Aquatic Animal Aquatic Animal NutritionNutrition

FAS 2240CFAS 2240C

Course SyllabusCourse Syllabus

Study of aquatic animal nutrition:Study of aquatic animal nutrition: bioenergeticsbioenergetics digestion/digestive anatomy/metabolismdigestion/digestive anatomy/metabolism nutrient classes/sources/requirementsnutrient classes/sources/requirements formulation/feedstuffsformulation/feedstuffs manufacturing processesmanufacturing processes practical pond feed managementpractical pond feed management

SyllabusSyllabus Animals covered: variety of finfish and crustacean Animals covered: variety of finfish and crustacean

speciesspecies textbook: none are current or adequatetextbook: none are current or adequate also, various reprints of peer review journal also, various reprints of peer review journal

articlesarticles on reserve:on reserve:

De Silva, S.S., and T.A. Anderson, 1995. Fish De Silva, S.S., and T.A. Anderson, 1995. Fish nutrition in aquaculturenutrition in aquaculture

Lovell, T., 1989. Nutrition and feeding of fishLovell, T., 1989. Nutrition and feeding of fishD’Abramo, Conklin and Akiyama, 1992. D’Abramo, Conklin and Akiyama, 1992.

Crustacean NutritionCrustacean NutritionHalver, J., 1988. Fish NutritionHalver, J., 1988. Fish NutritionMaynard and Loosli, 1969. Animal NutritionMaynard and Loosli, 1969. Animal Nutrition

Syllabus: Syllabus: gradinggrading

Lecture Exams 1, 2, 3Lecture Exams 1, 2, 3 60%60% Term paper (journal format)Term paper (journal format) 20%20% Journal article critiques (5 x 4 pts)Journal article critiques (5 x 4 pts) 20%20%

Schedule of TopicsSchedule of TopicsDayDay Topic/ActivityTopic/Activity8/258/25 Introduction, general concepts, animal body and its foodIntroduction, general concepts, animal body and its food9/19/1 Digestion and metabolismDigestion and metabolism9/89/8 ChemoattractionChemoattraction9/159/15 BioenergeticsBioenergetics9/229/22 Exam 1Exam 19/299/29 Proteins and amino acids, structure and essentialityProteins and amino acids, structure and essentiality10/610/6 Protein and energy issuesProtein and energy issues10/1310/13 Lipids and carotenoidsLipids and carotenoids10/2010/20 Carbohydrates and vitaminsCarbohydrates and vitamins10/2710/27 Exam 2Exam 211/311/3 Feed ingredients, physical characteristics, storageFeed ingredients, physical characteristics, storage11/1011/10 Feed formulation, manufacture and fish meal Feed formulation, manufacture and fish meal

replacementreplacement11/1711/17 Feed management and growth issuesFeed management and growth issues11/2411/24 ThanksgivingThanksgiving12/112/1 Nutritional research methods, current areas of researchNutritional research methods, current areas of research

Today’s Lecture: Today’s Lecture: 8/25/058/25/05

Part 1Part 1: Introduction (Maynard et : Introduction (Maynard et al.; Lovell)al.; Lovell) What is nutrition???What is nutrition??? History of nutritionHistory of nutrition Nutrition todayNutrition today Nutrient essentialityNutrient essentiality

Part 2Part 2: The animal body and its : The animal body and its food (Maynard, et al.; Lovell)food (Maynard, et al.; Lovell) Aquatics vs. terrestrialsAquatics vs. terrestrials

What is Nutrition?What is Nutrition? NutritionNutrition:: the provision of all indispensable the provision of all indispensable

nutrients in adequate amounts to insure proper nutrients in adequate amounts to insure proper growth and maintenance of body functionsgrowth and maintenance of body functions

involves various chemical reactions and involves various chemical reactions and physiological transformations which convert physiological transformations which convert foods into body tissues and activitiesfoods into body tissues and activities

involves ingestion, digestion and absorption of involves ingestion, digestion and absorption of various nutrientsvarious nutrients

transport into cellstransport into cells removal of unusable elements and waste removal of unusable elements and waste

products of metabolismproducts of metabolism

History of History of Nutrition INutrition I

LavoisierLavoisier is generally credited as being is generally credited as being the “father” of nutritionthe “father” of nutrition

until the first quarter of 19th Century, we until the first quarter of 19th Century, we thought the nutritive value of food thought the nutritive value of food resided only in one componentresided only in one component

near the end of the 19th Century near the end of the 19th Century research started to focus primarily on the research started to focus primarily on the need for protein, lipids and carbohydratesneed for protein, lipids and carbohydrates

minerals were considered important, but minerals were considered important, but their essentiality was unknowntheir essentiality was unknown

History of Nutrition History of Nutrition IIII

Tremendous expansion in the 20th Century Tremendous expansion in the 20th Century with the discovery of vitamins, role of amino with the discovery of vitamins, role of amino acids, more mineralsacids, more minerals

the body is now known to need more than 40 the body is now known to need more than 40 nutrients for normal growth and maintenancenutrients for normal growth and maintenance

what have been the reasons for these what have been the reasons for these advances???advances???

Human nutritional/health problemsHuman nutritional/health problems also, basic studies of the functioning of the also, basic studies of the functioning of the

animal organism supplemented researchanimal organism supplemented research

History of Nutrition IIIHistory of Nutrition III

Example of historical nutritional research:Example of historical nutritional research: heifers fed wheat-based diets produced heifers fed wheat-based diets produced

calves at lower rates than those fed corn calves at lower rates than those fed corn dietsdiets

assumptionassumption: something toxic in wheat: something toxic in wheat analysisanalysis: nothing toxic in tissues: nothing toxic in tissues realityreality: vitamin deficiency: vitamin deficiency scientific methods for formulating feeds were scientific methods for formulating feeds were

inadequateinadequate research diets eventually simplified/purifiedresearch diets eventually simplified/purified

History of Nutrition History of Nutrition IVIV

First vitamin discovered in 1913First vitamin discovered in 1913 pioneer nutritional work achieved primarily pioneer nutritional work achieved primarily

through the use of animal subjectsthrough the use of animal subjects same today, but with restrictionssame today, but with restrictions rats rats vitamins, amino acids, minerals vitamins, amino acids, minerals dogs dogs insulin, nicotinic acid insulin, nicotinic acid guinea pigs guinea pigs prevention of scurvy prevention of scurvy chicks chicks thiamin and other vitamins thiamin and other vitamins bacteria bacteria growth factors, nutrient function in growth factors, nutrient function in

metabolismmetabolism final answers must be derived from speciesfinal answers must be derived from species

studiedstudied

Nutrition TodayNutrition TodayAnimal nutrition today is multidisciplinary:Animal nutrition today is multidisciplinary: metabolism: physiologists, biochemistsmetabolism: physiologists, biochemists vitamins: organic chemistsvitamins: organic chemists isotopes/chromatography: physicistsisotopes/chromatography: physicists protein structure: molecular biochemistsprotein structure: molecular biochemists breed variation: geneticistsbreed variation: geneticists vitamins/amino acids: microbiologistsvitamins/amino acids: microbiologists additives/improved digestibility: food additives/improved digestibility: food

technologiststechnologists

Issue: OverexpansionIssue: Overexpansion

Everyone now-a-days appears to be an expert in Everyone now-a-days appears to be an expert in nutritionnutrition

infomercials, algae, diet fadsinfomercials, algae, diet fads claims of superiority without scientific evidence claims of superiority without scientific evidence

(science vs. pseudoscience)(science vs. pseudoscience) example: massive doses of vitamins are useless, example: massive doses of vitamins are useless,

often toxicoften toxic nutrition industry might need to become more nutrition industry might need to become more

conservativeconservative it’s no wonder why the average consumer is it’s no wonder why the average consumer is

puzzled!!puzzled!!

Nutrient EssentialityNutrient Essentiality

essential nutrientessential nutrient: one that must be provided in the : one that must be provided in the diet in order to insure adequate growth and diet in order to insure adequate growth and maintenance, indispensablemaintenance, indispensable

Nutrient categories: Nutrient categories: macromacro and and micromicro macronutrientsmacronutrients: protein, lipid, carbohydrate, etc.: protein, lipid, carbohydrate, etc. micronutrientsmicronutrients: trace metals, vitamins: trace metals, vitamins important: molecular weight is not the basis, important: molecular weight is not the basis,

requirement level isrequirement level is proteins: g/kg vitamins: µg/kgproteins: g/kg vitamins: µg/kg large requirement doesn’t imply greater importance large requirement doesn’t imply greater importance

(example: Se in sheep 0.1 mg/day)(example: Se in sheep 0.1 mg/day)

Basic Nutritional Basic Nutritional ConceptsConcepts

Animal nutrition is tied back to food crops and Animal nutrition is tied back to food crops and ultimately to the nutritive value of soil ultimately to the nutritive value of soil

strong interrelationship between human and strong interrelationship between human and animal nutritionanimal nutrition

foods/feeds of both contain similar nutrientsfoods/feeds of both contain similar nutrients metabolic processes are basically similarmetabolic processes are basically similar nutritional niche of animals: animals nutritional niche of animals: animals

concentrate nutrients of food crops into more concentrate nutrients of food crops into more nutritious and palatable forms for humansnutritious and palatable forms for humans

pointpoint:: animals take sources unsuitable animals take sources unsuitable for humans and improve their quality for for humans and improve their quality for us!us!

Animals as Primary Animals as Primary ConsumersConsumers

Animals produce meat, milk, etc. on land that is Animals produce meat, milk, etc. on land that is often unsuitable for production of food cropsoften unsuitable for production of food crops

problemproblem: overall land availability vs. protein : overall land availability vs. protein demanddemand

fisheries flat, agriculture barely keeping upfisheries flat, agriculture barely keeping up nutrition has greatly improved production nutrition has greatly improved production

capacity, however it is not going to be enoughcapacity, however it is not going to be enough

What Does it All What Does it All Mean?Mean?

Agriculture is barely keeping up with Agriculture is barely keeping up with world food demand andworld food demand and

Fisheries are being improperly Fisheries are being improperly managed to the point of steady statemanaged to the point of steady state

Either we must quickly apply Iowa Either we must quickly apply Iowa corn field technology to all arable corn field technology to all arable land on Earth or food must be found land on Earth or food must be found from other sourcesfrom other sources

One possible option is One possible option is aquacultureaquaculture..

Agriculture is barely keeping up with Agriculture is barely keeping up with world food demand andworld food demand and

Fisheries are being improperly Fisheries are being improperly managed to the point of steady statemanaged to the point of steady state

Either we must quickly apply Iowa Either we must quickly apply Iowa corn field technology to all arable corn field technology to all arable land on Earth or food must be found land on Earth or food must be found from other sourcesfrom other sources

One possible option is One possible option is aquacultureaquaculture..

Current Current Challenges/ProblemsChallenges/Problems

For aquaculture to contribute more to the For aquaculture to contribute more to the world’s food supply, production must be world’s food supply, production must be intensifiedintensified

higher yields must be achieved in pondshigher yields must be achieved in ponds better and more predictable natural sources of better and more predictable natural sources of

nutrition (natural productivity) must be available nutrition (natural productivity) must be available (too unpredictable)(too unpredictable)

more crude feed materials used as supplements more crude feed materials used as supplements or or

compounded feeds must provide all nutrientscompounded feeds must provide all nutrients retention vs. digestibility: Which is best metric?retention vs. digestibility: Which is best metric?

Part 2: The Animal Body Part 2: The Animal Body and Its Foodand Its Food

From: Lovell and Maynard, et al.From: Lovell and Maynard, et al.

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

Aquatics, compared to terrestrials, are typically Aquatics, compared to terrestrials, are typically better converters of nutrients into body tissuebetter converters of nutrients into body tissue

This does not apply in all cases to all nutrientsThis does not apply in all cases to all nutrients

Aquatics vs. Terrestrials: Aquatics vs. Terrestrials: feeding issuesfeeding issues

Aquatics are what they are: submerged in waterAquatics are what they are: submerged in water as opposed to “land” culture of animals, the water as opposed to “land” culture of animals, the water

itself can serve as a source of nutrition (natural itself can serve as a source of nutrition (natural productivity)productivity)

overfeeding of land animals does not necessarily overfeeding of land animals does not necessarily imply ruining of their environmentimply ruining of their environment

in water, nutrients are quickly “lost” if feed is not in water, nutrients are quickly “lost” if feed is not immediately consumedimmediately consumed

waste is not readily observable, thus, attraction waste is not readily observable, thus, attraction and palatability of aquatic feeds is important and palatability of aquatic feeds is important

Aquatics vs. Terrestrials: Aquatics vs. Terrestrials: nutrient requirementsnutrient requirements

Overall qualitative requirement is generally Overall qualitative requirement is generally similarsimilar

energy requirements are lower for fish than energy requirements are lower for fish than most terrestrials most terrestrials higher protein: energy ratio higher protein: energy ratio

marine fish/shrimp require some fatty acids marine fish/shrimp require some fatty acids and sterols that terrestrials don’tand sterols that terrestrials don’t

aquatics have reduced dietary mineral aquatics have reduced dietary mineral requirement (environment is nutrient source)requirement (environment is nutrient source)

some fish/most crustaceans have limited ability some fish/most crustaceans have limited ability to synthesize ascorbic acidto synthesize ascorbic acid

shrimp cannot synthesize cholestrol moleculeshrimp cannot synthesize cholestrol molecule

Aquatics vs. Terrestrials:Aquatics vs. Terrestrials: nutrient requirementsnutrient requirements

Nutrient requirements for one group of Nutrient requirements for one group of finfish or crustaceans can only serve as finfish or crustaceans can only serve as a starting point for other speciesa starting point for other species

lysine examplelysine examplenutrient requirements will ultimately nutrient requirements will ultimately

become more and more refinedbecome more and more refinedproblem: apparent vs. true problem: apparent vs. true

requirementrequirement

Aquatics vs. Terrestrials: Which protein is better?

fi sh convert practical f eeds into body tissue more effi ciently than do f arm animals

catfi sh f ed compounded rations gain approximately 0.84 g of weight per gram of practical diet (Lovell, 1989)

Why? they are able to assimilate diets containing higher percentages of protein

Also, they have a lower dietary energy requirement (thus, most protein goes to growth)

0

20

40

60

80

100

animal type

% conversion

catfishchickencattle

Aquatics vs. Terrestrialshowever, dietary protein conversion to body protein by chickens is similar to fish

fish don't convert f ood more effi ciently, it's just that they get more out of the protein they consume

advantage: lower energy cost of protein gain, not superior f ood conversion effi ciency

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

animal type

Pro gain/g Pro consumed

catfishchickencow

0

10

20

30

40

50

animal type

Pro gain/Mkcal ME consumed

catfishchickencow

Aquatics vs. Terrestrialsproblem: the total energy budget f or production of protein f rom fish culture systems hasn't been well investigated

ponds seem to be similar to that needed for broiler chicken production

i.e., chickens need heating and ventilation, fish need water exchange/ aeration

thus, if f ossil f uel requirements f or production (largely associated with transport, processing) are similar, fish are your overall more energy-effi cient sources of protein

Fish vs. Farm Animals: nutritional value

percentage of edible lean tissue in fish is appreciably greater than that in beef , pork or poultry

however, due to low fat, the caloric value of dressed fish is

less than that of beef or pork

net protein utilization is about the same as that of red beef (83 vs 80; 100 f or eggs)

0

20

40

60

80

100

animal type

% of dressed as lean tissue

catfishbeefporkchicken

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

animal type

food energy (kcal/100 g edible tissue)

catfishbeefporkchicken

Aquatics vs. Terrestrials: nutritional value

fish, as with other animal flesh, is a good source of most nutrients

exception: calcium, vit A, vit C

one 8 oz. hamburger patty or fi llet each provides 100% of the RDA f or protein, niacin, vitamin B12 and phosphorus

at same time, though, the fish would only contain 280 calories as compared to the burger with 750 calories

Animal Classifications: we as humans are omnivorous

we eat f ood f rom both vegetable and animal sources

other omnivores: pig, rat, shrimp

herbivores are those animals that live largerly on vegetable or plant sources of nutrition

examples: ruminants (cattle, rabbits, horses), tilapia

omnivores and herbivores contribute most to the human food supply

carnivores aren't much of an influence

Composition of the Animal Body

if we are consumers of omnivores and herbivores, we are concerned with what nutrients they contain

what is the nutritional composition of the animal body?

original work on determining body composition of f arm animals of various age and nutrient status

impetus: human health and combating of disease

as a result, we now have a large amount of information on this subject

Percent Composition of the Animal Body

Species Water Protein Fat Ashcalf, new 74 19 3 4.1calf, fat 68 18 10 4.0steer, thin 64 19 12 5.1steer, fat 43 13 41 3.3pig, 8kg 73 17 6 3.4pig, 30 kg 60 13 24 2.5pig, 100 kg 49 12 36 2.6horse 61 17 17 4.5human 60 18 18 4.3mouse 66 17 13 4.5guinea pig 64 19 12 5.0

Percent Composition of Percent Composition of AquaticsAquatics

AnimalAnimal WaterWater ProteinProtein FatFat AshAsh

ChanneChannel l catfish, catfish, musclemuscle

77.3077.30 16.3016.30 5.405.40 1.101.10

Artemia Artemia naupliinauplii

89.0989.09 6.296.29 1.401.40 1.021.02

White White shrimpshrimp

90.0090.00 7.177.17 0.500.50 1.301.30

Water and Organic Substances

Table 2-1 indicates that body composition f or species varies with age and nutritional state

by nutritional state, we mean f at or thin

it can also be applied to pregnant or, in the case of crustaceans, molt status

age aff ects body composition largely by decreasing water content

this is especially true in very early age

Age vs. Water and Fat Content

embryo: 95%, shortly af ter conception

embryo: 75-80%, at birth

calf : 66-72%, at five months

mature: 40-65%

variations in water content of growing animals are largely due to the storage of f at

as animals grow, they have a tendency to store f at (depending upon f eed intake)

fat displaces water

Distribution of Protein, Lipid, COH

proteins are found in every cell of the body

besides water, they are the principle constituent of the body

organs, muscle, tendons, connective tissue

fat is localized in adipose tissue, f at depots under the skin, around the intestines/ other organs

it is also present in muscles, bones, etc.

very small amount of carbohydrates are found in liver, muscles, and blood (constantly being used for energy or re-formed)

The Blood

f rom a nutritional standpoint, the composition of the blood is very important

it is the medium by which oxygen and nutrients are transported to various tissues

it is the means whereby waste products of metabolism are removed (kidneys)

it comprises 5-10% of body weight and varies by species, body weight, nutritive state

The Blood (continued)total blood volume really varies due to the amount of active tissue a body has

as mentioned, the solid matter of blood (corpuscles) consists almost entirely of the iron-containing protein, hemoglobin

hemoglobin is used to transport oxygen

for most crustaceans, the O transport protein is hemocyanin (Cu)

some crustaceans use pinnaglobulin, which has manganese (Mn) at its center

2

Muscle and Other Tissues

movement of the body, organs and tissues require muscle action

thus, we have muscles distributed throughout the body

1/ 2 the body is composed of skeletal muscle (75% water, of the dry matter, 75-80% is protein)

the remainder of muscle tissue is largely f at, COH (glycogen), minerals

Muscle and Other Tissues (continued)

epithelial tissue (skin, hair, f eathers, lining of the various tracts) are largely composed of keratin

this type of protein is arranged diff erently f rom other proteins and is highly insoluble or digestible

connective tissue (cartilage, tendons, ligaments, bone matrix) consists primarily of insoluble collagen (protein)

nervous tissue is primarily composed of complexes of lipid, COH, protein

Estimation of Body Composition

body composition inf ormation provides inf ormation on the stage of development and nutrition of animals

you can't simply weigh the animal to determine this

animals must be slaughtered and analyzed chemically, usually combined with f eeding experiments

unfortunately the animal can be used only once, changes can't be determined

For Next Time…For Next Time… Digestion and MetabolismDigestion and Metabolism Read Gibson, R. 1983. Feeding and Digestion in Read Gibson, R. 1983. Feeding and Digestion in

Decapod Crustaceans. Pages 59-70 in Proceedings Decapod Crustaceans. Pages 59-70 in Proceedings of the 2of the 2ndnd International Conference on Aquaculture International Conference on Aquaculture Nutrition: Biochemical and Physiological Nutrition: Biochemical and Physiological Approaches to Shellfish Nutrition, Pruder, G.D., Approaches to Shellfish Nutrition, Pruder, G.D., Langdon, C., Conklin, D. (Eds.). World Mariculture Langdon, C., Conklin, D. (Eds.). World Mariculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA, Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA,