archaeoastronomy in india
TRANSCRIPT
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Archaeoastronomy in India Subhash Kak 1
ArchaeoastronomyinIndia
SubhashKak
OklahomaStateUniversity,Stillwater
Our understanding of archaeoastronomical sites in India isbasednot only on a rich archaeological
recordandtextsthatgobackthousandsofyears,butalsoonalivingtraditionthatisconnectedtothe
past. Conversely, India has much cultural diversity and a tangled history of interactions with
neighboringregionsthatmakethestorycomplex.Thetextsrevealtousthecosmologicalideasthatlay
behindastronomicalsites in thehistoricalperiodand it isgenerallyaccepted that thesame ideaalso
applytotheHarappaneraofthethirdmillenniumBCE(Kenoyer,1998:5253).
Inthehistoricalperiod,astronomicalobservatorieswerepartoftemplecomplexeswherethekingwas
consecrated.Suchconsecrationservedtoconfirmthekingasforemostdevoteeofthechosendeity,who
wastakentobetheembodimentoftimeandtheuniverse(Kak,2002a:58).Forexample,Udayagiriisan
astronomicalsiteconnectedwiththeClassicalageoftheGuptadynasty(320500CE),whichislocatedafewkilometersfromVidishaincentralIndia(Willis,2001;DassandWillis,2002).TheimperialGuptas
enlarged the site, an ancient hilly observatory goingback at least to the 2nd century BCE atwhich
observationswerefacilitatedby thegeographical featuresofthehill, intoasacred landscapetodraw
royalauthority.
Indianastronomy is characterizedby the conceptofagesofsuccessive largerdurations,which isan
exampleofthepervasive ideaofrecursion,orrepetitionofpatternsacrossspace,scaleandtime. An
exampleofthisisthedivisionoftheeclipticinto27starsegments(nakshatras),withwhichthemoonis
conjoined in itsmonthly circuit, each of which is further subdivided into 27 subsegments (upa
nakshatras), and the successive divisions of the day into smallermeasures of 30 units. The idea of
recursionunderliestheconceptofthesacredlandscapeanditisembodiedinIndianart,providingan
archaeoastronomicalwindowonsacredandmonumentalarchitecture.Itappearsthatthiswasanold
idea because intricate spiral patterns, indicating recursion, are also found in the paintings of the
Mesolithicperiod.Tyagi(1992)hasclaimedthattheyareuniquetoIndianrockart.
AccordingtotheVstuShstra,thestructureofthebuildingmirrorstheemergenceofcosmicorderout
of primordial chaos through the act ofmeasurement. The universe is symbolicallymapped into a
squarethatemphasizesthefourcardinaldirections.Itisrepresentedbythesquarevstumandala,which
initsvariousformsisthebasicplanforthehouseandthecity. Thereexistfurtherelaborationsofthis
plan,someofwhicharerectangular.
It is significant that yantric buildings in the form of mandalas have been discovered in North
AfghanistanthatbelongtoaperiodthatcorrespondstothelatestageoftheHarappantradition(Kak,
2000a;Kak,2005b) providingarchitecturalevidence in supportof the ideaof recursionat this time.
Although thesebuilding are a part of the BactriaMargianaArchaeologicalComplex (BMAC), theiraffinitywith ideas thatarealsopresent in theHarappansystemshows that these ideaswerewidely
spread.
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Contents
1. ChronologyandOverview2. PrehistoricalandHarappanPeriod3. NeolithicandMegalithicSites4. ThePlanoftheTemple5. ObservatoryinUdayagiri6. PilgrimageComplexes7. SacredCities8. Conclusions
1. ChronologyandOverviewIndiasarchaeologicalrecordinthenorthwesthasunbrokencontinuitygoingbacktoabout7500BCEat
Mehrgarh(Kenoyer,1998;Lal,2002),andithasanrockarttradition,nextonlytothatofAustraliaand
Africa in abundance, that is much older (Pandey, 1993; Bednarik, 2000). Some rock art has been
assignedtotheUpperPaleolithicperiod.There issurprisinguniformity,both instyleandcontent, in
therockartpaintingsoftheMesolithicperiod(10,0002500BCE)(Tyagi,1992;Wakankar,1992).
ThearchaeologicalphasesoftheIndus(orSindhuSarasvati)traditionhavebeendividedintofoureras:
earlyfoodproducingera(c.6500 5000BCE),regionalizationera(50002600BCE), integrationera(2600
1900BCE),and localizationera (19001300BCE) (Shaffer,1992).Theearly foodproducingera lacked
elaborateceramictechnology.Theregionalizationerawascharacterizedbystylesinceramics,lapidary
arts,glazedfaienceandsealmakingthatvariedacrossregions.Intheintegrationera,thereissignificant
homogeneityinmaterialcultureoveralargegeographicalareaandtheuseofthesocalledIndusscript,
which isnotyetdeciphered. In the localizationera,patternsof the integrationeraareblendedwith
regionalceramicstyles, indicatingdecentralizationandrestructuringof the interactionnetworks.The
localization era of the SindhuSarasvati tradition is the regionalization era of the GangaYamuna
traditionwhichtransformsintotheintegrationeraoftheMagadhaandtheMauryandynasties.Thereis
alsocontinuityinthesystemofweightsandlengthsbetweentheHarappanperiodandthelaterhistoric
period(Mainkar,1984).
The culturalmosaic in the thirdmillennium BCE is characterizedby the integration phase of the
HarappancivilizationofnorthwestIndia,copperandcopper/bronzeageculturesorcentralandnorth
India,andNeolithicculturesofsouthandeastIndia(Lal,1997).Fivelargecitiesoftheintegrationphase
areMohenjoDaro,Harappa,Ganweriwala,Rakhigarhi, andDholavira.Other important sitesof this
periodareKalibangan,RehmanDheri,Nausharo,KotDiji,andLothal.
Amajorityof the townsandsettlementsof theHarappanperiodwere in theSarasvativalley region.
Hydrologicalchanges,extendedperiodofdrought,andthedryingupoftheSarasvatiRiverduetoits
majortributariesbeingcapturedbytheSindhandGangaRiversafteranearthquakein1900BCEledto
theabandonmentoflargeareasoftheSarasvativalley(Kak,1992).TheHarappanphasewentthrough
various stages of decline during the secondmillennium BCE.A second urbanizationbegan in theGangaandYamunavalleysaround900BCE.TheearliestsurvivingrecordsofthiscultureareinBrahmi
script.Thissecondurbanization isgenerallyseenat theendof thePaintedGrayWare (PGW)phase
(1200 800BCE)andwiththeuseoftheNorthernBlackPolishedWare(NBP)pottery.LateHarappan
was partially contemporary with the PGW phase. In otherwords, a continuous series of cultural
developmentslinkthetwoearlyurbanizationsofIndia.
ThesettingforthehymnsoftheRigveda,whichisIndiasmostancientliterarytext,istheareaofSapta
Saindhava, the region ofnorth Indiaboundedby the Sindh and theGanga rivers although regions
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aroundthisheartlandarealsomentioned.TheRigvedadescribestheSarasvatiRivertobethegreatestof
theriversandgoingfromthemountainstothesea.Thearchaeologicalrecord,suggestingthatthisriver
hadturneddryby1900BCE,indicatesthattheRigvedaispriortothisepoch.TheRigvedaandotherearly
Vedic literaturehaveastronomical references related to the shiftingastronomical frame that indicate
epochsofthefourthandthirdmillenniumBCEwhichisconsistentwiththehydrologicalevidence.The
nakshatralistsarefoundintheVedas,eitherdirectlyorlistedundertheirpresidingdeities,anditone
mayconcludethattheirnameshavenotchanged.Vedicastronomyusedalunisolaryearinwhichanintercalarymonthwasemployedasadjustmentwithsolaryear.
Theshiftingofseasonsthroughtheyearandtheshiftingofthenorthernaxisallowustodateseveral
statementsintheVedicbooks(Sastry,1985).ThustheShatapathaBrhmana(2.1.2.3)hasastatementthat
pointstoanearlierepochwhereitisstatedthattheKrittik (Pleiades)neverswervefromtheeast.This
correspondsto2950BCE.TheMaitryanyaBrhmanaUpanishad(6.14)referstothewintersolsticebeing
atthemidpointoftheShravishth segmentandthesummersolsticeatthebeginningofMagh.This
indicates 1660 BCE. The Vednga Jyotisha mentions that winter solstice was at the beginning of
Shravishth andthesummersolsticeatthemidpointofAshlesh.Thiscorrespondstoabout1300BCE.
ThenakshatrasintheVedngaJyotishaaredefinedtobe27equalpartsoftheecliptic. Thenakshatra
listofthelateVedicperiodbeginwithKrittik (Pleiades)whereasthatoftheastronomytextsafter200
CEbeginwithAshvini( and Arietis),indicatingatransitionthrough2nakshatras,oratimespanof
about2,000years.
ThefoundationofVediccosmologyisthenotionsofbandhu(homologiesorbindingbetweentheouter
and the inner). In theAyurveda,medicalsystemassociatedwith theVedas, the360daysof theyear
weretakentobemappedtothe360bonesofthedevelopingfetus,whichlaterfuseintothe206bonesof
theperson.Itwasestimatedcorrectly thatthesunand themoonwereapproximately108timestheir
respectivediametersfromtheearth(perhapsfromthediscoverythattheangularsizeofapoleremoved
108timesitsheightisthesameasthatofthesunandthemoon),andthisnumberwasusedinsacred
architecture.Thedistancetothesanctumsanctorumofthetemplefromthegateandtheperimeterof
the templewere taken tobe54and 180units,whichareonehalf eachof 108 and 360 (Kak, 2005a).
Homologiesatmanylevelsareatthebasisoftheideaofrecursion,orrepetitioninscaleandtime.The
astronomicalbasisof theVedicritualwas thereconciliationof the lunarandsolaryears (Kak,2000a;Kak,2000b).
TextsoftheVedicandsucceedingperiodsprovideuscrucialunderstandingoftheastronomyandthe
archaeoastronomyofthehistoricalperiodthroughoutIndia.Themedievalperiodwascharacterizedby
pilgrimage centers that created sacred space mirroring conceptions of the cosmos. Sacred temple
architectureservedreligiousandpoliticalends.
The instruments thatwereused in Indianastronomy include thewater clock (ghatiyantra),gnomon
(shanku),crossstaff(yastiyantra),armillarysphere(golayantra),boardforsunsaltitude(phalakayantra),
sundial(kaplayantra),andastrolabe(Gangooly,1880).Inearly18thcentury,MaharajaSawaiJaiSinghII
ofJaipur (r.16991743)built fivemasonryobservatoriescalledJantarMantar inDelhi,Jaipur,Ujjain,
Mathura,andVaranasi.TheJantarMantarconsistsoftheRamYantra(acylindricalstructurewithan
opentopandapillarinitscentertomeasurethealtitudeofthesun),theRashivalayaYantra(agroupoftwelve instruments to determine celestial latitude and longitude), the Jai Prakash (a concave
hemisphere),theLaghuSamratYantra(smallsundial),theSamratYantra(ahugeequinoctialdial),the
Chakra Yantra (uprightmetal circles to find the right ascension and declination of a planet), the
Digamsha Yantra (a pillar surrounded by two circular walls), the Kapali Yantra (two sunken
hemispheres to determine the position of the sun relative to the planets and the zodiac), and the
NarivalayaYantra(acylindricaldial).
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2. PrehistoricalandHarappanPeriodThecityofMohenjoDaro(2500BCE),likemostotherHarappancities(withtheexceptionofDholavira
as far aswe know at this time)was divided into two parts: the acropolis and the lower city. The
MohenjoDaroacropolis,a culturalandadministrative centre,hadas its foundation a12meterhigh
platformof400m200m.Thelowercityhadstreetsorientedaccordingtothecardinaldirectionsandprovidedwithanetworkof covereddrains. Itshouseshadbathrooms.Thecityswellsweresowell
constructedwithtaperingbricksthattheyhavenotcollapsedin5000years.TheGreatBath(12m7
m)wasbuiltusingfinelyfittedbrickslaidonwithgypsumplasterandmadewatertightwithbitumen.
Ahighcorbelledoutletallowedittobeemptiedeasily.Massivewallsprotectedthecityagainstflood
water.
TheabsenceofmonumentalbuildingssuchaspalacesandtemplesmakestheHarappancitystrikingly
differentfromitscounterpartsofMesopotamiaandEgypt,suggestingthatthepolityoftheHarappan
statewasdecentralizedandbasedonabalancebetweenthepolitical,themercantile,andthereligious
elites.Thepresenceofcivicamenitiessuchaswellsanddrainsatteststoconsiderablesocialequality.
The power of themercantile guilds is clear in the standardization ofweights of carefully cut and
polishedchartcubesthatformacombinedbinaryanddecimalsystem.
MohenjoDaroandothersitesshowslightdivergenceof1to2clockwiseoftheaxesfromthecardinal
directions(Wanzke,1984).ItisthoughtthatthismighthavebeenduetotheorientationofAldebaran
(RohininSanskrit)andthePleiades(KrtikkinSanskrit)thatroseintheeastduring3000BCEto2000
BCEatthespringequinox;thewordrohinliterallymeansrising.Furthermore,theslightdifference
in the orientations amongst thebuildings inMohenjoDaro indicates different construction periods
usingthesametraditionalsightingpointsthathadshiftedinthisinterval(Kenoyer,1998).
MohenjoDaros astronomy usedboth themotions of themoon and the sun (Maula, 1984). This is
attestedbytheuseofgreatcalendarstones,intheshapeofring,whichservedtomarkthebeginning
andendofthesolaryear.
DholaviraDholavira is located on an island just north of the large island of Kutch in Gujarat. Its strategic
importance lay in its control of shippingbetweenGujarat and the delta of the Sindh and Sarasvati
rivers.
ThelayoutofDholaviraisuniqueinthatitcomprisesofthreetowns,whichisinaccordwithVedic
ideas(Bisht,1997;Bisht,1999a;Bisht,1999b).Thefeatureofrecursioninthethreetowns,orrepeating
ratiosatdifferentscales,issignificant.Specifically,thedesignischaracterizedbythenestingproportion
of9:4acrossthelowerandthemiddletownsandthecastle.Theproportionsof5/4,7/6,and5/4forthe
lower town, themiddle town, and the castlemay reflect themeasures related to the royal city, the
commandersquarter,andthekingsquarter,respectively,whichwasalsotrueofClassicalIndia(Bhat,
1995).
ADholavira length,D, hasbeendeterminedby finding the largestmeasurewhich leads to integer
dimensionsforthevariouspartsofthecity.ThismeasureturnsoutbethesameastheArthastra(300
BCE)measureofdhanus(arrow)thatequals108angulas(fingers).Thisscaleisconfirmedbyaterracotta
scale from Kalibangan and the ivory scale found in Lothal. The Kalibangan scale (Joshi, 2007;
BalasubramaniamandJoshi,2008)correspondstounitsof17.5cm,which issubstantiallythesameas
theLothalscaleandthesmalldiscrepancymaybeaconsequenceofshrinkageuponfiring.
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The analysis of theunitof length atDholavira is in accordwith theunit from thehistoricalperiod
(Danino,2005;Danino,2008).TheunitthatbestfitstheDholaviradimensionsis190.4cm,whichwhen
dividedby108gives theDholaviraangulaof1.763cm.Thesubunitofangula isconfirmedwhenone
considersthatthebricksinHarappafollowratiosof1:2:4withthedominatingsizebeing71428
cm(Kenoyer,1998).Thesedimensionscanbeelegantlyexpressedas4816angulas,withtheunitof
angulatakenas1.763cm.ItissignificantthattheivoryscaleatLothalhas27graduationsin46mm,or
eachgraduationis1.76mm.
Figure1.MapofDholavira(Bisht,1997)
WiththenewDhloaviraunitofD,thedimensionsofMohenjoDarosacropolisturnouttobe210105
D;Kalibangansacropolisturnouttobe12663D.ThedimensionsofthelowertownofDholaviraare
405324D;thewidthofthemiddletownis180D;andtheinnerdimensionsofthecastleare6048
D.Thesumofthewidthandlengthofthelowertowncomesto729whichisastronomicallysignificant
sinceitis2727,andthewidth324equalsthenakshatrayear2712.
ContinuityhasbeenfoundbetweenthegridandmodularmeasuresinthetownplanningofHarappa
andhistorical India, including thatofKathmanduValley (PantandFuno,2005).Themeasureof19.2
metersistheunit inquarterblocksofKathmandu;thisisnearlythesameastheunitcharacteristicof
thedimensionsofDholavira.Itshowsthatthetraditionalarchitectsandtownplannershavecontinued
theuseofthesameunitsoverthislongtimespan.
Figure2.AstronomicalsealfromRehmanDheri
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RehmanDheriA3rdmillenniumsealfromRehmanDheri,showingapairofscorpionsononesideandtwoantelopes
ontheother,thatsuggestsknowledgeofVedicthemes.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthissealrepresents
theoppositionof theOrion (Mrigashiras,orantelopehead)and theScorpio (Rohiniof the southern
hemispherewhichis14nakshatrasfromtheRohiniofthenorthernhemisphere)nakshatras.Thearrow
neartheheadofoneoftheantelopescouldrepresentthedecapitationofOrion.Itisgenerallyacceptedthat themythofPrajapatibeingkilledbyRudra represents the shiftingof thebeginningof theyear
awayfromOrionanditplacestheastronomicaleventinthefourthmillenniumBCE(Kak,2000a).
3. NeolithicandMegalithicSitesInterestingsitesofarchaeoastronomicalinterestincludetheNeolithicsiteofBurzahomfromKashmirin
NorthIndia,andmegalithicsitesfromBrahmagiriandHanamsagarfromKarnatakainSouthIndia.
Burzahom,KashmirThisNeolithicsite is locatedabout10kmnortheastofSrinagar in theKashmirValleyonaterraceof
Late PleistoceneHolocene deposits. Dated to around 3000 1500 BCE, its deep pit dwellings are
associatedwithgroundstoneaxes,bonetools,andgrayburnishedpottery.Astoneslabof48cm27
cm,obtainedfromaphasedatedto2125BCEshowstwobrightobjectsintheskywithahuntingscene
intheforeground.Thesehavebeenassumedtobeadepictionofadoublestarsystem(KameshwarRao,
2005).
Figure3.Burzahomskyscene
Brahmagiri,KarnatakaThemegalithicstonecirclesofBrahmagiri (latitude14o73, longitude76o77),Chitradurgadistrictof
Karnataka in South India, that have been dated to 900 BCE, show astronomical orientations.
KameswaraRao (1993) has argued that site lines from the centre of a circle to an outer tangent of
anothercirclepointtothedirectionsofthesunriseandfullmoonriseatthetimeofthesolarandlunar
solsticesandequinox.
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Figure4.MegalithicstonecirclesofBrahmagiri
Hanamsagar,Karnataka.Hanamsagarisamegalithicsitewithstonealignmentspointingtocardinaldirections.Itislocatedonaflatareabetweenhillsabout6kmnorthoftheKrishnariveratlatitude16o1918andlongitude76o27
10. Thestones,whicharesmoothgranite,arearranged inasquareof side that isabout600meters
with50rowsand50column(foratotalof2,500stones),withaseparationbetweenstonesofabout12
m.Thestonesarebetween1 to2.5m inheightwithamaximumdiameterof2 to3m.The linesare
orientedincardinaldirections.Thereisasquarishcentralstructureknownaschakrikatti.
Ithasbeenarguedthatthedirectionsofsummerandwintersolsticecanbefixedinrelationtotheouter
and the innersquares.KameswaraRao(2005)suggeststhat itcouldhavebeenused forseveralother
kindofastronomicalobservationssuchasuseofshadowstotellthetimeoftheday,thepredictionof
months,seasonsandpassageoftheyear.
Figure5.AlignmentsatHanamsagar
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4. ThePlanoftheTempleThe sacred ground for Vedic ritual is the precursor to the temple. The Vedic observances were
connectedwiththecircuitsofthesunandthemoon(Kak,1993;Kak,1995;Kak,1996).Thealtarritual
wasassociatedwiththeeastwestaxisandwecantraceitsoriginstopriestswhomaintaineddifferent
day countswith respect to the solstices and the equinoxes. Specificdaysweremarkedwith ritual
observancesthatweredoneatdifferenttimesoftheday.
Figure6.ThethreealtarsoftheVedichouse:circular
(earth,body),halfmoon(atmosphere,prna),square(sky,consciousness)
In the ritual at home, the householder employed three altars that are circular (earth), halfmoon
(atmosphere),andsquare (sky),whichare like thehead, theheart,and thebodyof theCosmicMan
(Purusha). In theAgnichayana, the great ritual of theVedic times that forms amajorportion of the
narrativeoftheYajurveda,theatmosphereandtheskyaltarsarebuiltafreshinagreatceremonytothe
east.ThisritualisbasedupontheVedicdivisionoftheuniverseintothreepartsofearth,atmosphere,
andskythatareassignednumbers21,78,and261,respectively.Thenumericalmappingismaintained
byplacementof21pebblesaround theearthaltar, setsof 13pebblesaroundeachof6 intermediate
(136=78)altars,and261pebblesaroundthegreatnewskyaltarcalledtheUttaravedi,whichisbuilt
intheshapeofafalcon;thesenumbersaddupto360,whichissymbolicrepresentationoftheyear.The
proportionsrelatedtothesethreenumbers,andothersrelatedtothemotionsoftheplanets,andanglesrelatedtothesightingsofspecificstarsarereflectedintheplansofthetemplesofthehistoricalperiod
(Kak,2002b;Kak,2006a;Kak,2009;Kaulcara,1966).
Figure7.ThefalconaltaroftheAgnichayanaaltar
TheAgnichayanaaltaristheprototypeofthetempleandofthetraditionofarchitecture(Vstu). The
altarisfirstbuiltof1,000bricksinfivelayers(thatsymbolicallyrepresentthefivedivisionsoftheyear,
the five physical elements, aswell as five senses) to specific designs. The altar is constructed in a
sequenceof95years,whosedetailsarematched to thereconciliationof the lunarandsolaryearsby
meansofintercalarymonths.
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IntheritualgroundrelatedtotheAgnichayanaceremony,theUttaravediis54unitsfromtheentrance
in the west and the perimeter of the ritual ground is 180 units (Kak, 2005a). These proportions
characterizemanylatertemples.
TheTempleComplexatKhajurahoThetownofKhajurahoextendsbetween795430to795630Eastand245020to245140North, inChhatarpurdistrict, inMadhyaPradesh.The templesofKhajurahowerebuilt in9th 12th
centuryCEbytheChandelakings.Originallytherewere84temples,ofwhich23havesurvived.Ofthe
survivingtemples,6areassociatedwithShiva,8withVishnu,and5withthegoddess(Singh,2009b).
1
2
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5
6
7
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Apabh
Krttika
Rohini
Mrga
Ardra
Punarvasu
Pusya
Asresa
Magha
P. Phal
U. Phal
Hasta
Citra
Svati
Visakha
Anuradha
Rohini
Mula
P. Asadh
U. Asadh
Srona
Sravishtha
Satabhisaj
Prosthap.
U. Prosth.
Revati
Asvini
Vaisakha
Jyaistha
Asadha
Sravana
Bhadrapada
Asvayuja Kartika
Margasirsa
Pausa
Magha
Phalguna
Caitra
Figure8.Mappingofthenakshatrastothesolarmonths
AttheeasternedgeofthetemplecomplexaretheDantlahills,withapeakof390matwhichislocated
a shrine toShiva,which isa referencepoint for the templeentrances.All the temples excepting the
Chaturbhujafacetheeast.ThesoutheasternedgehastheLavanyahillthatisseparatedfromtheDantla
hillsbytheeastwardflowingriverKhudar.AtthefoothillsoftheLavanyahillataheightof244misthe
shrineofgoddessDurgaasMahishasurmardini.
TheshrinestoShivaandDurgaontheDantlaandLavanyahillsspanthepolaritiesofspirit(Purusha)
andmatter (Prakriti),whicharebridgedbytheriverbetween thehills.The templesofKhajurahoare
popular pilgrimage centers during two spring festivals: Shivaratri that falls on the newmoon of
Phalguna(February/March),andHoli,whichfallsonthefullmoonofChaitra(March/April).
TheLakshmanatemple,oneoftheoldestofthecomplex,isconsideredtheaxismundiofthesite.Itwas
builtbythekingYashovarman(925950)assymboloftheChandelavictoryoverthePratiharasanda
recordofsupremacyoftheirpower.ThistempleisorientedtothesunriseonHoli.
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Thegroupsoftemplesformthreeoverlappingmandalas,withcentersattheLakshmana(Vishnu),the
Javeri(Shiva),andtheDuladeva(Shiva)temples.Theirdeviationfromtruecardinalityisbelievedtobe
duetothedirectionofsunriseonthedayofconsecration(Singh,2009).
Thetemple,asarepresentationofthecosmosanditsorder,balancestheasuras(demons)andthedevas
(gods),aswellas inheres in itselfotherpolaritiesof existence. In theLakshmanaTemple,Vishnu is
depicted ina composite formwith theusual calm facebracketedby the facesof lion andboar.Theconceptionofthesanctumisasamandala(Desai,2004).
Theplanetarydeities,thegrahas,encirclethetempleinthefollowingarrangement:
Surya(Sun)
Soma(Moon) Mangala(Mars)
Brhaspati(Jupiter) Budha(Mercury)
Shani(Saturn) Shukra(Venus)
Ganesha Durga
Ganesha and Durga are the deities of the ascending and the descending nodes of the moon,
respectively.ThetempleisenvisionedlikeMountMeru,theaxisoftheuniverse,andtheplanetsmove
aroundit.
5. TheUdayagiriObservatoryUdayagiri(hillof[sun]rise]isoneoftheprincipalancientastronomicalobservatoriesofIndia.Itis
located at 23o31N latitude on the Tropic ofCancer inMadhyaPradesh, about 50 kilometers from
Bhopal,nearVidisha,BesnagarandSanchi.Anancientsitethatgoesbacktoatleastthesecondcentury
BCE, it was substantially enlarged during the reign of the Gupta Emperor Chandragupta II
Vikramaditya (r. 375414).This site is associatedwith 20 cave temples thathavebeen cut into rock;
nineteenofthesetemplesarefromtheperiodofChandraguptasreign(DassandWillis,2002).
Figure9.Udayagirilayout(Balasubramaniam,2008)
It appears that the ancient name ofUdayagiriwasVishnupadagiri, or the hill of the footprint ofVishnu,andthenameUdayagiriisaftertheParamararulerUdayaditya(c.107093).Thehillisshaped
likeafoot.Asaddleconnectsthenorthernandsouthernhills,andapassagewayislocatedattheplace
wherethenorthernhillmeetsthesaddle.TheGuptaperiodadditionsandembellishmentsatUdayagiri
wereconcentratedaroundthispassage.Mostofthecavetemplesarelocatedaroundthepassageway.
Onthesummersolsticeday,therewasanalignmentofthesunsmovementwiththepassageway.The
daymentioned in the dated Chandragupta II Vikramaditya period inscription in cave 6 hasbeen
calculatedtobeveryclosetothesummersolsticeoftheyear402CE.Onthisday,theshadowofthe
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IronPillarofDelhi,whichwasoriginallylocatedattheentranceofthepassageway,fellinthedirection
oftherecliningVishnupanel(Balasubramaniam,2008).
On thenorthernhilltop, thereexistsa flatplatformcommandingamajesticviewof the sky.Several
astronomicalmarkshavebeenidentifiedatthisplatform,indicatingthatthiswasthesiteoftheancient
astronomicalobservatory.
6. MedievalPilgrimageComplexesMedievalpilgrimagecentersfulfilledmanyfunctions includingthatoftradeandbusiness.Theywere
important to thejyotishi (astrologer)whowouldmakeand read thepilgrimshoroscope. Thebetter
astrologerswerealso interested inastronomyand thisknowledgewasessential for thealignmentof
templesandpalaces.
Every regionof Indiahas importantpilgrimagecenters,someofwhichare regionalandotherspan
Indic. The most famous of the panIndic centers are associated with Shiva (Varanasi), Krishna
(Mathura,Dwarka),Rama (Ayodhya),Vishnu (Tirupati), and the 12yearly rotation of theKumbha
Mela at Prayag, Haridwar, Ujjain, and Nashik. For pilgrimage centers such as Chitrakut, Gaya,
Madurai,Varanasi,Vindhyachal, andKhajuraho, the question of alignments of temples to cardinal
directionsortodirectionofthesunonmajorfestivalshasbeenstudiedbyscholars(Singh,2009b).Here
wewillconsiderthesuntemplesofVaranasi(Malville,1985;Singh,2009aand2009b).
Figure10.Khajuraho:LandscapeGeometryandTopography(Singh,2009b).
TheSunTemplesofVaranasiVaranasiisanancientcitydatingfromthebeginningofthefirstmillenniumBCE,whoseVedicnameis
Kashi (Sanskritforradiance),aname thatcontinues tobeusedtogetherwithBanaras.Of itsmany
temples, themost important is KashiVishvanath Temple, or Golden Temple, dedicated to Lord
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Shiva, the presiding deity of the city. Because of repeated destructionby the sultans and laterby
Aurangzeb, thecurrentVishvanath isarelativelymodernbuilding. Itwasbuilt in1777byMaharani
AhilyabaiofIndore,anditsshikhara(spire)andceilingswereplatedwithofgoldin1839,whichwasa
giftfromMaharajaRanjitSingh(Singh,2009aand2009b).
Figure11.SunShrines:CosmicOrderandCyclicorientationofTime(Singh,2009a).
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Archaeoastronomy in India Subhash Kak 13
Shiva representsboth the axisof theuniverse aswell as thatofones innerbeing.Oneof thegreat
festivalscelebratedinVaranasiisShivaratriwhichiscelebratedonthe13thdayofthedarkfortnightof
thePhalgunamonth(FebruaryMarch).Onthatdayyoucanseethesunriseintheeastwiththenew
moonjustabove it,whichisrepresentediconographicallybyShiva(asthesun)wearingthemoonon
hishead.
There are several pilgrimage circuits in Varanasi for circumambulating the city. The Panchakroshi
circuithas108shrinesonit,andthefourinnercircuitshaveatotalof324shrines.Itisalsoknownfor
the circuitof theAditya shrines.TheAdityasare the7or8 celestialgods,although theirnumber is
counted to 12 in laterbooks. In Puranic India, they are taken tobe the deities of the twelve solar
months. TheAditya templeswerealsorazedduring thecenturiesofMuslimrule,buthavebeenre
establishedatthesamesitesandarenowpartoftheactiveritualscapes(Singh,2009a).
Several Aditya shrines have been located with the aid of descriptions in the Kashi Khanda and
pilgrimageguides(SinghandMalville,1995;Singh,2009aand2009b).Sixoftheseliealongonesidesof
an isosceles triangle with a base of 2.5km. The triangle surrounds the former temple of
Madhyameshavara,whichwas the original center ofKashi.Pilgrimswalking along the triangle are
symbolicallycircumambulatingthecosmos.
7. SacredCitiesThere arenumerous sacred cities in the Indian subcontinent thatwereeitherbuilt to an archetypal
masterplanorgreworganicallybyvirtueofbeingconnectedtoaspecificcelestialdeity. Someofthe
importantsacredcitiesare:
1. Varanasi2. Vijayanagara3. Ayodhya4. Mathura5. Bhaktapur6. Tirupati7. Kanchipuram8. Dwarka9. Ujjain
Robert Levy viewed the Indian sacred city as a structured mesocosm, situated between the
microcosm of the individual and themacrocosm of the culturally conceived larger universe (Levy,
1991).Suchacity isconstructedofspatialconnectedmandalas,eachofwhich issustainedby itsown
cultureandperformance.Themovementsof the festivalyearand ritesofpassageconstituteacivic
dance,whichdefinestheexperienceofitscitizens.
The lifecyclepassages and festivalsdedicated to thegods affirm thehouseholdersmoral compass,
identitiesandrelationships.Buttherealsoexistotherdeities,representedgenerallybygoddesses,who
point to the forcesofnatureoutsideofmoralorder.Thesearebrought into the largerorder through
tantric invocations and amoral propitiatory offerings. Performances invoking the goddess are the
responsibilityofthekingandthemerchants.
SacralityandRoyalPoweratVijayanagaraThecityofVijayanagara(alsoknownasHampi)wasfoundedinthe14thcenturyandsackedin1565.
ThebestknownkingsassociatedwithVijayanagaraareHariharaIandIIandBukkaRayaI(ca.1336
1404), and Krishnadevaraya and his halfbrother Achyutadevaraya (150942). From the mid14th
century to 1565, the city was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire. According to the Persian
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Archaeoastronomy in India Subhash Kak 14
ambassadorAbdurRazaaq(1442CE):TheCityofVijayanagara issuchthatthepupiloftheeyehas
neverseensuchaplace like it,and theearof intelligencehasneverbeen informedthatthereexisted
anythingtoequalitintheworld.
Figure12.VijayanagaraCity
Hampihad for centuriesbeen an importantpilgrimage citydue to itsmythic associationwith river
GoddessPamp andherconsortVirupaksha,orPamppati.An inscriptiondated1163CE recordsa
mahdna, a religious offering in the presence ofLordVirupaksha ofHampiby theKalachuriKing
Bijjala.TheregionwaspartofthekingdomofKampiladevauntil1326whenthearmiesofMohammed
BinTughlaqdefeated theking and imprisoned the two sons ofSangama,Hukka andBukka. Some
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Archaeoastronomy in India Subhash Kak 15
yearslatertheSultansentthetwoasgovernorsoftheprovince.In1336theybrokefreefromTughlaq
allegianceandestablishedtheSangamadynastywithitscapitalatVijayanagara.
ThedestructionofVijayanagara in1565wascapturedvividly in theaccountofRobertSewell (1900):
Theyslaughteredthepeoplewithoutmercy;brokedownthetemplesandpalaces;andwreakedsuch
savagevengeanceontheabodeofthekingsthat,withtheexceptionofafewgreatstonebuilttemples
andwalls,nothingnowremainsbutaheapofruinstomarkthespotwhereoncethestatelybuildingsstood They lit huge fires in the magnificently decorated buildings forming the temple of
Vitthalaswami near the river, and smashed its exquisite stone sculptures. With fire and sword,
crowbarsandaxestheycarriedondayafterdaytheirworkofdestruction.Neverperhapsinthehistory
oftheworldhassuchhavocbeenwroughtsosuddenlyonsosplendidacity;teemingwithawealthy
andindustriouspopulationinthefullplenitudeofprosperityonedayandonthenextseized,pillaged
andreducedtoruinsamidscenesofsavagemassacreandhorrorsbeggaringdescription.
HampihasastrongassociationwiththeRamayanaandthenamesofmanysitesintheareabearnames
mentionedintheepic.TheseincludeRishimukha,MalyavantahillandMatangahillalongwithacave
where Sugriva is said to have kept thejewels of Sita. The site ofAnegundi is associatedwith the
kingdomofAngad, sonofVali.TheAnjaneyaParvata,ahill to thewestofAnegundi, is the fabled
birthplaceofHanuman.
HampiisalsolinkedwiththerivergoddessPamp andthelegendofhermarriagetoLordVirupaksha
orShiva.Eachyear,inthemonthofChaitra(MarchApril),thismarriageisreenacted,withthepriests
ofVirupaksha temple devoutly performing every ritual from Phalapj (betrothal) toKalynotsava
(marriage)inthetemple.
TheSacredCenterof thecity liessouthof theTungabhadraRiver,and it isdominatedby four large
complexes of the Virupaksha, Krishna, Tiruvengalanatha (Achyutaraya) and Vitthala temples. The
major templesareeitherclose tocardinality,departingbyanaverageof10,orareorientedtomajor
featuresofthesacredlandscape.
Further southof theSacredCenter is theRoyalCenter,which isdivided into thepublicandprivate
realms.Thedivisionisachievedbyanorthsouthaxis,whichpassesalmostpreciselybetweenthekings
100columnaudiencehallintheeastandthequeenslargepalaceinthewest.TheRamachandratemple
piercestheaxisbyconnectingtheprivateandthepublicdomains.Inthehomologyofthekingandthe
deity,thekingisabletoinhereinhimtheroyaltyanddivinityofRama.
TheVirabhadratempleisonthesummitofMatangahill,whichisthecenterofthevstumandalaand
thesymbolicsourceofprotectionthatextendedoutwardfromitalongradiallines. Asviewedfroma
pointmidwaybetweentheaudiencehallandthequeenspalace,theshikharaoftheVirabhadraliesonly
4minutesofarc (4) from truenorth.The ceremonialgateway in the corridorwestofRamachandra
templejoinedwith the summit ofMatangahilldeparts from truenorthby 0.6minutesof arc (0.6)
(Malville,2000).
Theorientationsof themajoraxesof thesmall temples,shrines,andpalacesof theurbancoreare inmarked contrast to those. The smaller structures are rotated away from cardinality for the four
directionsby17o,suggestingthattheywereinfluencedbythepositionoftherisingsunonthemorning
whenitcrossesthezenith.
ThebazaarstreetsoftheVirupaksha,VitthalaandKrishnatemplesaresetbetween13and15degrees
southofeast.Malville(2000)speculatesthattheremaybesomelinkbetweentheseorientationsandthe
risingpointofthestarSirius.
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Archaeoastronomy in India Subhash Kak 16
8. ConclusionsInterestinarchaeoastronomyandart,asconnectedtotemplesandancientmonuments,hasincreasedin
Indiaasthecountrysprosperityhasincreased.Thisincreaseisalsoowingtothemajorarchaeological
discoveriesthathavebeenmadeinthepastfewdecadesandtheimportanceoftempletourism.
TheprincipalauthorityoversignificantsitesistheIndianArchaeologicalSurveyofIndia(ASI)andits
sisterinstitutionsthatfunctionatthestatelevelasDepartmentsofArchaeologyandMuseums.In1976,
theIndianGovernmentinitiatedprojectstoexcavatethreegreatmedievalcities:FatehpurSikriinUttar
Pradesh,Champaner inGujarat,andVijayanagara inKarnataka,whichareUNESCOWorldHeritage
sites. Thewealth of discoveriesmade in these cities is strengthening themovement to expose and
preserveothersites in the country.Theeffortsatexcavation, conservation,and research canonlybe
expectedtoincrease.Inparticular,greaterattentionwillbegiventothearchaeoastronomicalaspectsof
themonuments.
Acknowledgements.IamthankfultoR.Balasubramaniam,MichelDanino,McKimMalville,andRana
Singhfortheiradvice.TheessayisdedicatedtothememoryofR.Balasubramaniamwhopassedaway
inDecember2009.
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