofinaccuraciesandbytheyear1905,therewasafundamentalchangeintheimmigration.ImmigrantsbynowwereprimarilyfromIndiaratherthanFarEast.R.W.ScotttoThomasMcGuigan,September23,1904,PAC,RG76,#536999partI.(Page8)
Bytheyear1906,thetaxontheChineseimmigrantsroseto$500whichwas$100first.Thesethingsaffectedthelabourmarkets,theunskilledworkerswerebecominglessplentifulandthewageswererising.RobertKerr,CPRPassengerTrafficManager(Montreal),J.A.smart,November16,1904,PAC,RG76,#536999,part1(Page8).BythisincreaseintaxnotonlyaffectedthelabourmarketsbutalsotheCPRchippinglines.ThedeclineofpassengersfromFarEasttoCanadawasbotheringthem,onlythentheiragentsstartedcirculatingpostersintheportofCalcuttaandinPunjabadvertisingthebenefitsofcomingtoCanada.ThomasShaughnessy,WritingtotheinteriorFrankOliveronNovember14,1904,PAC,RG76,#536999Part1.NotfoundanythingexactbutthebiographyofThomasShaughnessy:http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/shaughnessy_thomas_george_15E.html(Page8-9)
In`1906,thegovernmentputforwardabillthatimpliedthatcolonistsinthenewlyirrigatedareasofthePunjabwerenotactuallytheownersofthelandwhichrosefearagaininthemindsofPunjabisbecauseoftheLandAlienationActof1900.KhushwantSinghahistoryofSikhs,Vol.2,ThePunjabinprosperityanddebt1928P.49canbefoundathttps://books.google.ca/books/about/A_History_of_the_Sikhs_1469_1838.html?id=MD9uAAAAMAAJ
(Page11-12)
ThesouthAsianswhocametoCanadainbetweentheyears1903and1906setveryfirmfoundationsinthecommunityforalongtime.ThesouthAsiansthatcameduringthistimewerewillingtoworkhardastheirprincipleobjectivewastoaccumulatesavingsthatcouldbeusedasastakebackhome.Mostofthemwereabletofindworkquicklyespeciallyinthesummermonthsof1904and1905.Referencenotfound(page17)
Gettingthebasicnecessitiesbecameverydifficultformostofthesepeople.MostlyinwinterwhenthepeopleworkingoutsideofVancouverreturnedtothecitythelandlordswouldrefusetorenttosouthAsians.Thisleadtosevereovercrowdinginthemarginalhouses,sometimesover20peoplewereforcedtoliveinthesamehouseandbythetimeof1907-08thisnumberroseto50.Vancouverprovince,August3,1906,P1:ResolutionoftheVictoriaTradesandLabourcouncil,august6,1906,PACRG76,#536999.http://newspaperarchive.com/serp-lockdown-v25?plan=18410&utm_expid=169807-139.03Oy5PhWQwej4UUrUcll7A.2&gclid=COqJyIersckCFQeUfgodme0A-Q/&utm_referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.ca%2F(Page18).
ByMarch1906,therewerefewerthan300southAsiansinB.C.andwereindemandasworkers.Inthefirsthalfoftheyearmorepeople(325)arrivedandinNovemberaloneover700southAsiansarrived.TheincreaseintheimmigrationpanickedthewhitepopulationandinAugust1906,TradesandLabourcouncilsinVancouverandVictoriabothsentresolutionstogovernmentcondemningSouthAsianimmigrationBythefallof1906(September01),270southAsiansarrivedonasingleshipwhichpromptedasharpobjectionfromtheVancouvercitygovernment.F.BuscombtothehonorableMinisterofinterior,September4,1906,PAC,RG76,#536999,part1–furtherreferencetoit-m1906* LET 4 September /F. Buscomb, Mayor of Vancouver, to Hon. Minister of Interior/ jan-1 Telegram: 270 H. arrived on CPR ship without visible means of support. Stop it. Matter was referred to W.D. Scott by L.M. Fortier-http://komagatamarujourney.ca/pa/node/5200(Page18).
Thingsgrewworseinthewinterof1906-07astheresourcesectoroftheBritishColumbiaeconomyshutdownforthewinter.Improperlyclothedandhoused,onepartyoftheSouthAsiansquitworkintheCaribooandWalkedbacktoVancouver.GovernmentattitudetowardssouthAsiansbegantohardensincetheycouldnothandleincreasingpopulationoftheimmigrantsinVancouver.When125morearrivedonOctober15,ontheEmpressofjapan,theywereallowedtolandbyfederalofficial’soonlytobestoppedbyVancouverpolicelateron.Vancouverprovince,October6,1906.P.1:VictoriadailyColonist,October6,1906P.1.http://newspaperarchive.com/serp-lockdown-v25?plan=18410&utm_expid=169807-139.03Oy5PhWQwej4UUrUcll7A.2&gclid=COqJyIersckCFQeUfgodme0A-Q/&utm_referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.ca%2FOnNovember16,theTARTARarrivedcarryingover850newimmigrants.BothVancouverandVictoriaimmigrationofficerstelegraphedOttawaclaimingthatnohousingwouldbeavailableforthesenewimmigrants.Becauseofwhich,over200immigrantsspenttheirfirstCanadiannightoutside.W.D.ScotttoT.shaughnessy,November20,1906,PAC,RG76,#536999,Part1;T.shaughnessytoF.Oliver(Page19)
Literate,EnglishspeakingindividualslikeNihalSinghwhocameinearlyNovember1906,washelpingnewimmigrantsgetsettledbythemid-month.Bymid-DecemberhehadtravelledtoOttawatotalkdirectlywiththeMinisteroftheInteriorforthesakeofhiscommunity.Theresultofthiscommunitysolidaritywereimpressive,byDecemberof1906,nosouthAsianintheVictoriaareawasunemployedoronrelief.Thingsgoingnotsogoodonthemainland,acomprehensivereportshowedthatbytheendof1906.Onlyonepersonwasbeingheldforthedeportationasanindigent.WithsomanyimmigrantsarrivinginsoshorttimethesesouthAsiancommunitieswerebynomeansstable,buttheywereabletohelpindividualsachievebasicnecessitiesoflife.Howevertheyear1907,wasmarkedbytwounequalprocesses:thedevelopmentofstrong,defensivecommunityinstitutionsandtheinexorableriseofthelimitationsonSouthAsianrightsandprivileges.ImmigrationfromIndiawaslowinthefirsthalfof1907andcommunityorganisationgrewmuchstrongerSaintNihalSinghtoFrankOliver,December12,1906.(Page20)
ThefirstsouthAsianformalorganizationsinCanadawerefoundedin1907.TheVancouverKhalsaDiwansocietywascreatedearlyintheyeartodealwiththedevelopmentofSikhreligiousinstitutions.ThefirstlegalrestrictionsagainstSouthAsianswereputintoeffectinMarch1907,whenBritishColumbiapremierBowserintroducedabilltodisenfranchise“allnativesofIndianotofAnglo-Saxonparents”.ThisbillwaspassedbyaunanimousvoteofthelegislatureofMarch27.InApril,SouthAsiansweredeniedthevoteinVancouverbyachangeintheMunicipalityCorporationAct.Forthenextfortyyears,southAsianCanadianswouldremainexcludedfromthepoliticalprocessinBritishColumbia.KhushwantsinghandSatindraSingh,ghadar1915:india’sFirstarmedrevolution(Newdelhi,1966)P.14andP.16–Canbeboughtathttp://trove.nla.gov.au/work/19317501?selectedversion=NBD3964148(page21)
ThelevelofhostilityagainstSouthAsiansfollowedthesameupwardtrajectoryin1907thatithadin1906thatis,duringthefirsthalfoftheyear,anti-southAsiansentimentwasfairlylowandthereafterthingsgotsteadilyworseaseconomicconditionsintheprovincedeteriorated.SouthAsianswereaparticulartargetbecauseoftheirnoveltyandtheirrapidentryintotraditionally“white”jobsintheprovince’slumbermills.ThisconflictfirstexplodedonSeptember5,1907,inBellingham,Washington.500whitelumberworkersattackedsouthAsiansworkingintheirmills.Inaugust,theAsiaticExclusionleaguewasformedinVancouver,withthesupportofboththeliberalandconservativelocalassociations.OnSeptember7,1907,ameetingoftheLeaguechairedbythemayorofVancouvertouchedoffthemostseriousraceriotinCanadianhistory.Fourdayslater,whichisSeptember11,1907theMonteaglearrivedinVancouver,havingbroughtthepredicted900SouthAsianspassengersfromHongKongtoCanada.ThisinfluxovertaxedtheresourcesofboththeSouthAsianCommunityandthelocalgovernment.HowardH.Sugimoto,“JapaneseImmigration,TheVancouverRiots,andCanadianDiplomacy“(M.Athesis,UniversityofWashington,1966)–Canbefoundat-http://search.library.utoronto.ca/details?4007217&uuid=31344e02-6dd2-4d32-b5cc-391ac8b67b7c(Page22)
OnJanuary8,1908anorder-in-councilwasapprovedaimedattwotypesofimmigrants–southAsiansandJapanese,whowereenteringCanadaviaHawaiithatrequiredanyimmigrantarrivingaCanadianporttocomeonacontinuousjourneyfromhisorhercountryoforigin.PC27ofJanuary8,1908,PAC,RG2,1(page23)
ThemonthofJanuary,1906,theVancouverSikhsdedicatedtheirfirstSikhtemple.InFebruary1908,sixsouthAsiansfromFijimadethefirsttextofcontinuouspassageregulation.TheyhadsaileddirectlyfromFiji,buttheimmigrationofficialsinterpretedtheregulationtoone’scountryofultimateoriginwhichintheircasewasIndiaandhencetheywereheldfordeportation.Amoresubstantialchallengepresenteditselfinearlymarchwhen20southAsiansarrivedontheEmpressofJapan.ImmigrationofficialscoulddonothingbutladindividualswhowereticketedthiswaybecausetherewerenodirectconnectionsbetweenIndiaandCanadaandtheonlywaywasthroughHongKong.Vancouverprovince,January20,1908p.7.BalwantSinghofficiatesattheevent,withTaraknathDastranslatingforthelargewhitecrowd.(Page24)
Justaboutthesametime,earlymarch186SouthAsianpassengersarrive.Thebureaucraticresponsetothishardened,12ofthemwererejectedfordisease,23morewereheldbecausetheylacked$25requiredbyallimmigrantstoshowthattheywouldnotbecomeindigents.78othersweretobedeportedbackeventhoughtheyleftIndiabeforethecontinuousjourneyordercameintoeffect.On,March24,1908thecourtruledthatthecontinuousjourneyprovisionwastechnicallyinvalidandorderedalltheindividualsheldfordeportationtobereleased.FreeHindustanwasthefirstsouthAsianpublicationofanykindinCanadaandoneofthefirstinNorthAmerica.ItinApril,1908thatTaraknathdaspublishedtheinitialeditionofthispaper.W.D.ScotttoA.S.Munro,March16,1907,PAC,RG76,#536999,part2.(Page25).
InApril,1908anEnglishschoolstartedbydasandtwoSikhswasshutdownasHopkinsonvolunteeredinformationthatinrealityitwasacentreforIndiansedition.ByJune,freeHindustanwasbannedfromtheCanadianmailsandhadmovedtoSeattle.Inthesamemonththegovernmentmadeamendmentsinthecontinuousjourneyact..ThegovernmentrequiredthatalltheAsianimmigrantsfromcountrieswithout“specialarrangements”wouldberequiredtopossess$200onarrivalinCanada.InJuly,1908thefederalgovernmentdevelopedaschemetogettheSouthAsiancommunitytoemigratevoluntarilytoBritishHonduras.W.HopkinsontoF.Oliver,September6,1908,PAC,LaurierPapers,MG26,V,v.532.(page26)
By1910,mostofthecomparativelyfewsouthAsianMuslimsandHindusinCanadahadleft,somehadreturnedhome,whileothershadgonetoUnitedStates.By1920,SikhtemplesexistedinVancouver,NewWestminster,Victoria,Nanaimo,Golden,Abbotsford,FraserMillsandPaldi.WilliamPeterWard,“TheorientalimmigrantandCanada’sProtestantclergy,“BCstudies,22(1974),pp.9-19;G.C.PidgeonandE.D.
McLaren,“EastIndianImmigration,”WestminsterHallMagazine,7,8(1912),pp-23-28;ElizabethRossgrace,”EastIndianImmigration,”WestminsterHallMagazine,3,3(1908),pp10-12http://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/bcstudies/article/viewFile/803/846-Theorientalimmigrant....http://eco.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.8_06609_8/19?r=0&s=1–Westminsterhallmagazine1912foryear1908notavailable...Availablesince1911.(page32)
In1909,roomandboardinVancouverinhouseholdscosabout$2aweekwhereasanindividualmightthenbeearning$9foraweek’swork.Fromthisyearon,SouthAsiansrarelyappliedoranysortofpublicrelief.J.MacgilltoW.cory,February12,1909,PAC,RG76,#536999,part3.In1909,inthelowerFraservalleyalone,35SouthAsianswereworkingonfarmsinmissionandmatsqui,15workedatconstructioninAbbotsfordwhile160workedatmillsinAbbotsford,HuntingtonandHarrisonmills.Another40wereworkersatabrickcompanyinclayburn.(Page34)By1910,atleast100wereworkinginRevelstoke,chieflyinthemillsandanother200wereengagedinsimilarworkalongtheupperFraserRiver.By1914,therearosesomeinterestinfarminganddairyingaroundAbbotsfordandmission,firstastenantsandthenasowners.SouthAsiansexpressesakeeninterestinbuyingsmalllotsandhousesinandaroundVancouver.By1910,thispracticewasendemicandseveralsouthAsianswereindependentlyemployedasrealestateagents.Inlate1908,theinterestinrealestateledtothecreationoftheGuruNanakMiningandtrustcompanyinVancouver.Aself-supportingcommunitywasstartedbyTejsinghtobuyanddeveloplargetractsofagriculturalbutseveralattemptstobuylandin1909and1910werefailedchieflyduetopoororganisationandaninabilitytoholdaconsensus,bythetimemanyfrustratedshareholderswithdrewtheirsupport.CanadaIndiasupplyandtrustcompanywasorganisedin1910byleadingpoliticalradicals–UdayRamJoshi,Taraknathdas,Radhikrishnan,BalmukandShidharandothers.W.HopkinsontoW.Cory,December20,1909,PAC,RG7,G21,v.200(Page35)
Bythe1910’s,mostsouthAsiansenjoyedadegreeofeconomicsecuritydespitetheracialrestrictionsunderwhichtheylaboured.(Page36)IndirectresponsetodevelopinganextensivespysystemtokeeptabsonsouthAsianactivitiesWilliamC.HopkinsonwashiredinJanuary,1909,byCanadianimmigrationservice.In1910,HesecretlywasplacedonthenorthwestMountedPolicepayroll.HughJohnson,ThevoyageoftheKomagataMaru:theSikhChallengetoCanda’sCp;purbar(Delhi,1979)–Canbefoundathttp://www.ubcpress.ca/search/title_book.asp?BookID=299174019Asearlyas1908,thereweretwoinextricablyintertwinedpoliticalmovementsamongsouthAsiansinCanada-thespecificdrivetoremovethecontinuouspassageruleandthemoregeneralizedattempttoconvertcommunitymemberstothecauseofIndianindependence.(Page37)
In1909,TejaSnghwasinstantlysuspectedofpreachingseditionandsendingfundstorevolutionariesinIndia.(Page37-38)J.McgilltoW.cory,January21,1909,PAC,Rg76,3536999,part3.Shippingcompaniesin1908.WouldnotsellsouthAsiansticketstoCanada,sosouthAsianscouldnoteasilymountadirectchallengetotheimmigrationban.InNovember1909,TejaSinghandHarisinghweresenttoEnglandatcommunityexpensetoraisesupportfortheircauseinliberalBritishcircles.Andaboutthesametimeotherstriedadifferenttack.InlateOctober,asmallpartysetoffforIndiatogettheirwivesandchildren.Whenthesemenreturnedin1911,theyweretobecomethecentreofamajorimmigrantbattle.Infeb,1910,thewifeofmillsidestoreowner,labourercontractor,andpoliticalactivistUdayramarrivedinVancouverandwasadmitted.OnJanuary2,1911Mrs.RamwastogivebirthtothefirstSouthAsianborninCanada.(Page38)W.HopkinsontoW.coryFebruary19,1910,PAC,RG7,G21,V.208
Afewcaseshadbeenmaterializedin1909,wherecertainimmigrantshadgonebacktovisittheirfamiliesinIndia.Thenumberoftheseimmigrantsincreasedsomuchthatthegovernmentintroducedastrategy:arefusaltoreadmitthosewhohadgonetovisittheirfamiliesinIndia.By1911,SouthAsiancommunitywaseconomicallyhealthybutwasinseriousnumericaldecline.Oftheapproximately6000pioneers,only2342wereenumeratedintheCanadiancensusofthatyear.Outofthese490wereresidentinVancouver,85inVictoriaandothersinFraservalleyanduptheeastcoastofVancouverIsland.Despitediminishednumbers,SouthAsianswereabletoincreasetheirattackontheimmigrationrestrictions.OnApril16,1911,theyinitiatedaseriesofpublicralliesdesignedtoattractpressattentiontotheirplight.CensusofCanada,1911vol.1,p.367.(Page39)OnApril16,1911apetitionwassenttoLordCrewe,thenSecretaryofStateforIndia,protestingtheimmigrationban.Onaugust1,1911,HiraSinghreturnedtoVancouverwithhiswifeandachild.Hewasadmitted,buthiswifeandchildwereheldfordeportation.Afteravigorousprotesttheywereletinasanactofgrace.W.HopkinsontoW.Cory,August4,1911,PAC,RG76,#536999,part4.KatarSinghbeganthepublicationofAryan,anEnglishlanguagemonthlydesignedprimarilytoexplaintheplightofSouthAsianstoCanadainaugust1911anditwaswidelypublishedanddistributedtillNovember1912.OnSeptember,1911amassmeetingwasheldinVancouvertempletoraisethemoneytosendadelegationtoOttawa.InlateNovemberofthesameyearSundarsingh,TejaSingh,RajaSinghandReverendL.W.HallmetwithRobertRogers,thenewConservativeMinisteroftheInteriorinOttawa.Vancouverprovince,November29,1911P.1.–Canbefoundathttp://www.commonwealthimaging.com/media/user/Commonwealth_Imaging_Catalogue.pdf(Page40).Neartheendof1911,SundarSinghbegananintensivecampaignineasternCanadaandgotanumberofchurchgroupstopetitionthegovernmentonthequestionoffamilyreunification.OnJanuary21,1912,BhagSinghandBalwantSinghreturnedtoVancouverabroadtheMonteagleandtheirwivesandchildrenwereimmediatelyheldfordeportation.–NoreferenceAfalserumourthat300southAsianswouldsoonarriveoncharteredshiptotestthelawpromptedthegovernmenttoissueadeportationorderonApril22,1912,justafterthecourtshadclosedforthedayandjustbeforeashipwasleavingforHongKong.W.HopkinsontoW.Cory,April16,1912,PAC,RG76,
#536999,part5ThedeputyMinistersubsequentlyallowedthefamiliesofBhagsinghandBalwantsinghintoCanadaonMay23,1912.(Page41)BytheendofNovember1913,therewerenomorethansixsouthAsianwivesandtwentychildreninCanada.HakamSinghandhiswifeandfourchildrenremainedinHongKongforalmost2yearsbeforetheywereletinasanactofgraceonJuly16,1913.Bythenendofyear1912,TaraknathdasandLalaHardayalhadcreatedanincipientrevolutionarypartyinCalifornia.IsabellaRossRoad,AnappealforfairplayfortheSikhsinCanada(Victoria,1913)P.13.-http://search.library.utoronto.ca/details?3848200DaswasconsideredwasdangerousbytheCanadiangovernment.InJanuary1913,HopkinsonpersonallywenttoCaliforniatogatherinformationonthisrevolutionaryparty.Upto1912,LocalrevolutionarieshadgatheredsupportchieflythroughtheimmigrationissueandbypresentingconcreteexamplesoftheinequitiesofBritishruleinIndia.Asearlyas1912,mostoftheleadershipweresaidtobeSocialistpartymembersincludingH.Rahim,G.d.Kumar,BhagSingh,BalwantSingh,RajaSinghandSundarSingh.–W.HopkinsontoW.cory,March26,1912,PAC,RG7,G21,V.202;J.S.Smith,OfficeofExamination,DepartmentofCommerceandlabor,SeatlletoW.Hopkinson,June7,1912.(Page42).InVictoria,SundarSinghandKartarSinghbeganSansar(1912-14),anotherPunjabilanguagemonthlydevotedtoSikhaffairs.BandeMataram(1911-13),anationalistmonthlypublishedinParis,waswidelyavailabledespiteanattempttobanitfromtheCanadianmails.Bythebeginningoftheyear1913,frustrationandbitternessagainstthegovernmentwererifeandnotonlyinVancouver.LocallysupportedandcontrolledSikhtempleshadbeenbuiltinAbbotsford(1911),NewWestminster(1912)andVictoria(1912)andtheirmembershipquicklyagedtothegrowinginterest.Throughout1913,SouthAsianssteppeduptheimmigrationbattle,atthesametimecovertlydevelopingwhatwouldsoonbecomeanimportantpoliticalmovementgotIndianIndependence.BalwantSingh,NarianSinghandNandSinghSirhaleftforEnglandonMarch17,1913.L.HarcourttotheGovernorGeneral,March8,1913,PAC,RG7,G21,V.202Sirha,“IndiansinCanada”(Page43)Inmid-1913,theCPRshippinglineinHongKongbegantosellticketstoSouthAsianswhocouldshowsomedocumentaryevidenceofbeingCanadianresident.Infall,thingsbegantolookbleakforanychangeinthelaw.InOctober,BhagwanSingh,“Gyani,”arespectedrevolutionaryleader,wasarrestedforfraudulentlyenteringthecountryasareturningimmigrant.Bose,IndianRevolutionariesAbroad,pp.262-3;minutesoftheBoardofinquiryRe:BhagwanSingh,October21,1913,H.HstevensPapers,HH-5.-canbefound-http://search.library.utoronto.ca/details?5385324&uuid=7f1e774d-59a6-4598-92e6-67a72d1161b1
(Page44).InlateNovember1913,BhagwanSinghwasdeported,eventhoughlocalimmigrationofficialsknewthatawritofHabeasCorpushadbeensecuredfromtheBritishColumbiacourtsstoppingthedeportationproceedings.K.SinghandS.Singh,Ghadar1915,p.11–Canbefoundat-http://search.library.utoronto.ca/details?5385324&uuid=7f1e774d-59a6-4598-92e6-67a72d1161b1
Inthesamemonthlater,i.e.November1913,ChiefjusticeHunteroftheBritishColumbiaSupremecourtstruckdownboththecontinuouspassageregulationandtheprovisionthateachimmigranthavewithhimorher$200uponlandingwhichofferedsomehopetotheSouthAsians.G.MilnetoW.Scott,November24,1913,PAC,RG76,#536999,part8.ButtheSouthAsianhopesweretobedashedagain.OnDecember8,1913,thegovernmentenactedanorder-in-councilstoppingtheimmigrationofall“artisanorgeneralunskilledlabourclasses”throughBritishColumbiaportsofentry.PC2445ofSeptember27,1913;PC304ofFebruary23,1914.OnJanuary7,1914,rewordedversionsofthecontinuouspassageand4200Orders-in-councilwerere-enacted."Newsroom-TheDepartment".Pch.gc.ca.2009-10-02.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2008-05-02.By1914,Japaneseimmigrationhadbeenseverelyreducedbytreaty,ashadChineseimmigrationbythe$500headtax.SouthAsianimmigrationwasstoopedaltogether.(Page45)
Aslateas1914,itwasimpossibletofindaprovincialorfederalmemberfromBritishColumbiawhodidnotpubliclysupportthefullrangeofexistinganti-southAsianlegislation.Consequentlyasfarastheimmigrationquestionwasconcerned,theconcertedactionofthecommunityfrom1907totheendof1913hadbroughtverymeagreresults.MostsouthAsianswereconvincedthatthebattlehadbeenwonwhichwasfarfromtrue.PidgeonandMcLaren,“EastIndianImmigration”,p.27(Page47)Inmid-1913ameetingwasheldinOregontoformanumbrellaassociationunitingSouthAsiansinCanadaandtheUnitedStates–theHinduassociationofthePacificCoast.ByNovember1913,aGhadar(Munity)PartywasformallyorganizedtopromotenationalindependenceinIndia.ForabiographyofHardayal,SeeBrown,HarDayal-http://www.indiawest.com/online_features/lala-har-dayal---revolutionary-of-the-gadar-movement/article_35cd856c-dbb8-11e3-b730-0019bb2963f4.html.(Page51)GhadarwasconsideredverydangerousbytheBritish.ByJune1915,HopkinsonconvincedPrimeMinisterBordentobanGhadarfromtheCanadianMails.BalwantSingh,NarianSinghandNandSinghSirhahadmetwiththeviceroyonDecember20,1913andheonlyagreedtopressforaremovalofthecontinuouspassagerestrictionasitappliedtowivesandchildren.R.BordentotheGovernorGeneral,June22,1914,PAC,RG7,G21,v.205(Page52)GhadarpartywasdevelopinganactivestrategyforrevolutioninIndia.Thered-inkGhadarposterthebugleofthearmyofmutinyofFebruary1914announced:wemustreturntoIndiaandstartarevolution.Getonaboastandgotoyourcountryandpreparesomementofightforthemutiny.AsearlyasFebruary,1914,Ghadra’sleadershipbelievedthataEuropeanwarwasinevitableandthatsuchawarwouldrequireBritaintomovethebulkofitslargeIndianarmyintoserviceoutsideofIndia.OnFebruary2,1914,AmericanimmigrationauthoritiesappliedforadeportationwarrantforHardayalasananarchist:theevidencewasfromHopkinson.HewasarrestedonMarch26,gotbail,andpromptlyfledtoSwitzerland.KOMAGATAMARUINCIDENT88SouthAsianswereletintothecountryin1913whileonly19securedentryintheprevioustwoyears.ItwaswellknownthattherestrictiononimmigrantartisansandlabourerswasduetolapseofMarch31.–noreferencefound.(Page53).
GurditSinghSarhali,hadreturnedtoIndiaandonlyarrivedinHongKongInJanuary,1914.OnFebruary13,1914GurditSinghSarhaliissuedadvertisementsnotifyingtheHongKongcommunityofhisplanofcharteringashipinCalcutta,payforitsrentalthroughticketsalesandcargoandthensailforCanada.InMarch1914,GurditSinghbegansellingticketsinHongKongandshortlyafterwardsusedtheproceedstochartertheKomagataMaruforahalfyearfor$66000(HongKong).OnApril1914,theKomagataMarusetsailforShanghaiwith165passengersonboard.GovernorofHongKongtoL.Harcourt,April8,1914,PAC,RG7,G21,V.211(Page54).
TheimminentarrivaloftheKomagataMarufirstbecamenewsonApril16,anditimmediatelyproducedastormaprotestinBritishColumbia.TheKomagataMaruarrivedattheVictoriaquarantinestationonMay21,1914,with376passengersonboard,including2womenandthreechildren.
OnMay30,1914,apoemtitled‘GurditSingh’by‘RudyardTippling’gracedthepagesofthe‘SaturdaySunset‘towhichthe‘TheProvince’repliedwithaseriesofscurrilouscartoonsportrayinghordesofblackface‘Hindoos’perchedinadinghy-likeboat.AtemplesupportcommitteefortheKomagataMaruwasestablishedandonJune1,1914,thetemplecommitteeorganizedaprotestmeetinginVancouver’sDominionHall.600southAsiansattended–aboutoneoutofthreethenresidentinCanada.Vancouverprovince,June2,1914p.1.http://komagatamarujourney.ca/node/11033(Page55).ByJune10,1914,thetemplecommitteehadcollectedover$20000incash,whichwasappliedtothebalancestillowedbyGurditSinghforthecharteroftheship.ByJune10,1914someindividualshadbeenontheshipfortwomonthsalreadyand,manyhadbecomesickandonepassengerhaddied.OnlyonJune20,1914thecommittee’slawyerwasabletoforcetheimmigrationofficialsintocourt.Bythen,theshiphadbeensittinginVancouverHarbourforamonth.ByJune25,therewasvirtuallynodrinkingwateronboardandfoodsupplieswereverylow.ByJune20,1914acommitteeoffivehaddevelopedenoughsupportamongdisaffectedpassengerstoclaimsomeofGurditSingh’sdecisionmakingpower.KomagataMarupassengerstothegovernorgeneral,June25,1914,PAC,RG7,G21,v.211.Bylaweachpotentialimmigranthadtherighttohisorherownhearingbeforeanimmigrationboardofinquiryandthereafterhadaccesstothecourts.Andasitwas,MunshiSingh’scasewentbeforeaBoardofInquiryonJune28andhewasrulesinadmissible.ThenextdaythecasewasunsuccessfullyappealedtoapaneloffivejudgesinVictoriaandonJuly5thelegalbattlewasover.TheKomagataMaru’spassengershadlosttheirlastlegaloption.Noreferencefound(Page56)InearlyJuly,1914.HarnamSinghandHukamsinghunsuccessfullyattemptedtobuy25handgunsinVitoriawiththeintentofsmugglingthemontotheship.NoteontheHindurevolutionarymovementinCanada,March21,1919,PAC,RG76,#536999,Part11.OnJuly13,1914avaintwo-boatattemptwasmadetobringsomeofthoseboardashore.ThenonJuly24,theKomagataMaru’spassengerswereservedwithdeportationorders.(Page57)ByJuly,20theanticipatedarrivaloftheRainbowdominatedthenewsinVancouver,whichbegantotakeonCircus-likeatmosphere.
Asanincentive,thepromisedsuppliesoffoodandmedicine.A$4000worthinall,wereputabroadonJuly22.H.HStevenstoR.Borden,July18,1914,PAC,RG7,G21,v.211;R.BordentoJ.D.Hazen,July19,1914,PAC,RG76,#536999,part11.ThepresenceofRainbowprovedasufficientthreatandtheKomagataMarusetsailfortheFarEastonThursdaymorning,July23,1914,aftertwomonthsatanchorinVancouver.OnJuly17,1914,BhagSingh,BalwantSingh,HarnamSinghandMewaSinghcrossedthebordertosmugglearmsintoCanadafromWashington,littleimaginingthateachwassoontodieforhisrevolutionaryconvictions.(Page58)Inearlyaugust,40SouthAsianmenappliedtotheimmigrationofficeinVancouverfortheregisteringoutcertificatesthatwerenecessaryforreturntoCanada.ByAugust,160menwereattemptingtosecureticketsfromreluctantCPRagentsinVancouver.Thefirstbrigadeof40leftforIndiaonaugust22,26fromVancouverand14fromVictoria.Bymid-October,110peoplehadleftBritishColumbia.M.ReidtoW.Scott,August18,1914;W.ScotttoM.Ried,August18,1914,W.ScotttoM.Reid,August19,1914,Pac,RG76,#536999,R.O.,Part1.(Page59).TheBritishIndiagovernmentcounteredwiththeIngresstoIndiaOrdinanceofSeptember5,1914.ByMarch,1915,thegovernmentknewof3200PunjabiémigréswhohadarrivedIndia,ofwhom200werejailedforthedurationand700wereconfinedtotheirvillages.Shipsarrivingwithreturnees,suchastheTosaMaruthatdockedinCalcuttaonOctober28,facedawallofarmyandpoliceofficers.AllahabadPioneerMail,November6,1914;SirMichaelo’Dwyer,IndiaasIknewit,1885-1925(London,1926),pp.194-5OnSeptember29,1914,TheKomagataMaruarrivedatBudgeBudge,fourteenmilessouthofCalcutta.(Page60).OnAugust17,1914,HarnamSinghvanished,onlytobefoundmurderedattheendofthemonth.Shortlyafter,ArjanSingh,anotherSikhintheemployofthegovernmentwasaccidentallyshotdeadbyRamSingh.HisbodywascrematedonSeptember5.Vancouverprovince,September1,1914,P.1,October21,1914.P.10.Hewas,however,ontheVancouvertemplecommitteeandcouldnotpossiblyhavebeensympathetictoRamSinghandhisfaction.(Page61)AsonOctober21,1914,BelaSingh’strialwastotakeplace.TherewasagreatconcernamongSouthAsiansthathewouldbeacquittedmdespitehisobviousguilt.Ferguson,Awhiteman’scountry,pp.157-60.Canbepurchasedathttp://www.amazon.ca/white-mans-country-exercise-prejudice/dp/0385114001MewaSinghwasindictedofHopkinsonsMurderonOctober23andhistrialwassetforOctober30withHussainRahim,Sohanlal,BalwantSinghandKartarSinghchargedasco-conspirators.
(Page62)InlateDecemberof1914BalwantSinghandhisfamilyleftVancouver,supposedlyboundforIndia.Inactuality,theyhadbeensenttoBangkokbytheGhadarParty.ShohanLalwashangedinFebruary1916afterbeingkeptinjailforayear.Noreferencefound(Page63)In1916,TaraknathDaswassenttoJapanandberlin,whereheattemptedtoconsolidateGhadar’aorganizationamongSouthAsiansthere.
L.A.jollifetoW.Cory,June6,1916,PAC,RG7,G21,v.207By1917,onlyMitSinghPandori,HusainRahimandSundarSinghremainedinCanada.ThedemiseofGhadar:Bymid-1915theGhadarreolutioninIndiahadbeencrushed.291GhadaritesweresenttotrialinaseriesofwhatbecametobeknownastheLahoreConspiracycases.(Page64)TheimmigrationBattleresumed:OnJanuary7,1916W.Scott,ThesuperintendentofImmigrationwrotealettertotheCanadianUndersecretaryoftheStateofexternalaffairssuggestingthatthewivesanddependentchildrenofSouthAsianCanadianmenbeallowedin.W.ScotttoSirJosephPope,January7,1916,M.ReidtoW.Cory,August4,1919,PAC,RG76,#536999,part9.Inlate1915.SundarSinghoncemorewenttotheEasttorallysupportfromtheCanadianConferenceofFriendsandtheOntarioWomen’sChristianTemperanceunion.Inlate1916,SundarSinghformedtheCanadaIndiaCommitteeinToronto,whichpublishedseveralpamphletsonthetreatmentofSouthAsiansinCanada.SeefollowingpublicationsoftheCanadaIndiaCommittee:acallforCanadianJustice(Toronto1915);TheHinduCase(Toronto,1915);India’sAppealtoCanadaor:AnAccountofHinduimmigrationtotheDominion(Toronto,1916).Meanwhile,W.Scottcontinuedtopressforachangeinregulations.OnFebruary1,1916hesupportedapetitionofKapoorSinghSiddootogethisfamilyadmitted,usingthecaseasapretexttoreviewthepolicyofexclusion.W.ScotttoW.cory,February1,1916,PAC,RG76,3536999,part9.KapoorSinghSiddoowastobecomeoneoftheforemostsouthAsianCanadianEntrepreneursofthe1920’sand1930’sBeginningin1917,ScottbegantogivehisAssenttoaseriesofpetitionsfromReverentW.L.MacraeofVictoriafortheadmissionofthefamiliesof“loyal”SouthAsians.(Page65)Ataconferencein1917,RobertBordenarguedthatCandianpublicopinionwasagainstthechangeintheimmigrationpoliciesbutthathewouldtakeitunderadvisement.ImperialWarconference,1917,Minutes,pp.117-20InNovember,TheministeroftheInteriorfirstsuggestedafullybilateralimmigrationpolicybetweenCanadaandIndiaallowingtheimmigrationoffamiliesandthefreeflowoftouristsineitherdirection.AlthoughnoactionwastakenbythegovernmentuntiltheImperialWarconferenceof1918.OnJuly24,1918CanadaacceptedtheresolutionincludingtheprovisionthattheWivesandchildrenofSouthAsianCanadiansbeallowedintoCanada.SponsoredbyS.PSinhawhorepresentedIndiaatthatconference.OnMarch1919,Pc641waspassedbythePrivyCouncil,elvenyearsafterthebanwasfirstputinplace.Accordingtotheplanoutlinedinanorder-in-council(Pc2498)ofDecember24,1919,animmigrantinCanadawastoapplyforhisfamily.Onlyelevendependantswereallowedinbetween1914and1922adapracticalproceduretoregisterwivesandchildrenwasnotputintoplaceuntilJune1924.(Page66).By1920,SouthAsiancommunityinCanadabegantothelaythefinalpartofthisfoundationfamilylife.SouthAsiansborethefullbruntofracialideologies,socialisolation,economicsubordinationandpoliticaldisenfranchisement.Inthesematters,theyear1920sawSouthAsiansinmuchthesamesituationas1908,savethattheywerenowCanadiancitizens–citizenswithfewrightsinacountrythatstilldidnotwantorrespectthem.CanadaSteadfastlyheldtoitsSouthAsiansimmigrationbanandwouldextenditin1923totheChinese;thedominionelectionsActof1920retainedtheprovisionthatnoonebarredonaccountofracefromvotingprovinciallycouldvotefederally.DuringWorldWarI,southAsiansweren’tacceptedforMilitary.
By1920,SouthAsianswerenolongerrfeared,buttheyremainedconfinedtoasharplyboundedracialenclave.Itwouldtakeanothertwentyyearsforthemtoescapefromit.Chapter46,10-11,GeorgeV,July6,1920(theDominionelectionsAct);PC1459ofjune12,1918,barredSouthAsiansfromenlistingintheCanadianArmedforces.(Page67).In1920,theCanadianGovernmentdecidedthatanySouthAsianCanadianOutsidethecountrywhodidnotholdaregistering-outcertificatehadlostdomicileandwouldnotbeallowedtosailtoCanada.A.L.JollifetoF.C.Blair,July28,1920,PAC,RG76,R.O.,part1.From1921on,thegovernmentstiffenedentryfurtherbysettingthreeyearsasthemaximumtimeaSouthAsianCanadiancouldbeoutofthecountrywithoutlosingdomicile,registeringoutcertificateornot.ThemajorityofmenwhohadreturnedtotheirfamiliesinIndiapriorto1920wereneverallowedbackintoCanadaandwerelostforevertothecommunity.Governmentassurancesweregivenasearlyas1920thatsouthAsianStudentswerethereafterfreetoenterCanadaforuniversitystudy,butthiswasdiscouragesinPractice,in1924,Vancouverimmigrationofficialswereinformallyrequiringthata$1000cashbondbepostedbyanyprospectiveSouthAsianwhowishedtoenterCanadaforthepurposeofstudy.TherewerethennomorethantenSouthAsianuniversitystudentsinthewholecountry.Inaddition,well-educatedSouthAsianvisitorswereoccasionallybannedfromenteringCanadaaslateas1929.In1924,itwasdecidedthatanAnglo-IndianwithaBritishFathercouldimmigrate,whileapersonwithaBritishmotherandanIndianfathercouldnot.AnAdequatesystemofregisteringfamiliesinIndiawasnotworkedoutuntil1924-25andmanymenweresoconcernedthatwouldnotbeletbackintoCanadathattheywerereluctanttogotoIndiatogettheirfamilies.Duringthefive-yearperiodbetweenfiscal1914-15and1920-21onlyonesouthAsianfamilymemberwasallowedintoCanada.F.C.Blairtoanonymous,January3,1924,PAC,RG76,R.O.,Part3;F.C.BlairtoLt.Col.CCampbell,Simla,July5,1923,PAC,RG76,#536999,part13.(Page72)
SOUTHASIANIMMIGRATION,1920-21to1929-30
Fiscalyear AdultMales AdultFemales Children Total1920-21 7 2 1 101921-22 5 4 4 131922-23 12 5 4 21
1923-24 25 11 4 401924-25 21 14 11 461925-26 6 18 39 631926-27 6 19 37 621927-28 2 25 29 561928-29 4 25 24 531929-30 2 21 35 58TOTAL 90 144 188 422
Thefeebleimmigrantflowinnowaycompensatedfortheenormouslossestoemigrationbetween1911and1921:in1911therewere2342SouthAsiansinCanadaand2292inBritishColumbia,whilein1921therewereonly1016inthecountryand951intheprovince.VirtuallyallofthemwereSikhs.Thepopulationwouldnotreachthe200figureagainuntilthelate1940’s.(Page73).TheageandsexdistributionoftheSouthAsiancommunitywasveryunbalanced.By1925,about90%ofthepopulationwasmadeofmenwhowerefortyorolder;becausemostadultchildrencouldnotimmigratetherewereonlyahandfulofyoungmeninthecommunity.By1930,therewerefewerthan200SouthAsianfamiliesinallofCanada.Becauseofitseffectsonfamilyandcommunitylife,thecontinuouspassagerestrictionremainedabitterreminderofCanadianinjusticeallthroughthe1920’s.In1923,thegovernmentfinallysubjectedtheChinesetoanexclusionaryActevenmorerestrictivethanthataffectingsouthAsians.ChangesinHouseholdandCommunityLife:Thetotalcostsforfoodandhousingaltogetherin1920’saveragedbetweenninetycentsandadollaraday.Sikhclothingcostsinthemid1920’swereestimatedatnomorethan$60ayear.SouthAsianhouseholdsspentthebareminimumonfurnishings–theyhadonlythebareessentialsofbeds,tablesandfewchairs.By1925,SouthAsianswereabletospendlessoftheirhard-earnedmoneyoneverydaynecessitiesthananyothergroupinBritishColumbiawiththeexceptionofnativepeople.OnlyafewsocialandpsychologicalproblemsarosefromthisSpartanlifeandhostileenvironment.Heavydrinkingbecameacommonproblemandsomeindividualswereconsumedbyit.ManysinglemenreturnedtoIndiainearly1920togetmarried.AlmostequalnumberswerecomposedofcoupleswhohadmarriedpriortohusbandembarkingforCanadabetween1904and1908;asaresultoftheirlongseparationmostoftheseeitherhadnochildrenorhadchildrenwhowerefifteenorolder.Das,HindustaneeWorkers;Cheng,orientalimmigration,p.199(Page75)
Sikhsstartedtosendtheirchildrentopublicastheyknewthevalueofeducationandoccupationaltraining,hencebythelate1920’sthewholecommunitywasproudthatafewSikhswereattendingtheUniversityofBritishColumbia.Bylate1920.sthesechildrenlivedindualuniverse,movingbetweentheirparents’worldandthatoftheirCanadianpeers.Increasingly,thesecondgenerationbecamemiddlemenbetweentwocultures.SadhuSinghdhami,“discoveringtheNewWorld,“QueensQuaterly76,(1969),pp.200-12.Canbefoundat
http://godot.lib.sfu.ca/GODOT/hold_tab.cgi?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&genre=article&sid=ProQ:ProQ%3A&atitle=Discovering+the+New+World&title=Queen%27s+Quarterly&issn=00336041&date=1969-07-01&volume=76&issue=2&spage=200&au=DHAMI%2C+SADHU+SINGH&isbn=&jtitle=Queen%27s+Quarterly&btitle=&rft_id=info:eric/&rft_id=info:doi/(Page76).ThereweremanymarriagesinbetweenMexicansandSikhsinCaliforniabytheendofthe1920’s,sincemanyofthemwerechieflyintofarming.EconomicgrowthandChange:thereweremanychangesintheeconomicsituationofSouthAsiansinCanadain1920’s.Firsttherearoseasmallentrepreneurialclass,chieflyinthevariouswoodsindustry.Second,therewasadramaticoccupationalconcentrationinthelumbermills.Third,therewasageographicalfluidity,aspeoplemovedtowheregoodjobswereavailable.Finally,therewasaslightbroadeningoftheoccupationalbaseintofarming.Das,HindustaneeWorkers;YusufDadabhay,”CircuitousassimilationamongruralHindustanisinCalifornia,“SocialForces,3391954),Pp.138-41(Page77).By1927,there21SouthAsianfueldealersintheLowermainlandandabout61intheprovince.Sikhsmaintainsastrongpresenceinthefuelbusinessrightuptolate1950’s,whentheavailabilityofcheaperalternativefuelsledtoitsdemise.GeorgeH.Lowes,“TheSikhsofBritishColumbia“(B.A.honoursessay,UniversityofBritishColumbia,1952);Button,“SikhSettlementinLowerMailand.”In1914-16therebeganthelease,purchaseandoperationofmillsandloggingcamps.SevensmallmillswereboughtorleasedbySouthAsiansintheFraservalley,chieflynearAbbotsfordandChilliwack.Between1916and1923mostofthelumbermillsweresoldsincetheownersdidnotenoughlocalwoodavailabletocontinuetheproduction.TheownersstartedmovingtotheVancouverIslandwheretimerwasmoreaccessible.Das,HindustaneeWorkers,p.27By1930,theSouthAsian-runKapoorlumbercompanyatBarnetemployedabout350men,one-thirdofwhomwereSouthAsian.Theeconomicpossibilitiesweresubstantiallybetteronthemainland,sothatfewerthan250SouthAsianslivedonVancouverIslandin1920.Withtheriseofthelumberindustrythereinthe1920’sthisVancouverIslandCommunitysoonequalledthatAroundinVancouverinWealthandinfluence.IndiaandCanada,1,3(1929),Pp.1-4(Page78)By1930,theeconomicelite,suchasKapoorSinghSiddooandMayoSingh,werebyfarthemostvisiblecommunityleaders,partiallyreplacingtherevolutionaryleadershiplostduringthewar.Duringthe1920’sSouthAsianswhohadextensiveexperiencewithaverycomplexsystemofagriculturemadeatentativemoveintofarmingbutalackoflaborandcapitalseverelylimitedtheirabilitytofarminCanada.Inoverview,SouthAsianentrepreneurialactivitieswerewelldevelopedbythe1920’s,especiallyinthelightofthesmallsizeofthecommunityandthedisabilitiestheyfaced.Already,in1923,itwasestmitaedthatSouthAsiansinBritishColumbiaOwnedoroperatedasubstantialnumberofbusinesses.(Page79)
SOUTHASIANBUSINESSESINBRITISHCOLUMBIA,1923.
TypesofBusinesses NumberLoggingCamps 7LumberCompanies 6ShingleFactories 2GroceryStores 2FuelDealerships 60Farms 25TOTAL 102
(Berlin:WalterdeGruyter,1923)p.27By1924,609of680SouthAsianswereemployedinthelumbermills.In1921,SouthAsiansinthemillsweremakingover$1000ayear.By1925,SouthAsianwoodworkerswerebeingpaid40-50centsanhouroveraninehourdayortheequivalentofabout$1320ayear.By1920’stheeconomicfootholdofSouthAsiansinCanadawasconsiderablymorefirmthanthatofmanyEuropeanimmigrantgroups.BritishColumbiaLegislativeAssembly(1927)Cheng,OrientalImmigration,p.167(Page80).RacialDiscrimination:The1920,DominionFranchisebillcompoundedtheproblembydenyingthefederalvotetoanyonebarredfromtheprovisionalvoteonaccountofrace.StatutesofCanada,1920,Chapter46,Sec.30.Canadawaschidedforthisrestrictionattheimperialconferenceof1921,wherearesolutionwaspassesaffirmingtherightofSouthAsiansintheDominionstovote.Inaugust1921,athreemanadhocgroupcomposedoflordbyng,TheMaharajaofcutchandV.S.SrinivasaSastriproposedtogotoCanadatoinvestigatethesituationofSouthAsiansthere.EventuallyjustSashtriwenttoCanadaspendingthebetterpartofAugust1922,onacrosscountrytour.Hismainobjectivewastolobbyfederalpoliticiansontheirbehalf.LordByngtotheColonialsecretary,August20,1921,PAC,RG76,#536999,part13.(Page81).ThegovernmentclaimedthatthecontinuousjourneyrestrictionwasnotspecificallyaimedatSouthAsiansandassertedthatover75000immigrantshadbeenturnedbackattheinternationalboundarywiththeUnitedStatesbetween1910and1920fornothavingfulfilleditsrequirements.F.C.Blairreport,July31,1922,PAC,RG25,G1,v.1300f,1011p.Until1930,theplatformoftradesandlaborcouncilofCanadacontainedaresolutionsupportingtheexclusionofallAsiansfromCanada;undertheeuphemismof“racesthatcannotbeproperlyassimilated”thisresolutionwasreaffirmedeveryyearupto1941.During1920’sthegeneralimageofsouthAsiansinCanadaimprovedconsiderably.Thisreflectedtheirincreasingprosperityandrootsinthecountry.Theirnewspaperimageinthe1920’swasconsiderablybetterthanthatoftheChineseorJapanese.Indra,‘ThePortrayalofSouthAsians’.(Page82)
Communityaffairs:Leadershipintheearly1920’schieflydevolvedupontheKhalsadiwanSocietyinVancouver,whichandshownitselftobethestrongest,mostinfluentialandlongestlastingcommunityorganisationofall.AftertheGhadardisastersof1914-1915,theKhalsadiwanSocietyandthecommunitybecamemuchmoreinvolvedwithspecificallySikhissues.TheAnarchicalandRevolutionaryCrimesactof1919gavetheGovernmentthepowertohangorimprisonconvictedindividualswithoutappeal,toholdsuspectswithoutpresentingcause,toarrestindividualswithoutacourtorderandtocontinueindefinitelythedetentionofpeopleheldundertheDefenceofIndiarule.OnApril13,1919,troopsunderthecommandofBrigadiergeneralR.E.HdyerfiredwithoutwarningonanunwarnedPunjabicrowdofseveralthousandindividualsgatheredinawalledpublicsquare.By1920,GhadarpartywasbackinoperationpublishingtheindependentHindustanandsuchpamphletsasinvincibleIndia.In1921,GhadarsentSurendranathKarrtoMoscowtoestablishrelationswiththenewBolshevikgovernmentthere.Josh,HindustanGadarParty,vol.2,p.211.(Page83)ThenewoutburstofnationalistfeelingwasalsofeltinCanada.OnJanuary15,1921,aninternationalmeetingofGhadarwasheldinStockton,California,whichwasattendedbySurjanSinghRepresentingVancouver.OnJanuary14,1951ameetingwasheldattheVancouvertempletoraisefundstosupportthefamiliesofthosewhowenttoIndiain1914-15.Thesumof$13000wascollectedandgivenoverfordispersement.OnJanuary23,250peoplemetatFrasermillstohonourMewaSinghanddonatedanother$900totheIndianindependencemovement.Bytheirownaccounts,TheVancouverKahlsaDiwanSocietyhadcontributed$295000tovarioussocialandpoliticalcausesbefore1921.CONTRIBUTIONSMADETHROUGHTHEVANCOUVERKAHLSADIWANSOCIETY,1908-1920.
Sufferersofmassacres 4330Familiesofpoliticalprisoners 2100Sufferersfrompoliticalactivities 30700CongressswarajFund 3333Religiousandeducationalcauses 148000KomagataMarucase 50000ImmigrationCases 30000DeportationCases 12000SouthAsianPressinCanada 15000TOTAL $295463
Shanghai:Commercialpress,1931p.228By1925,theKhalsaDiwanSocietyhadautonomousbranchesinVancouver,Victoria,Abbotsford,NewwestMinister,Golden,Victoria,Duncan,CoombsandOceanfalls-virtuallyeverywherethatSikhslived
inanynumber.TheyallcontinuedtosupportIndianIndependencethrough1920’s.From1924on,theCanadiangovernmentcontinuedatBritishrequesttoforwardinformationtotheSecretaryofStatefortheColoniessonsouthAsiansactivitiesinCanada.Thesurveillanceincreaseddramaticallyin1926-27,chieflyasaresultoftheriseoftheSikhAkalimovementinPunjabwhoseobjectivewasSikhcontroloverSikhReligiousinstitutions.MalcolmRiedtoW.cory,January27and28,1921,PAC,RG76,#536999,part2,British.RuchiRamSahni,struggleforReforminSikhshrines(Amritsar,n.d.)(Page84)
In1920,TheShiromaniGurudwaraPrabandak(CentralgurudwaraManagement)committeewasformedtoliberatetheSikhtemples.By1922,mosttemplesweresecuredbytheSGPC,andthreeyearslaterthegovernmentpassedtheSikhGurudwarabill,whichplacedallhistoricalSikhtemplesandShrinesunderthecommittee.Inmid-1924elevenSikhsrenouncedtheircomfortablelivesinCanadatojointhereformmovementpersonally.OnApril15,1929,TagorewasintroducedbyGovernorGeneralLordWillingdontoanoverflowcrowdattheVitoriatheatre;hundredsofcommunitymemberswerethere.VictoriaDailycolonist,July18,1924,P.1.;Mittal,FreedomMovementinPunjabi,P.174.Josh,HindustanGadarParty,P.231;Sahni,struggleforReform,Pp.245-8(Page85)ThesmallGains:The1930’swereatimeofprofoundsocialandeconomicdislocationespeciallyforBritishColumbia.TheeconomywasentirelydependentonUnitedStates.TheunemploymentwasrifeandtheaverageBritishColumbiawagehaddroppedover20percent.1930’swerehardyearsforSouthAsiansaswellbutstrategiesdevelopedearlierstoodthemingoodstead.Theirconcentrationonmillworkturnedoutbeanadvantageandin1934almostallSouthAsianwagelabourersinBritishColumbiawereinthemills.Someofthosewithworkcontinuedtoearnabout$100amonthonlyalittlelessthantheyhadintheprosperous1920’s.Eric.W.Morse,‘ImmigrationandStatusofBritishEastIndiansinCanada:AProbleminImperialRelations’(M.A.thesis,Queen’sUniversity,1935)P.169.(Page88).
MayolumberCompany’smillwasburnedin1933.SouthAsiansinBritishColumbiawererarelyonreliefduringthe1930’s.Thiswassodespitetherapidagingofthecommunity,whichwasbeingrequiredtosupportanincreasingnumberofmenwhoweresick,injuredortoooldtowork.Sikhsinthecampscontinuedtolivetogetherrightthroughthe1930’sand1940’s.Mostmenlivedinworkers’barracks;conditionswereprettybadbutnoworsethanforotherworkers.Canada,BoardofReview(Immigration)onChargesConcerningillegalEntryofAliensintoCanada,InterimReportandsupplement(Vancouver,1938,typescript)(Page89).In1920’sthetemplesacrosstheprovincebeganspecializingincertaincelebrations.VictoriawouldstageabigeventforthebirthdayofGuruGobindSingh,whileVancouverwouldcelebrateSikhmartyrs’dayinMay.Despiteeconomichardtimes,adrivefortheeliminationofalltherestrictionsstillplacedonSouthAsianswerebeguninthe1930’s:theinabilitytovote,thevariousrestrictionsofrightsthatwentwithit
andthebanonimmigration.(Page90)Illegalimmigration:InSeptember1930,anorder-in-councilwaspassedtoprohibitthelandingofallAsianimmigrantsexceptthewivesanddependentchildrenoflegalresidentsorthosedealtwithbyspecialtreaty.inthespringof1931anotherorder-in-councilprohibitedtheimmigrationofallpeopleexceptBritishsubjectsfromgreatBritain,unitedstatescitizens“withmeans,”andagriculturalistswithcapital.From1930toJuly,1933,SouthAsiansinCanadaappliedfortheimmigrationof173relatives.Ofthese,137wereforsonsand36forwives.Thegovernmentbecameawareoftheillegalimmigrationwhenitlearnedofathirdscheme,whichinvolvedthepurchaseoffalseIndiangovernmentpapersstatingthattheindividualsweretherelativesoftheCanadianresidents.Thecontroversyfirstsurfacedinaseriousfashionin1937,bywhichtimetherewereabout300illegalSouthAsiani9mmigrantsinBritishColumbia.ListofOutstandingApplications,Vancouver,PAC,RG76,#536999,part14.(page91)byDecember1937,thetwogroups(VancouverKhalsaDiwanSocietyandcommitteeformedbyKapoorsinghsidooandMayoSingh)hadamalgamatedastheCanada-IndianAssociationwithafundof$6000.From1931,onconcernhadbeenbuildingthatlocalJapanesehaddevelopedamassiveschemeforbringinginillegalimmigrants.A1931trialhaddeterminedthatasmanyas2500Japanesehadbeenbroughtinillegallybetween1915and1931throughasystemofforgeddocuments.In1938,PrimeMinisterMackenzieKingappointedaboardofreviewtoinvestigatethesituationofillegalimmigrants.In,March1939,isharSinghwrotetothegovernmentwithanadmissionthattherewereperhapsfiftytosixtyillegalSouthAsianimmigrantsinBritishColumbia.HeaskedthattheybeallowedtostayinthelightoftheirfewmembersandrelativelylongresidenceinCanada.KenAdachi,Theenemythatneverwas(Toronto,1979),pp.180-1Boardofreview,InterimReportandSupplement,p.24a;Canada,boardofreview,Report,Ottawa,October,1938).P.10.Director,ImmigrationBranch,forfile,July11,1939,PAC,RG76,#536999,Part16.(page92).In1941,MargaretCranggottheGovernmenttoacceptfortythreemorerecentlyregisteredillegalimmigrantsbutcoulddonothingaboutgettingthemtheprivilegeofhavingtheirfamiliesthere.ItwasnotuntilApril1947mthatLesterPearsonsuggestedthattheseindividualsbegrantednormalCanadianpassports.M.CrangtoF.C.Blair,June30,1940,PAC,RG76,#536999,part16.Thevote:by1935,about300peopleinthecommunityhadbeenborninCanadaandseveralhundredothershadimmigratedaschildrenoradolescents.(Page93).In1933,SirAtulChatterjeeoftheIndiaoffice,London,genagitatingforachangeinthediscriminatorylegislation.In1935,clivePlanta(Liberal,PeaceRiver)attemptedtoputforwardamotionintheBritishColumbialegislatureaffirmingthedisenfranchisementofAsiansintheprovince.BritishColumbia’srevisionofitsElectionActin1939,retainedallthediscriminatoryclausesofthe
previousact.PrimeMinistertoSirA.Chatterjee,March29,1933,PAC,RG13,v.382.H.484B.C.ProvincialElectionsAct,1939,Chapter16,Section5a.(page94)OnJanuary1942,polkametwiththePremierJohnHartofBritishColumbia,whowasunwillingtoconsiderthequestionofprovincialfranchise.OnFebruary21,1942,PolakwasinformsthatMakcenziekingwouldnotconsiderthevoteinthelightoftheimminentremovalofJapaneseCanadiansfromcoastalBritishColumbia.KhalsaDiwanSociety,ReportofCorrespondenceandDocuments...(Vancouver,1947);SirRobertHolland,“IndianImmigrationintoCanada:TheQuestionofFranchise,”AsiaticReview,39(1943),P.170.Inearly1942,theBritishhadagreedtograntIndiaDominionstatusafterthewar.InMarch1943,atwelvemanSouthAsiandelegationwassenttopremierharttoargueforthevote.By1943,manySouthAsianswerebecomingIWAmembersandtheunionwasverysupportiveoftheircause.Hillkier,“TheBritishColumbiaFranchise,”Pp.46-8AsearlyasJanuary1940,anumberofSouthAsianshadbeenregisteredaccidentlybecausetheirsurnamesappearedtobeEuropean.Bytheendof1942,severalSouthAsianshadalreadybeencalledupandfiftymorehadbeencalledforamedical.CharlesPennock,Registrar,tothedirectorofMobilization,November17,1942,PAC,RG27,V.1486,2-153-1;A.MacNamaratoN.A.Robertson,March8,1943.V.130(page95)Throughmid-1943thesouthAsiancommunitykeptupthepressureandfoundastrongsupporterfortheir“novote-nowar”policyinElmorePhilpot,managingeditoroftheVancouverNewsherald.VictoriaDailycolonist,March9,144,P.1;VictoriaDailytimes,March9,1944,P.1In1944,MackenzieKingfacedafederalelectionanddidnotwanttoriskalienatingvotersbysupportingtheSouthAsianfranchise.In1944,theBritishColumbiaProvincialCommandoftheCanadianlegionalsolentitssupporttotheSouthAsiancommunity.In1945,theCCFpresentedaresolutioninsupportofthefranchiseintheprovinciallegislature,butitwasnarrowlydefeated.CarolF.Lee,”TheRoadtoEnfranchisement:ChineseandJapaneseinBritishColumbia,“B.C.Studies,30(1976),P.51.canbefoundat-http://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/bcstudies/article/view/883(page96)
In1945,M.R.AhujawassenttoCanadabythegovernmentofIndiatoserveasIndia’stradecommissionerinToronto.TheamendmentbillwhichamendedtheelectionsactbydeletingtheChineseandSouthAsiansfromthelistofdisqualifiedpersonsandsecondlydisqualifyingthosewithoutanadequateknowledgeofEnglishorFrenchfromvotingwaspassedandcametothefloorofthelegislatureonApril2,1947.M.R.AhujatoN.A.Robertson,January18,1946,PAC,RG76,#536999,part18.KhalsaDiwanSociety,ReportofCorrespondenceandDocuments.(page97)
OnOctober23,1947,theVancouvercitycouncillobbiedseveralmayorsandagreedtoaskthattheVancouverincorporationActbechangedinordertoallowSouthAsianstovote.
Inthe1941census,424ofthe1465peopleenumeratedhadbeenborninCanada.
SouthAsianWageLabour,1946
OccupationalSector NumberLumber 492Woodmanufacturing 18Foodproductmanufacturing 7Coastalshipping 6Other 32TOTAL 555
BritishColumbia,DepartmentofLabour,AnnualReport,1946.(page98)
SouthAsianBusinesses,1946-47
Business NumberFuelmerchants 130Sawmillowners 29Loggingcampoperators 10Farming 75Miscellaneous 91TOTAL 335
BasedonasurveybyD.P.PandiaandNaginderSinghin1946-47.SeeD.P.PandiatoH.Keenleyside,March16,1948,PAC,RG76,#536999,Pt.18.
By1947,perhaps5percentoftheprovinciallumberbusinesswasinSouthAsianhand,aswasvirtuallyallofthewoodfuelbusiness.Thederogatorylabel“Hindu“wasreplacedbythemoreneutral“EastIndian”inthe1930’s.By1945fewbusinessesfusedtoservesouthAsiansandlittlehostilitywasshowntosouthAsiansineverydaylife.(Page99).
Windsofchange:in1909,someparticipationbyIndiansintheprovincialandcentrallegislatureswasallowed,alongwithminorityinputintotheviceroy’sexecutivecouncil.Itwasnotuntil1929thattheBritishlabourgovernmentcameoutinfavourofeventualDominionStatusforIndia.ThiseventuallyledtoanewdraftconstitutionforIndiawhichwasembodiedintheGovernmentofIndiaActof1935.WorriedaboutIndiandiscontent,inMarch1942,theBritishconfirmedthatIndiawouldachievedominionStatusafterthewar.Noreferencefound.(Page103).
Despitethetraumaoftheirbirths,by1950bothPakistanandIndiahadachievedrelativestabilityandorderIn1945,IndiasentM.R.AhujaasTradecommissionertoCanadaandthenextyearCanadareciprocatedwithahighCommissioner,JohnKearny.In1946,theUnitedStateseliminateditstotalbanonIndianimmigrationbyestablishingaquotaof100peopleayear.
PressureforachangeinCanadianlawbeganin1947.ItwasspearheadedbytheVancouverKhalsaDiwanSocietywhichclaimedthatthebanwasracistandinconflictwiththeUNcharter.CanadarespondedthatnochangesinimmigrationpolicytowardpolicytowardIndiawouldbeforthcoming.Theonlyexceptionwastoallowtheimmigrationofwivesandchildrenofillegalimmigrants,whothemselveshadbeenallowedtostayin1939.FredaHawkins,CanadaandImmigration:PublicPolicyandPublicConcern(Montreal,1972).Pp.91-8.PetitiontotheMinisterofMinesandResources,March3,1947,PAC,RG76,#536999,part17.G.L.ManntoEscottReid,May16,1947,PAC,RG76,#536999,part17(Page104).During1946-47itappearedthatindependentIndiamightbecomeadominionintheCommonwealth.ThiswouldgiveIndianspreferred-entrystatusintoCanada.IndiabecamearepublicinthecommonwealthinApril,1949andthuseliminatedtheimmigrationthreatposedbypossibleBritishsubjectstatus.Until1951,therewillonly2148SouthAsiansinCanada,1937oftheminBritishColumbia.Only10SouthAsianimmigrantshadbeenacceptedduringWorldWarIIandabout300hadcomeinthenextfiveyears.CensusofCanada.1951.OnJanuary1,1951thegovernmentinitiatedachangeinthepolicythatwaseventuallytorevolutionizethepositionofSouthAsiansinCanada.ThegovernmentinitiatedaquotasystemforSouthAsianimmigration.Thequotawassetat150Indians,100PakistanisandfiftyCeyloneseperyear.AllofthequotapositionsforIndiawerefilledeveryyearthesystemwasinplaceinitsoriginalform(1951-56),thusresultingintheimmigrationof900peopleandtheirdependents.TheCanada-IndiaimmigrationAgreementof1957raisedtheIndianquotato300,onehalfofwhichwouldbesubjecttoapreferencequotagivingprioritytorelativesofSouthAsianCanadiancitizens.In1958,governmentallowedSouthAsianCanadianstosponsorawiderrangeofrelatives,includingmothersoversixtyandfathersoversixtyfive.PCofJanuary2,1958(Page105)
PakistaniandCeyloneseImmigrantstoCanada,1951-61
Year Pakistaniimmigrants Ceyloneseimmigrants1951 24 01952 81 31953 98 9
1954 100 191955 84 401956 100 241957 98 231958 54 231959 98 12160 100 51961 64 27TOTAL 901 185
FiguresfromtheCanadianQuotabookfor1951-62,PAC,RG76.Bytheendof1961,2338immigrantvisashadbeengivenoutbytheNewDelhiofficeunderthequotasystemandanother2000IndiancitizenshadcometoCanadaasdependentrelativesofresidentCanadians.Until1957,mostIndianimmigrantswereSikhrelativesofCanadianresidents.Someoftheirrelativesarrivinginthelate1950’swereprofessionals-teachers,scientists,doctors,technicians,engineersandbusinessmen.Suchpeoplewouldbecomeincreasinglyprevalentrightthroughthe1960’s.In1950’sfromIndiacameasmallnumberofPunjabiHindusandMuslimsandfewmorePunjabiMuslimswereaddedbyPakistan.By1960,acoupleofhundredIndiannationalsofotherethnic,linguisticandregionalbackgroundshadalsoarrived-apolyglotcollectionofHindi-speakingpeoplefromUttarPradesh,Guajarati’s,Bengalis,TamilspeakersfromMadrasandothers.(page106)
By1961,therewere4526SouthAsiansinBritishColumbiaafterfiftyyearsinCanadathecommunityhadoncemorereachedthenumbersithadin1908.CensusofCanada,1961,Vol.1:2.By1957,therewerefewerthanahundrednon-SikhSouthAsiansinBritishColumbia.(Page107)In1952,thediversityinVancouveramongtheSikhsresultedinareligiousdisputewhichwasoneofseveralissuesthataroseintheVancouvertempleaboutappropriateSikhpractices.(Page108).
Lowleveldiscriminationcontinuedtobeaprobleminthe1950’sinemploymentandeducation;mostprivateschoolsinVancouverdidnotacceptSouthAsiansuntilthe1960’sandjobdiscriminationagainstthosewomenwhowantedtoworkoutsidethehomewasquitestrong.TheproportionofSouthAsianprofessional,managerialandtechnicalworkersamongimmigrantsrosesteadily,fromabout32percentin1951to55percentin1961.Labourersdroppedfrom46percentto29percentduringthesameperiod.JenniferG.Munday,“FastIndiansinBritishColumbia:Acommunityintransition“(B.A.honoursessay,universityofBritishColumbia,1953).P.39(Page110).
SouthAsiansinCanada,1961
Province NumberBritishColumbia 4526
Ontario 1155Quebec 483Alberta 208Manitoba 198Saskatchewan 115Novascotia 46NewBrunswick 22Newfoundland 17PrinceEdwardisland 1Yukonandnorthwestterritories 0TOTAL 6771
CensusofCanada,1961,Vol1:2.(Page111)
SouthAsianImmigration,1945-1961
Year Number Year Number1945-46 1 1954 1771946-47 8 1955 2491947-48 167 1956 3321948-49 64 1957 3341949-50 54 1958 4541950 77 1959 7411951 99 1960 6911952 172 1961 7721953 140 TOTAL 4532
MichaelM.AmesandJoyInglis,”ConflictandChangeinBritishColumbiaSikhfamilyLife,”B.C.studies,20(winter,1973),P.19,FromDepartmentofCitizenshipandimmigrationannualstatisticalreports.(Page112)
SouthAsianimmigrationtoCanadabylastcountryofpermanentresidence1962-71
Country 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 TotalIndia 529 737 1154 2241 2233 3966 3229 5395 5670 5313 30467
Pakistan 55 121 282 423 566 648 627 1005 1010 968 5705Srilanka 14 23 80 126 144 112 76 179 167 218 1139OtherSouthAsia 0 0 0 0 4 5 9 10 21 14 63Uganda 2 3 7 18 54 68 62 69 90 149 522Kenya 9 18 46 112 114 239 359 363 245 289 1794SouthAfrica 5 9 23 55 89 137 92 60 65 73 608Tanzania 3 7 17 42 75 115 135 54 49 180 677Guyana 40 80 200 487 502 589 658 1492 1672 1907 7627Trinidad 32 64 160 390 565 1170 1210 2816 2395 2075 10877Fiji 25 50 125 304 271 172 253 590 776 721 3287Mauritius 0 1 3 6 19 59 59 81 146 132 506TOTAL 714 1113 2097 4204 4636 7280 6769 12114 12306 12039 63272
Canada,DepartmentofManpowerandImmigration,immigrationstatistics(1962-71);JohnR..wood,”EastIndiansandCanada’snewImmigration.(Page113)
In1962,theCanadiangovernmentremovedalmostallracialandnationalrestrictionfromitsimmigrationregulations.Immigrationduringthedecade1962-71wasovertwelvetimeswhatithadbeeninthepreviousdecade.Itwasninetimesthetotalresidentpopulationin1961.Ratesofimmigrationremainshighrightthroughthe1970’sandearly1980’s.From1971to1982atleast200,000southAsianscametoCanadamakingthemoneofthelargestimmigrantflowsoftheperiod.Therewereabout310,000peopleofSouthAsianorigininCanadaattheendof1982,representingabout1.2percentoftheCanadianpopulation.
SouthAsiansinCanada,1971
Province NumberOntario 30920
BritishColumbia 18795Quebec 6510Alberta 4400Manitoba 3205Saskatchewan 1625Novascotia 1345NewBrunswick 465Newfoundland 460PrinceEdwardisland 135YukonandN.W.territories 0TOTAL 67860
CensusofCanada,1971,Vol.1:2.(Page114)
SouthAsianImmigration1972-82
Country 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 TotalIndia 5049 9203 12868 10144 6733 6722 5110 4517 8464 8256 7776 84892Pakistan 1190 2285 2315 2165 2173 1321 1159 1117 878 731 868 16202Srilanka 240 405 527 369 235 168 146 117 144 223 182 2756Bangladesh 103 151 158 104 79 164 110 50 76 73 58 1126OtherSouthAsia
5 28 12 12 11 9 11 4 13 38 79 222
Uganda 5021 2056 423 112 29 248 43 16 7 16 45 8016Kenya 320 1193 2394 2477 1202 540 227 319 360 345 277 9654SouthAfrica
44 77 115 157 161 246 165 134 137 143 99 1478
Tanzania 1105 1688 2024 2188 1299 790 361 535 450 664 514 11618Guyana 1581 3846 3224 3515 2744 1978 1802 1978 1818 226 2789 27544Trinidad 1370 2569 2401 1909 1180 776 595 393 477 477 496 12643Fiji 636 987 1530 2323 1081 713 552 518 637 637 818 10494Mauritius 127 123 247 253 286 198 147 190 277 277 304 2388Britain 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1350 1100 1000 1000 1000 650 11100TOTAL 17391 25411 29328 26298 28613 15273 11528 10888 14738 15120 14955 2000853
Canada,Departmentofmanpowerandimmigration,ImmigrationStatistics(1962-71);JohnR.wood,”EastIndiansandCanada’sNewimmigration(Page115)
OccupationsofIndianandPakistaniimmigrants,1967
Occupation India PakistanManagement 48 13
Professional 1213 233Clerical 144 36Transportation 12 3Commerce 26 3Service 22 9Agriculture 18 2Construction 12 3Manufacturing 163 31Labouring 99 1Other 45 6Totaltoworkforce 1802 340
Canada,Departmentofmanpowerandimmigration,immigrationStatistics(1967),pp.14-15.(Page116)
OccupationsofIndian,Tanzanian,Fijian,andGuyaneseimmigrants,1974
Occupation India Tanzania fiji GuyanaManagerial 77 175 19 70Professional 863 101 14 117Clerical 198 112 67 270Commerce 82 30 16 64Services 77 8 25 73Transport 14 - 4 7agriculture 268 11 12 3Manufacturing 416 46 104 217Other 200 2 11 73TotaltoWorkforce 2195 485 272 894
Canada,DepartmentofManpowerandImmigration,immigrationstatistics(1974),PP.34-37Bangladesh(populationover80million)sentfiftyeightimmigrantstoCanadain1982,whileFiji(population600,00)sent818.ManysouthAsiansareconvincedthatthereductionbytwo-thirdsinoverallSouthAsianimmigrationbetween1975and1979wasconsciouslydoneinthehopeofreducingthelevelofprejudiceagainstsouthAsiansandbacklashagainstfederalimmigrationpolicy.(Page117)
OccupationsofIndian,Tanzanian,FijianandGuyaneseimmigrants,1979.
Occupation India Tanzania Fiji GuyanaEntrepreneurs 15 2 - 3
Managers 124 9 5 29Physicalsciences 127 10 9 43Socialsciences 16 1 - 5Teaching 19 1 2 7Medicine 57 4 5 20Performingarts 27 - 2 6Clerical 317 90 35 198Sales 83 33 7 36Service 26 7 8 77Farming 76 3 3 30Processing 19 1 2 11Machining 31 3 7 41fabrication 49 8 20 136Construction 14 2 14 38Transportation 9 4 4 7Materialhandling 10 1 - 18Other 646 18 54 148TotaltoWorkforce
1665 197 177 853
Canada,DepartmentofManpowerandImmigration,immigrationStatistics91974),Pp.36-41(Page118)
Bytheyear2000SouthAsianCanadianswillinallprobabilitynumberbetween600,000and750,000.SouthAsianswillthenbeoneofthelargestethnicgroupsinCanada.Between1965and1982overaquarterofamillionpeopleofSouthAsianoriginexperiencedtherisksandrewardsofmakingCanadatheirnewhome(Page119).
Priortopartitionin1947thelinguisticsurveyofIndiafound179languagesand544dialectsinIndia.Eventhoughmostofthesearespokenbyveryfewpeople,therearefourteenlanguagesinmodernIndiaspokenbytwomillionpeopleormore.W.H.Morris-Jones,”LanguageandRegionwithintheIndianunion,”inP.Mason(ed.),IndiaandCeylon:UnityandDiversity(London.1967),p.54India’sMajorLanguages,1961
Language Number(millions)
Indo-aryanGroupWesternandeasternHindiandUrduBengaliMarathiGujaratiBihariOriyaRajasthaniPunjabiAssameseKashmiri
15733.933.320.316.815.714.910.96.82.0
DravidianGroupTeluguTamilKannadaMalyalam
37.730.617.417.0
W.H.Morris-Jones,”LanguageandRegionwithintheIndianunion,”inP.Mason(ed.),IndiaandCeylon:UnityandDiversity(London.1967),p.54(Page123)ApproximateOverseasSouthAsianPopulationsDerivingprimarilyfromIndenturedLabour,1970
Country LabourSouthAfrica 614000Mauritius 520000Guyana 360000Trinidad 360000Fiji 241000Surinam 101700Grenada 9500St.Vincent 3700TOTAL 2209900
YashTandon,ProblemofaDisplacedMinority:TheNewPositionofEastAfrica’sAsians(London:MinorityrightsGroup,1974).P.4.(Page125)
ApproximateoverseasSouthAsianPopulationsDerivingPrimarilyFrom`Free`Immigration,1970
Country NumberUnitedKingdom 270000Kenya 182000Singapore 125000Tanzania 105000
Uganda 76000Indonesia 27600Thailand 18000Israel 23000Madagascar 12350Malawi 11300Zambia 10700Zimbabwe 10000TOTAL 870950
Tandon,ProblemofaDisplacedMinority,P.4.(Page126)
ThreequartersofSouthAsianimmigrantsfromBritaintodayareSikhs,manyofwhomcameoriginallyfromIndiaandsettledthereinthe1960`sandearly1970`s.Sikhsalsomakeup5to10percentofsouthAsianimmigrantsfromEastAfricaandfewcomefromFijiandEastAsia.SikhsinCanadaPresentlynumberroughly80000to100000orabout30percentofallsouthAsianCanadians.TheseandsubsequentestimatesofSouthAsianEthnicandregionalpopulationsarenotfullybasedonofficialsstatisticsandshouldnotbeconsideredtobeveryapproximate.Theyarederivedfromnationalimmigrationstatistics,in1981census,andestimatesbycommunityleaders.(Page129)TodayRelativelylargeSikhpopulationscanbefoundineverycityofanysizefromBritishColumbiatoQuebec.IntheurbancorridorfromMetroTorontotoWindsorarespreadatleast20000SikhsinaSouthAsianpopulationofover100,000,andinthewholeprovinceofOntariothereareabout25000Sikhsoutofroughly130000southAsians.(Page130)Immigrantsinthe1960`sandearly1970`scamefromurbaneliteofPakistan-educators,doctors,engineers,accountantsandscientists.In1967about70percentofallPakistanisdestinedfortheCanadalabormarketwereprofessionals.Bythe1970`stherangeofPakistaniimmigrantschangedconsiderably.Inthemid1960`sapatternofsojournermigrationbecamewellestablishedbetweenPakistanandBritain.By1970therewereatleast180,000peopleofPakistanorigininBritain.Todaytheremustbeover300,000Hughtinker,TheBanyanTree:OverseasEmigrantsfromIndia,PakistanandBangladesh(Oxford,1977)P.166.(Page131)
Whileonly750-1000PakistanishadcometoCanadaby1960,inthenexttenyearsthepopulationroseto6000.Attheendof1983itstoodto25000.(Page132)AsindependencecametoIndia,thepositionofSouthAsiansquicklydeteriorated.ThiswasespeciallyinUganda.In1962theywereaskedtotakeoutUgandancitizenship.The15000ismailisinUgandaimmediatelyappliedbutfewoftheother60,000SouthAsiansinUgandadidso.Canada,DepartmentofEmploymentandImmigration,Annualimmigrationstatistics,(Ottawa,1977).(Page134)By1960’stherewereabout200,000SouthAsiansinKenyaand90,000inTanzania.InKenya70-80percentofthesewereGujarati’sandthemajoritybeingHindus.(Page135)
WhenCanadianimmigrationregulationswereliberalizedinthelate1960’sasmallflowofSouthAfricanIndianimmigrationbegan.SouthAfricanimmigrantstendtobehighlyanglicized,middleandupperclasspeoplewithstrongoccupationalandeducationalbackgrounds.(Page137)
Racialconflictrosesteadilythroughthe1960’sinFiji,GuyanaandTrinidad.Thishaditsoriginsingroupbasedeconomiccompetitionandthequestionofwhowouldcontrolpost-independencegovernments.http://gcids2017.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Chan-E.-S.-Choenni-Full-Paper.pdf(Page138)ImmigrationfromUttarPradeshandsurroundingplacesinNorthernIndiahavegonedownsharplysince1975,chieflybecauseindependentimmigrationfromIndiahadbeendrasticallyreduced.Therewereatleast15000HindispeakersfromIndiabytheendofyear1983.(Page139).
TeluguspeakersarerepresentedallacrossCanada,butthereareunlikelymorethan1000oftheminall.(Page142)
By1976,almost9000FijianshademigratedandvirtuallyallofthemwenttoVancouver(Page149).
ArrivaloftheUgandanrefugeesin1972beganchainmigrationtoCanadabyanumberofEastAfricanSouthAsianGroups.Inmid-1970’s,thousandsofyoungunmarriedmencameasthesponsoredrelativesofpeoplealreadyhere,theexpectationwasthattheywouldonlymarryandsettlepermanentlyinCanadaofthingsturnedoutwell.(Page150)
Upuntil1978,manySouthAsianimmigrantfamilieswereabletoachieveownershipinthewestwithinthreeorfouryears;ittooksomewhatlongerintheeast.(Page153).
FromtheSecondWorldWaruntilabout1960mostSikhswhocamewerethecloserelativesofSikhCanadiansandthuslittleclassstratificationdeveloped.Theemphasisonhighlytrainedandeducatedimmigrantsinthe1960’sdirectlyselectedforSouthAsiansofveryhighsocialclass.(Page176)Inthepracticeofillegalimmigrationstrategiesover1000SikhsarrivedinTorontoin1981onone-wayfaresfromPunjab.Theyhadbeeninstructedbyunscrupuloustravelagentstoclaimthattheywerepoliticalrefugees.(Page200)PrejudiceagainstsouthAsiansrosesteadily,apparentlyreachingapeakin1977-78,aperiodcharacterizedbyarashofviolentattacksagainstsouthAsiansandtheirproperty.(Page205)
TheculturalpracticethatmostcommonlyattractedtheattentionofotherCanadianstoSouthAsiansinthe1960’swastheirheavyuseofspicesinthepreparationofthefood;somedishestypicallyrequireseveralouncesofspicesrarelyusedinEuropeancooking.Thenasnow,Canadianshadastrongreactiontotheassociatedsmells.By1960’sCanadianswerebeginningtobecomeawareofotherthingsmarkingtheSouthAsianculturaldifference.Between168and1972theseperceptionsbecameconsiderablymoredevelopedinBritishColumbiathanelsewhere.(Page210).
InVancouver,thewayinwhichimmigrationissueswerecoveredbylocalnewspapersalsobecameanimportantfactorinthedeteriorationofracerelations.Beginninginearly1975,thepressinB.C.begantolinkavarietyofsocialandeconomicillswithAsianimmigration.TheVancouversunalonecarried
sixtysixitemsrelatingtoSouthAsiansbetweenbegofJanuaryandendofApril.Thirtysevenofthemwereonimmigration.Thisculminatedinameetingofover800SikhsonMarch9,1975.(Page214)
By1976,theharassmentofSouthAsianshadbecomeasociallyacceptablepeergroupactivityamongTorontoandVancouverAreayouth.By1976,“Paki-baiting”outsideoftheschoolcontextbysmallgroupsofyouthswasmorefrequentinVancouverandUrbanOntarioandwasontheriseinEdmonton,CalgaryandMontreal.ThreeorFouryouthswoulddrivearoundareaswhereSouthAsianscouldbefoundonthestreetsandshoutabusefromthesafetyoftheircars.(Page215)by1977,harassment,violenceandVandalismagainstSouthAsianshadbecomeeverydayoccurrencesinMetroTorontoandhadspreadacrossOntarioandthePrairies.(Page216)
By1979,theincidenceofdiscriminationsbegantodecreaseinmostpartsofthecountryin1979,buttheycontinuetobefrequentenoughforconcern.Onaugust1981,KhushpalSinghgill,21yearsoldwasbeatentodeathinVancouverbyfourwhiteyouths.OnMarch5,1982ayoungSikhwasabductedwhilewaitingforabusinNorthVancouver.(Page217)
ThelargeincreaseintherateofSouthAsianimmigrationinthemid1970’swithoutadoubtwasdirectlylinkedtothesubsequentriseinracialincidentswhichhavegonedownasCanadianshavebecomemoreusedtoSouthAsiansandastheyimmigrateinfewernumbers.(Page228)
NormanBuchignaniresearcharchive
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55. 1980,TheSikhSocialandEducationalSocietyNewsletter,Vol.5#3,FallWillowdale,Ont.8pp.
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78pp.19. 1975,PublicationsofVishvaHinduParishadofB.C.Canada,Diwali75Program.20. 1972,PublicationsofVishvaHinduParishadofB.C.Canada,TheConstituitionof
VishvaHinduParishadofB.C.21. 1975,PublicationsofVishvaHinduParishadofB.C.Canada,VishvaHindu
ParishadNewsletter,Vol.2#4,12pp.22. 1977,UrbanAllianceonRaceRelations,LettertoP.C.DuttafromJuanitaBay.23. 1977,Prabasi:ASocialandCulturalOrganisation,LetterfromP.C.Duttato
JuanitaBay.24. DennisTimbrell,M.L.A.toP.C.Dutta.25. 1978,LettertoDouglasBarr,DirectorofSocialPlanningCouncilMetroToronto,
fromB.C.Teachers'Federation.26. 1978,ToDouglassBarrFromBlood-BathurstInformationCentreToronto.27. 1976,ToHon.RoyMacMurty,AttorneyGen'l.forOntariofrom------Formletter
nosource.28. N.D.,PrposalsforConstitionalReform,Re:RaceRelationsby:ChaitanyaK.
Kalevar.NoSource.29. 1981,ListofpublicationsfromtheSocialPlanningCouncilofMetroToronto,
1974-80.Orderformblank.
30. N.D.,TorontoBoardofEducation,CityofToronto,StudentSurveyofEthnicbackground.
31. FolderofAssortedNewspaperClippings.32. NewspaperClippingsfromtheTorontoStarandGlobeandMailfrom1972-81.33. 1981,MukherjeeBharati,AnInvisibleWoman.SaturdayNight,March.Toronto,
Ontario.34. 1940,TheParashooter,Vol.1,#1,August.8pp.Newspaper.
Photographs(P)
1. N.D.,PhotoofpeopleonboardtheEmpressofJapan.DepartmentofAnthropology.TheUniversityofLethbridge.Lethbridge,Alberta,Canada.
2. N.D.,pixV.D.Times,June4,p8.3. 1902,pixV.D.Times,Sept8,p3,1902.4. N.D.,V.D.Colonial,June4,p6.5. Collectionofassortedphotocopiedphotographs.
Ph.DDissertations(PhD)
1. 1909,KingWilliamLyonMackenzie,OrientalImmigrationtoCanada.Ph.DDiss.,HarvardUniversity.(SameasKing1908a)1pp.handnote.
2. 19..,WynneR.E.,ReactiontotheChinese...UniversityofWashington,Ph.D.Dissertation.
3. 1935,SumidaRigenda,TheJapaneseinBritishColumbia.M.A.Dissertation,UniversityofBritishColumbia.
4. 1958,AndrackiStanislaw,TheImmigrationofOrientalsintoCanadawithSpecialReferencetoChinese.Ph.D.Dissertation,HistoryDepartment,McGillUniversity.2pp.MimeoReprintedin1978,NewYork:ArnoPress.
5. 1966,SugimotoHowardH.,JapaneseImmigration,theVancouverRiotsandCanadianDiplomacy.M.A.Dissertation,DepartmentofHistory,UniversityofWashington.
6. 1973,WardWilliamPeter,WhiteCanadaForever:BritishColumbia'sResponsetoOrientals,1958-1914.Ph.D.Diss.,Dept.ofHistory,QueensUniversity.Mimeo9pp.+handnotes3pp.
7. 1973,Nasser-BushMerunH.,DifferentialAdjustmentBetweenTwoIndianImmigrantCommunitiesinToronto:SikhsandIsmailis.Ph.D.Dissertation,UniversityofColorado.Mimeo,169pp.
8. 1974,OngPaulM.andWilliamWongLum,ThesesandDissertationsonAsiansintheUnitedStates.DepartmentofAppliedBehavioralSciences,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis.pp.61-80.
9. 1974,MorahBensonS.,TheAssimilationofUgandanAsiansinCalgary.MADissertation,Dept.ofSociology,UniversityofCalgary.
10. 1977a,SubramaniamIndira,IdentityShift:Post-MigrationChangesinIdentityAmongFirst-GenerationEastIndianImmigrantsinToronto.Ph.D.Dissertation,UniversityofToronto.11. 1977,BannerjeeNipa,StudentsfromIndiainCanadianUniversities.Ph.D.Dissertation,UniversityofToronto.Mimeo,selectedpages.12. 1980,Akoodie,M.A.,ImmigrantStudents:AComparativeAssessmentofEthnicIdentity,SelfConceptandLocusofControlAmongWestIndian,EastIndianandCanadianStudents.D.Phil.Dissertation,EducationalTheory,UniversityofToronto.Mimeo.13. 1980,IjazMianAhmed,EthnicAttitudesofElementarySchoolChildrenTowardBlacksandEastIndiansandtheEffectofaCulturalProgramontheseAttitudes.Ed.D.Dissertation,EducationalTheory,UniversityofToronto.14. 1980,KumarKrishna,LiteratureintheSchoolCurriculum:AComparativeStudyoftheLiteraryMaterialsApprovedforuseinGradesFour,FiveandSixinMadhyaPradesh,IndiaandOntarioCanada.Ph.D.Dissertation,UniversityofToronto.Mimeo,selectedpages.
ReportsandReviews(R)
1. 1919,CanadaImmigration,NoteontheHinduRevolutionaryMovementinCanada.ImmigrationBranch(RG76,Volume386,File536999,Pt11)2. 1936,MorseEricW.,SomeAspectsoftheKomogataMaruAffair.CanadianHistoricalAssociationAnnualReport.pp.100-108.Handnote5pp.3. N.D.,OdetteJobidon,SituationreportontheCurrentStateofRaceRelations-Vancouver,BritishColumbia,52pages,plus100pagesofappendices,tableofcontents,bibliography.4. 1982,Dr.H.E.Kane,SituationReportonRacerelationsinWinnpeg,16pages,plusabstract,appendix,bibliography,March29.St.Paul'sCollege,UniversityofManitoba.5. 1982,DuttonD.G.,NationalReportonRaceRelations.Vancouver,B.C.Mimeo.6. 1978,SinghAmarjit,AdjustmentsinMulticulturalCanada:AStrategy.IndianImmigrantAidServices,Toronto,Ontario.Pamphlet,11pp.7. 1972,DoddBabinderSingh,SocialChangeintwoOverseasSikhCommunities.BAHonoursEssay,SociologyDept.Univ.ofBritishColumbia.8. 1972,InternationalInstituteofMetropolitanToronto.EastIndianDirectoryfortheMetropolitanAreaofTorontoMimeo32pp.
9. 1977,TheCanadianCouncilofChristiansandJews(OntarioRegion),MultireligiousExpressions:ADirectoryofEasternReligiousOrganisationsinToronto.Mimeo31pp.10. 1977,HogbenW.Murray,CanadianMuslimsandtheMulticulturalSetting3pp.mimeo.MulticulturalHistorySocietyofOntario.11. 1977,BakshKhalil,SpiritofIslam3pp.mimeo.MulticulturalHistorySocietyofOntario.12. 1977,KhattabImanA.M.,ValuesofIslam3pp.mimeo.MulticulturalHistorySocietyofOntario.13. N.D.TitleUnknown,Statistics.14. 1979-80,NACOI,Newsletter.Mimeo12pp.15. 1979,NationalAssociationofCanadiansofOrigininIndia,FourthNationalConferenceScheduleMimeo5pp.16. MembershipApplicationForms(2)17. 1979,Nacoi,Forum(Newsletter)4pp.18. 1976,ProceedingsoftheFoundingConferenceofNacoi,Mimeo13pp.19. 1977,NacoiNewsletter,TowardaNewCanadianConnection:AMessagefromtheSecretaryofState,Mimeo3pp.20. 1980(TorontoChapter),LettertoallCandidatesforFederalElection,Mimeo3pp.21. 1976,Nacoi,FoundingConference:AdHocGroupProgram,Mimeo2pp.22. 1978,JainSociety,AnnualReport,Mimeo5pp.Toronto,Ontario.23. 1978,NirvanBhavanforIndiansofTorontoInc.Chairperson'sReporttoGeneralBody,Mimeo5pp.24. 1977,SouthIndiaCulturalAssociation,AboutusandourActivities,Mimeo2pp.Ottawa,Ontario.25. 1975,SriGuruSinghSabhaCanada,Constitution,Mimeo5pp.Mississauga,Ontario.26. 1978,KingstonIslamicSociety,BriefHistoryoftheSociety,Mimeo2pp.27. 1978,OttawaMuslimAssociation,TheConstructionCommittee:AnnualReport,Mimeo4pp.28. 1977,HinduTempleSocietyofCanada,NewsletterandMembershipform,Mimeo2pp.Toronto,Ontario.29. SriChinmoyCentre,Informationsheet1pp.30. 1976,Prabasi,Circular#14pp.Mimeo.31. 1976,BharatBhavanHinduTemple(Operatedby"KnowIndia"CulturalSociety),7pp.Mimeo.32. ConstitutionofGoldenTriangleSikhAssociation.
33. 1979,NoticeofGeneralBodyMeeting,March4,OriginalLetterandcopy.34. 1976,ChaputG.,HeritageSikh,Mimeo4pp.CanadaManpowerandImmigration.35. 1977,Eid-Ul-Azha&IndependenceDayCelebration(Program),Mimeo1pp.36. 1977,LetterfromPresident,Mimeo1pp.37. 1977,Lettertocommunitymembers,Mimeo1pp.38. 1971,Bangladesh,August25,Mimeopp.11-12.39. 1971,ConstitutionofBanglaDeshSocietyofCanada,Mimeo1pp.Incomplete.40. 1977,LetterfromPresidentialcandidate,HabiburRahman,Mimeo2pp.41. 1977,SurveyRequestfromS.Ambike,Mimeo1pp.42. 19..,HandaArvind,Conversationswith(East)IndianYouth,IndianImmigrantAidServices,Toronto.Mimeo12pp.43. 1977,UrbaleBhausaheb,EqualOpportunityandPublicPolicy:AReportonConcernsoftheSouthAsianCommunityregardingtheirplaceintheCanadianMosaic.ReportsubmittedtotheAttorneyGeneralofOntario.DistributedbyIndianImmigrantAidService.44. 1979,StasiulisD,ASociopoliticalAnalysisoftheSouthAsianCommunityinToronto.Mimeo.PaperpresentedattheannualmeetingoftheCanadianAsianStudiesAssociation.45. 1979,DusenberryVerneA,CanadianIdeologyandPublicPolicy:TheImpactofVancouverSikh"Ethnic"and"Religious"Adaptation.PaperpresentedattheCanadianEthnicStudiesAssociationMeetings,Vancouver.46. 1980,DusenberyV.,Hierarchy,EqualityandtheAssertionofSikhIdentityinNorthAmerica.Presentedatthe56thAnnualCentralStatesAnthropologicalAssociationMeeting.Mimeo17pp.47. 1980,JoyA.andV.Dusenberry,BeingSikhinBritishColumbia:ChangingDefinitionsof'Self'and'Others'.PresentedattheCanadianAsianStudiesAnnualMeeting.Mimeo39pp.48. 1981,BeckBrenda,TheUseofMetaphorinEthnicResearch:VariationsintheConceptofEthnicity.PaperfortheCESAConference.Mimeo.49. 1983,CowardHaroldandDavidGoa,ReligiousExperienceoftheSouthAsianDiasporainCanada.Paperpresentedattheconference"ResearchontheSouthAsianDiasporainCanada--StateoftheArt",GraduatecentreforSouthAsianStudies,UniversityofToronto.Mimeo17pp.50. 1983,DusenberryVerneA.,GoraSikhs:ANewSikhCaste?Presentedatthe35thAnnualMeetingoftheAssociationforAsianStudies.SanFrancisco,California.Mimeo17pp.
51. 1982,BuchignaniNorman,PerceptionsofRacialDiscriminationinCalgary:ASituationReport.PreparedfortheMulticulturalismDirectorate,SecretaryofState,Ottawa.167pp.52. 1982,TepperElliotL.,DiscriminationandVisibleMinorities:ASummaryofNationalPerceptions.SubmittedtotheMulticulturalismDirectorate,SecretaryofState,Ottawa.Mimeo.53. 1976b,AwanSadiqed.,ProceedingsoftheFirstNationalMulticulturalSymposiumOrganizedbytheCanadaPakistanAssociationofOttawa-Hull.Ottawa.Mimeo.54. 1978,AhmedMahbub,AdaptationsofBangladeshisinCanada:ACaseStudyofToronto.Paperpresentedataseminaron"SocialandCulturalIntegrationofBangladeshis"atCarltonUniversity.Mimeo23pp.55. TorontoIndianOrganisations,Mimeo1pp.56. 1980,IndianOrganisationsinToronto,7pp.Mimeo.57. 1979,IndianOrganisationsinToronto,6pp.Mimeo.58. 1977,IndianImmigrantAidServices,6pp.Mimeo.59. 1979,iiasNewsletter,6pp.Mimeo.60. 1978,IndianCommunityInformationDirectory,70pp.Mimeo61. 1979,AnnualReport,29pp.Mimeo.62. 1980,ListofPublicationsavailableatIndianImmigrantAidServices,1pp.Mimeo.63. 1977,CommentsonImmigrationBillC-24,9pp.Mimeo.64. 1978,BrieftotheRaceRelationsSubcommitteeoftheHumanRightsCommitteeoftheCanadianConsultativeCouncilonMulti-Culturalism3pp.Mimeo.65. 1976,Report:Seminar:'IndianCommunity'10pp.Mimeo66. Miscellaneous:"TheSari","TheTurban","TheEmploymentNeedsof"EastIndian"Women".
StudiesandStatistics(S)1. 1927,BritishColumbia,OrientalLicenses.2. 1977,MoudgilRanvir,FROMSTRANGERTOREFUGEE:ASTUDYOFTHE
INTEGRATIONOFUGANDANASIANINCANADA.AnnArbor,Mi.:UniversityMicrofilmsInternational.
3. 1974,BainsNina,ABriefStudyoftheEastIndian(Sikh)CommunityofVictoria.Victoria.Mimeo30pp.
4. 1983,BeckBrenda,Immigrants,MetaphorsandShiftingCulturalFrameworks.Typescript23pp.Mimeo.
5. 1980-1,BuchignaniN.andDIndra,RawStatisticsfromTwoSurveys,OneofFijianIndians,andoneofSikhsinVancouer.
6. 1977b,BuchignaniN,Mapsfrom"SouthAsiansintheVancouverArea".7. TelephoneNumbersandContactInformation.
Theses(T)
1. 1966,PannuR.S.,ASociologicalSurveyofTeachersfromIndiaTeachinginAlberta.1958-65.M.Ed.Thesis,UniversityofAlberta,Edmonton.
2. 1969,GallacherDavidT,CityinDepression:ImpactoftheYears1929-34onGreaterVictoriaB.C.,MAThesis,Victoria.
3. 1970,ChoGeorgeChinHuat,ResidentialPatternsoftheChineseinVancouver,BritishColumbia.M.A.Thesis,Dept.ofGeography,UniversityofBritishColumbia.Mimeo9pp.
4. 1971,PereiraCecilPatrick,EastIndiansinWinnipeg:AConsequencesofImmigrationforanEthnicGroupinCanada.M.A.Dissertation,Dept.ofSociology,UniversityofManitoba.Mimeo.pp.183-201.
5. 1971,ChawlaSaroj,IndianChildreninToronto:AStudyinSocialization.MAThesis,SociologyDept.,YorkUniversity.
6. 1971,ChawlaSaroj,IndianChildreninToronto:AStudyinSocialization,M.A.Thesis,Sociology,YorkUniversity,Toronto.Mimeopp.24-81.
7. 1974,SiddiqueMuhammad,PatternsofFamilialDecisionMakingandDivisionofLabor:AStudyoftheImmigrantIndia-PakistaniCommunityofSaskatoon,Canada.M.A.Thesis,UniversityofSaskatchewan.Mimeo135pp.
B-Bibliography
BE-BookExcerpts
D-Digests
G-GovernmentDocuments
H-Handnotes
I-Interviews
M-MagazineArticles
N-NewspaperArticles
P-Photographs
PhD-Ph.D.Dissertations
R-ReportsandReviews
S-StudiesandStatistics
T-Theses
• B1-7.• BE1-7,8-16,17-21,22-26,27-29,30-41.• D1&2.• G1-20,21-34,35-39.• GE1-5.• H1-38.• I1-5.• M1-22,23-47,48-60.• N1-30,31,32-34.• P1-5.• PhD1-14.• R1-42,43-50,51-52,53-66.• S1-7.• T1-7.
