Arab Imperialism

Carl Ernst

Reli 180, Intro to Islamic civilization

A note on revisionist historians

Egger, page 32: Patricia Crone, John Wansborough, etc.

Questions speculating about traditional Muslim sources, the geographical location of Islam, and the codification of the Qur’an.

Debate cannot be dismissed, but documentary evidence is lacking for these theories

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Arab Imperialism -- overview

Conquest of Persian and much of Byzantine Empire

Two empires exhaustedBattle over relic of “True Cross”

Conquered territories as a cash cow for exploitation rather than expansion of Islamic society

Amazingly swift conquests

Administration of Muslims and non-Muslims3

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Arab conquests: Arabia and Fertile Crescent

Factions emerge to contest leadershipMuslim emigrants to Medina (Muhajirun)

Muslims in Medina (Ansar)

Last-minute Muslim converts in Mecca

Wars of Apostasy (ridda) afte Muhammad’s death, two major transitions

Subduing rebellious tribes, then all Arab communities

Conquering Arabian Peninsula, then invading Byzantine and Persian empires 5

Factors aiding the conquest

Expansion of Arabs’ geopolitical motives beyond securing borders

Inspiration of religion combined with the promise of loot

Nomadic reliance on raiding settlements, channeled outwards as Arabia is unified

Problem of handling new military recruits, need for further conquests

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Byzantine weakness in Syria

Large Arab population

Defensive tactics

Byzantine troops were two thirds Arab

Monophysite Christians and Jews disliked Byzantine oppression

Damascus captured 636, becomes military and political center of caliphate

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Conquest of Iraq and Egypt

Arab armies defeat Sasanian forces in North and South Iraq by 638

`Amr ibn al-`As conquers Egypt, 636-641, welcomed by Coptic Christians

Garrison cities (Kufah, Basrah; Fustat [Cairo]) established for Arab armies, keeping them separate from the locals

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Iran

Conquest proceeds despite death of 2nd Caliph, `Umar (644)

Fars (Persian heartland) subjugated by 650, Khorasan (NE) by 654

Distractions of civil war after assassination of `3rd Caliph, `Uthman (656): 4th Caliph, `Ali, fights Mu`awiya ( Damascus) up to his murder in 661

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Other regions (rapid conquests learned about much after the fact)

North Africa: integration of Berber nomads into conquering army

Spain (711, at the request of Visigoths), Muslims welcomed by Jewish population

50,000 Arabs sent to colonize Central Asia (Merv, 671)

Non-Muslim Syrians and Iranians join army

Indus valley conquered in 711

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Umayyad administration: the caliphate

Election of Abu Bakr as 1st Caliph ( 632-634), tribal form of succession and allegiance oath

Earliest title: khalifat Allah, “deputy of God” (up to Abbasids)—theological

Later changed to khalifat rasul Allah, “successor of the messenger of God”

Finally “Commander of the Faithful”, military and prayer leader

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Umayyad administration: administration of non-Muslims

Correction to Egger (47): while chronicles suggest violent campaigns, ceramic archaeological evidence indicates slower peaceful penetration of Arabs (Prof. Jodi Magness)

Arabs adopt Sasanian policy of recognizing other religious groups and leaders, rather than Byzantine orthodoxy model

Tax (jizya) on non-Muslims12

Umayyad administration: administration of Muslims

Controlling armies by settlement in garrison towns

Shift from loot to regular pay for soldiers, land revenue

Non-Arab converts adopted as clients of Arab tribes

Inequality and tension with non-Arab Muslims

Tax incentive to conversion13

Umayyad administration: administration of Muslims (2)

Gender and regulation of women’s rolesSocial rules of women in Arabia

Debated verses from Qur’an on polygamy, inheritance, dowry, divorce, modesty

Debated origins of veiling and seclusion – Sasanian and Byzantine upper-class women

Continuation of previous empires’ tax collectors, languages, coins

Imposition of Arabic as state language, construction of Dome of the Rock ( 691)14

Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem (691): imperial and religious

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Dome of the Rock

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Interior view

Dome of the Rock

Qur’an inscriptions the earliest dated version of the text; mostly about Qur’anic doctrine of Jesus as human prophet

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Dome of the Rock

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Royal motifs of crown and jewels, suggesting imperial tribute

An Umayyad Palace: Khirbat al-Mafjar (742-3, near Jericho)

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Painting behind the throne:the world-emperor

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To side of throne

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Salutations from the kings of the world, in Greek and Arabic

Paintings in the bath

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Greek zodiac on ceiling dome

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Dissolution of Arab Empire

Limits of conquest machine

Garrison cities fail to segregate Arabs from locals – ethnic and cultural mixing (Arabs learn Persian, non-Muslims Arabized)

Problem of maintaining Arab armies, limits of plunder as source of revenue

Rebellions among Iranians, also Berbers (740)

Instability, overthrow Umayyads in 75024

Conclusion

Umayyad Empire based on constant conquests, “the exploitation of non-Arabs for the benefit of Arabs”

Islamic and Arabic identity now spread beyond the Arabs through religion and language, tied to empire

Important cultural and administrative continuity with previous empires

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