COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA

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Environment, climate & sea-level changes

Routes of colonisation

Potential methods of travel

Archaeological / chronological patterns of colonisation

Early human behaviour 3

Period of colonisation - time of rapid environmental change

Globally cooling and marked environmental instability

People had to cope with:

Variability in resource density / distribution

At times new opportunities enabling colonisation, others resource base drastically declined

Level of climatic / environmental instability would have had a direct impact

4

Composition of worlds oceans indicative of climate change

Oxygen isotopes reflects warm vs. cold conditions (e.g. ice sheet melting

Last glacial cycle = 120,000 years

5

Last interglacial climate similar to today

Recent millennia warm conditions

Sea-levels varied throughout Pleistocene & Holocene

Changes relate to expansion / contraction of northern continental ice sheets

70 kyr - ocean dropped to ~80m below current levels

Exposed land in the Arafura Sea, joining Australia & New Guinea

6

Temps 6-100 lower, much of earths water trapped in polar ice sheets

Pleistocene Sahul added 2.5 million sq km

Land bridges connected New Guinea, Australia & Tasmania

Covered 11 million sq km = sub-Saharan Africa

Exposed land tropical savannah & woodland

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Puritjarra 35(40)ka

Huon Terraces 52ka

Kosipe 37(41)ka

Genetic & archaeological evidence spread of Homo sapiens ~50 100,000 BP into India & Asia

Extension of global dispersal language users with good problem solving skills (e.g. large water crossings)

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>46,000 BP

Hunting large river fish, arboreal primates, pig, large monitors

Exploiting poisonous tubers & nuts

Sago use

Bamboo & rattan processing

Likely early forest burning after 50kya

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38-42,000 BP

Tuna in deposits >42kya deep sea fishing

Radial core technology (not pebble tools)

Shell beads & shell fishhooks in Pleistocene levels

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52-61,000 BP

Flight of raised coral terraces, tectonic uplift

Each terrace fronted lagoons & reef

Flaked, ground & waisted stone axes - found throughout northern Australia & Melanesia (>~40kyr)

Is 45,000 BP the minimum or maximum age?

Early colonisation (long chronology) model

Colonisation between 50 & 60,000 BP e.g. Jones; Thorne

Based on Luminescence dating by association

13

Late colonisation (short chronology) model

Colonisation ~45,000 BP e.g. Allen & OConnell

Based on radiocarbon estimates & interpretation of significant disturbance

Key sites estimates close to or more than 40,000 BP - distributed across the continent

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Malakunanja - one of the few deep & continuous stratigraphic sequences?

Allen & OConnell question this for a number of reasons:

They extend the known time span by 10 15,000 years

Absence of complimentary evidence

Strength of association with cultural material suspect (disturbance etc)

Inconsistencies between C14, AMS & TL ages

16

More important issues:

Absence of comparative control on TL dates older than 24,000 BP

A possible hiatus in accumulation between 190 230 cm

Sharp variations in accumulation rates

These relate to how the archaeological & radiometric data was interpreted

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45 (38-52) kyr

52 (46-60) kyr 61 (51-71) kyr

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OSL dating of sediments returned ages of 45 50,000 BP at level of lowest artefact

Allen & OConnell argued for the effects of post-depositional movement & animal disturbance

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Animal burrows -only upper units

Shawcross mapped vertical distances between conjoined artefacts

Reflects position of original land surface - no vertical displacement

Age estimates of 45 50 kyr appear quite robust

20

2 major routes with several terminating options

Reduced ocean distances comparatively larger / closer target

21 Sahul

Sunda

Wallacean Archipelago

But Sahul separated from southeast Asia by major biogeographic barrier the Wallacean Archipelago

Northern route: Sunda shelf Sulawesi Birds Head / Aru Islands

All terminating options involve water crossings of 65km or more

22

South: southern China Timor Sahul shelf / Aru Islands

Seen as more attractive option initially shorter distances

But, more than 65km in terminal stages

23

Wallacea not investigated in enough detail

People came across from the northwest the exact route remains open to conjecture more evidence needed

Either route requires island hopping with open water travel:

8 17 separate substantial crossings

Both with 1 leg >65km

At least 3 legs >30km

24

Routes originally proposed by Joseph Birdsell (1977)

Trace the shortest possible water crossings available

Target height visibility of islands measured by elevation

Target width measured as island width 25

Colonisation required watercraft & the technology to build them

Some looked to historical records as a technological analogy

Bark canoes

Dugout & outrigger canoes

Others suggest more sophisticated vessels were used

26

Archaeological evidence for early watercraft is scarce

But the idea of technologically & culturally unsophisticated people is difficult to sustain

Consider the extent & success of migrations by capable & highly adaptable people across large areas to this point

27

Maritime capabilities may not have needed to take the shortest, easiest route

Distribution of resources (acknowledged by Birdsell)

Complications / competition for resources by other hominid species

28

How did people disperse across the continent after arriving in Australia?

This is something that could have been achieved in a number of ways:

Radiating or saturated settlement model

Coastal colonisation model

The well watered regions first model

29

The Saturated Settlement Model

Birdsell (1957) - uniform & rapid distribution, 1,300 - 2,200 years to settle entire continent

Idea that people were adapted to maritime lifestyle e.g. coastal zone of island southeast Asia

Population increase forced rapid changes in culture & technology = people exploiting inland resources

30

>40,000

40,000- present

Coastal colonisation or marginal settlement model

Bowdler (1970s) - argued people stayed with familiar settlement & subsistence patterns

As people moved through southeast Asia along coast & across islands economic continuation

Only occupied the interior when sea-level rise forced them off the coastal plains ~12,000 BP

31

>40,000

40,000-12,000

12,000-present

Well watered regions first

Horton (1981) - people moved along well-watered areas first + large stretches of coast avoiding major barrier deserts

Still suggests that people largely avoided large areas of the inland until much later

32

Secondary route of desert migration

Primary route of coastal colonisation

Many Pleistocene sites found during the 1960s - 1970s were close to the present coastline

Several sites found in inland areas that could not have been occupied by coastally-focused people

33

Evidence now suggests relatively rapid settlement

Counters marginal settlement models, small founding population, & the idea of simple culture / technology

Suggestion that the archaeological evidence provides a minimum age for arrival of humans

The oldest irrefutable evidence represents a time after colonisation

If people occupied these sites 45 50,000 years ago this is the latest colonisation could have occurred and is the minimum age

34

Colonisation is considered by some to be older than 45,000 5,000 years

This is an age generally accepted by most, even the conservative, for sites like Malakunanja & Lake Mungo

It is possible people landed on the continental shelf 45-50kyr; more likely between 50-60kyr??

The evidence we have might represent expansion from areas of initial colonisation away from coasts into higher areas

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36

Quite a lot of debate surrounding timing of initial colonisation

Less so when dealing with what people did once in Australia

Difficulty of building broad interpretations:

Chronological issues are central to the investigation of Pleistocene occupation;

Little material / sparse evidence available from the earliest periods of occupation;

37

Arid zone research by Smith (Central Australia), Hiscock (northwest Queensland) & Veth (Western Desert)

Distinct changes in landscape use with environment & climate change

No single or general pattern of occupation in these areas

38

A number of sites in the arid zone not occupied during the LGM

Localised abandonment in:

Lake Eyre Basin & Strzelecki Desert

Nullarbor Plain (near Allens Cave)

Central Australian Ranges

Sandy Desert

Size of abandoned area not clear some regions completely abandoned others partially

May have been gradual succession of retreat 39

Peter Veths Islands in the Interior model

Based on ecological principles, biogeographic models & archaeological evidence

Model is compatible on a broad scale with the available evidence

At a finer scale, there is greater variability

40

Barrier: major sand-ridge deserts

Refuge: uplands & riverine / gorge systems coordinated drainage

Corridor: all other areas (e.g. gibber plains

41

Puritjarra rockshelter, Central Australia - example of LGM territorial re-organisation

Smith argues for resident regional population on archaeological & palaeoenvironmental grounds

Interpretation of periodic & regular use, although at lower population densities

42

43

Interpretations based on:

Chronological patterns

Changes in artefact discard rates

Structure of the stone artefacts assemblage

Long-term ecology & biogeography

Contraction of territory during LGM - focus on the predictable resources closer to the shelter

44

Within this general pattern, several phases of economic re-organisation

Stone & ochre from different sources were variably exploited at different times

Karrku ochre (150km NW) used from 30,000 BP

Ulpanyali ochre (65km S) dominates during LGM

Reduced risk - local & readily available resources 45

The Puritjarra interpretations contrast well with the evidence from Kulpi Mara (~120km SE)

Thorley interprets chronology & sequence of artefact discard = sporadic use of the Palmer River catchment responding to short-term environmental variability

46

Most artefacts accumulated between first occupation (~35,000 BP) & 24,000 BP

24,000 - 12,000 BP - low rates of sedimentation / artefact discard - increasing aridity

Absence of occupation during the LGM

Several phases of local abandonment

Possibly correlated with deteriorating climatic conditions

47

Differences might relate to availability of water

Kulpi Mara - water - constrained seasonally / chronologically

Short-term movement in & out of the area with localised environmental changes

Puritjarra located close to semi-permanent & ephemeral waters

Resident population - LGM possible - very low intensity

48

Number of sites in upland valleys that date close to 40,000 BP

Archaeological record indicates people entered Tasmania 37-39,000 years ago

Behaviour changed in response to environmental/social conditions

49

Evidence comes from 40 rockshelters & open sites with exceptional preservation

50

Warreen Cave: 34,780 18,290 BP

ORS 7: 30,840 2,500 BP

Nunamira Cave: 30,420 11,630 BP

Acheron Cave: 29,800 13,410 BP

Bone Cave: 29,000 13,700 BP

Kutikina Cave: 19,770 14,840 BP

Patterns of faunal exploitation also tells us about use of the area, especially during the LGM

Studies have focussed on species distribution, body part representation & seasonality subsistence strategies

51

Dominant prey species was Bennetts wallaby around 70% of fauna recovered from excavated sites

Marrow substitute for carbohydrates high densities of long bones

52

Pleistocene vegetation limited & fertile grassland patches surrounded by low shrub & heath

Attractive to Bennetts wallaby unlike larger macropods this species congregates in large numbers

Sedentary animals with a small range (15-20 hectares) moving less than 30m every 2-3 years 53

Cosgrove - Deliberately scheduled, short-term & regular use during LGM

Size/age structure, growth rates & breeding seasons of Bennetts wallaby populations (teeth) Autumn & late winter / early spring exploitation

This was the coldest period of each year!! 54

55

Pleistocene economies changed through time & space

Climatic oscillation cycle of change every 3,000 years

Southeast Tasmania drier conditions meant less predictable resources encounter based hunting

Central & southwest Tasmania as conditions changed, economic strategy = southeast, or region abandoned

56

Antiquity & diversity of ideology & social meaning in Pleistocene Australia

Grave goods e.g. shells in some Kow Swamp burials

Differences in the treatment of individual bodies, such cremation or interment

57

The burial of the WLH3 individual from Lake Mungo is significant as one of the earliest burials known Australia

~42,000 BP (60kyr also proposed)

Example of the early social use of red ochre associated with rituals, as well as burial rituals

Dark red staining noted in a wide distribution around the skeleton

Red staining interpreted as scattering red ochre over the body in the prepared grave

58

WLH1 - individual cremated as a complete & fully fleshed corpse - dates to ~42,000 BP

After burning remains were broken - especially the skull

Ash & broken bones were gathered & placed in a small hole beneath, or immediately beside the funeral pyre

59

The interesting thing is the antiquity of compound burial practices

More simple burials are known across the world

Compound processes of disposal of the dead are less well documented until the more recent past

The Mungo cremation is still the oldest known cremation in the world

60

Further evidence for social meaning from several Pleistocene sites

Ornaments of shell & stone recovered from deposits in Western Australia

Mandu Mandu Creek

Devils Lair

Riwi 61

Mandu Mandu Creek - ochre fragments estimated to be more than 37,000 years old

22 perforated & shaped cone shells - strung on thread

Abrasion on inside surface of perforations possibly from thread - shells selected for similar size and shapes

Later Pleistocene layers - Pearl shell, tusk shell & ochre - all materials associated with decorative items

62

Devils Lair - three beads on polished macropod fibulae - dates between 12,000 and 19,000 BP

Associated with stone artefacts & mammal remains

A perforated piece of stone also interpreted as a Pleistocene ornament - possible pendant on fibre string

63

Riwi - ten beads of tusk shell in layer about 34,000 BP

Shell possibly strung by fibre - part of which preserved on the end of one of the beads - beads with ochre residue

Riwi beads made from exotic material - transported ~ 300 km

Consistent with either individuals travelling across large territories or obtaining shells through exchange networks

64

Body ornaments form non-verbal communication that might indicate social value or difference

May have conveyed social information, such as signifying status or membership, gender or marital status or wealth

Context where population size and/or social interaction made visual communication of identity & relationships useful

Movement of rare materials over large distances indicates early operation of widespread social networks involving exchange

65

We see a high degree of variability & levels of complexity through a number of different lines of evidence across Pleistocene Australasia

We have evidence for rapid dispersal across virtually all environmental zones on the continent following initial occupation

People modified elements of their settlement and subsistence strategies to suit the environments they were living in

66

The evidence we have for social, ideological and ritual meaning is relatively ephemeral & difficult to interpret

But we have enough evidence to suggest that the belief systems of the Pleistocene were also dynamic

The available evidence suggests that Pleistocene occupation in Australia cant be defined as simple or conservative!

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Slide Number 1ARCA1000 Early HumansKey IssuesEnvironmental ContextClimate & Sea LevelsSlide Number 6Slide Number 7Timing of ColonisationSlide Number 9Niah CaveJerimalaiHuon PeninsulaLong vs. Short ChronologySlide Number 14Malakunanja IISlide Number 16Slide Number 17Lake MungoSlide Number 19Slide Number 20Colonisation RoutesSlide Number 22Slide Number 23Slide Number 24Slide Number 25Watercraft?Slide Number 27What we dont know Australian Settlement ModelsSlide Number 30Slide Number 31Slide Number 32Slide Number 33ImplicationsImplicationsSlide Number 36Early Occupation in AustraliaSettlement of Inland AustraliaSlide Number 39Slide Number 40Slide Number 41Puritjarra & Kulpi MaraSlide Number 43Slide Number 44Slide Number 45Slide Number 46Slide Number 47Slide Number 48TasmaniaSlide Number 50Slide Number 51Slide Number 52Slide Number 53Slide Number 54Slide Number 55Slide Number 56Ritualistic Burial PracticesSlide Number 58Slide Number 59Slide Number 60Pleistocene OrnamentationSlide Number 62Slide Number 63Slide Number 64Slide Number 65Pleistocene AustralasiaPleistocene AustralasiaSlide Number 68