aquascams home.docx

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learn to relate the microscopic world of the atom to

the greater world in which we all live.[image]

Th

e

mol

ecule of waterA molecule is an aggregation of atomicnucleiand electrons that is

sufficiently stable to possess observable properties and there are

few molecules that are more stable and difficult to decompose than

H2O. In water, each hydrogen nucleus is bound to the central oxygen

atom by a pair of electrons that are shared between them; chemists

call this shared electron pair acovalent chemical bond. In H2O, onlytwo of the six outer-shell electrons of oxygen are used for this

purpose, leaving four electrons which are organized into two non-

bonding pairs. The four electron pairs surrounding the oxygen tend to

arrange themselves as far from each other as possible in order to

minimize repulsions between these clouds of negative charge. This

would ordinarly result in atetrahedralgeometry in which the angle

between electron pairs (and therefore the H-O-H bond angle) is109.5. However, because the two non-bonding pairs remain closer to

the oxygen atom, these exert a stronger repulsion against the two

covalent bonding pairs, effectively pushing the two hydrogen atoms
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closer together. The result is a distorted tetrahedral arrangement in

which the HOH angle is 104.5.

Although the water molecule carries no net electric charge, its eight

electrons are not distributed uniformly; there is slightly more negativecharge (purple) at the oxygen end of the molecule, and a

compensating positive charge (green) at the hydrogen end. Theresultingpolarityis largely responsible for water's unique properties.

Because molecules are smaller than light

waves, they cannot be observed directly, and

must be "visualized" by alternative means.

This computer-generated image comes from

calculations that model the electron

distribution in the H2O molecule. The outer

envelope shows the effective "surface" of the

molecule as defined by the extent of the cloud of negative electric

charge created by the eight electrons.

See theSBU Water Sitefor more information on this model.

Hydrogenbonding

The H2O molecule is electrically neutral, but the

positive and negative charges are not distributed

uniformly. This is illustrated by the gradation in

color in the schematic diagram here. The electronic (negative) charge

is concentrated at the oxygen end of the molecule, owing partly to the
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/molecule.htmlhttp://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/molecule.htmlhttp://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/molecule.htmlhttp://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/molecule.html


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nonbonding electrons (solid blue circles), and to oxygen's high nuclear

charge which exerts stronger attractions on the electrons. This charge

displacement constitutes anelectric dipole, represented by the arrow at

the bottom; you can think of this dipole as the electrical "image" of a

water molecule.

As we all learned in school, opposite

charges attract, so the partially-

positive hydrogen atom on one water

molecule is electrostatically attracted

to the partially-negative oxygen on a

neighboring molecule. This process is

called (somewhat

misleadingly) hydrogen bonding. Notice that the hydrogen

bond (shown by the dashed green line) is somewhat longer

than the covalent OH bond. This means that it is

considerably weaker; it is so weak, in fact,that a given

hydrogen bond cannot survive for more than a tiny fraction

of a second.

See herefor much more about hydrogen bonding.

The anomalous

properties ofwater

Water has long been known to exhibit many physical properties that

distinguish it from other small molecules of comparable mass.

Chemists refer to these as the "anomalous" properties of water, but

they are by no means mysterious; all are entirely predictable

consequences of the way the size and nuclear charge of the oxygen
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/hbond.htmlhttp://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/hbond.htmlhttp://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/hbond.html


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atom conspire to distort the electronic charge clouds of the atoms of

other elements when these are chemically bonded to the oxygen.

Water is one of the few

known substances whose

solid form is less dense

than the liquid. The plot at

the right shows how the

volume of water varies

with the temperature; the

large increase (about 9%)

on freezing shows why ice

floats on water and why

pipes burst when they freeze. The expansion between 4 and 0 is

due to the formation of larger hydrogen-bonded aggregates. Above 4,

thermal expansion sets in as vibrations of the OH bonds becomes

more vigorous, tending to shove the molecules farther apart.

The other widely-

cited anomalous

property of water is

its high boiling

point. As this graph

shows, a molecule as

light as H2O "should"

boil at around

90C; that is, it

would exist in theworld as a gas rather than a liquid if H-bonding were not present.

Notice that H-bonding is also observed with fluorine and nitrogen.

"Forty-one anomalies of water" some of them rather esoteric
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/anmlies.htmlhttp://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/anmlies.htmlhttp://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/anmlies.html


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Surface tension

and wetting

Have you ever watched an insect walk acrossthe surface of a pond? Thewater

stridertakes advantage of the fact that the

water surface acts like an elastic film that

resists deformation when a small weight is

placed on it. (If you are careful, you can also

"float" a small paper clip or steel staple on the surface of water in a

cup.) This is all due to the surface tension of the water. A moleculewithin the bulk of a liquid experiences attractions to neighboring

molecules in all directions, but since these average out to zero, there

is no net force on the molecule. For a molecule that finds itselfatthe

surface, the situation is quite different; it experiences forces only

sideways and downward, and this is what creates the stretched-

membrane effect.

The distinction between molecules located at the surface and those

deep inside is especially prominent in H2O, owing to the strong

hydrogen-bonding forces. The difference between the forces

experienced by a molecule at the surface and one in the bulk liquid

gives rise to the liquid'ssurface

tension.

This drawing highlights two

H2O molecules, one at the

surface, and the other in

the bulk of the liquid. The

surface molecule is

attracted to its neighbors
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_striderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_striderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_striderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_striderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_striderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_strider


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below and to either side, but there are no attractions pointing

in the 180 solid angle angle above the surface. As a

consequence, a molecule at the surface will tend to be drawn

into the bulk of the liquid. But since there must always be

some surface, the overall effect is to minimize the surface

area of a liquid.

The geometric shape that has the

smallest ratio of surface area to

volume is the sphere, so very small

quantities of liquids tend to form

spherical drops. As the drops getbigger, their weight deforms them

into the typical tear shape.

[image:Crawford Wilson III]

Wetting

Take a plastic mixing bowl from your kitchen, and splash some water

around in it. You will probably observe that the water does not cover

the inside surface uniformly, but remains dispersed into drops. The

same effect is seen on a dirty windshield; turning on the wipers simply

breaks hundreds of drops into thousands. By contrast, water poured

over a clean glass surface will wetit, leaving a uniform film.
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When a liquid is in contact with a solid surface, its behavior depends

on the relative magnitudes of the surface tension forces and the

attractive forces between the molecules of the liquid and of those

comprising the surface. If an H2O molecule is more strongly attracted

to its own kind, then surface tension will dominate, increasing the

curvature of the interface. This is what happens at the interface

between water and a hydrophobic surface such as a plastic mixing

bowl or a windshield coated with oily material. A clean glass surface,

by contrast, has -OH groups sticking out of it which readily attach to

water molecules through hydrogen bonding; this causes the water to

spread out evenly over the surface, or to wet it. A liquid will wet a

surface if the angle at which it makes contact with the surface is more

than 90. The value of this contact angle can be predicted from the

properties of the liquid and solid separately.

If we want water to wet a surface that is not ordinarily wettable, we

add adetergentto the water to reduce its surface tension. A detergent

is a special kind of molecule in which one end is attracted to H2O

molecules but the other end is not, so these ends stick out above the

surface and repel each other, cancelling out the surface tension forces

due to the water molecules alone.

Water the liquid

The nature of liquid water and how

the

H2O molecules within it are organized

and interact are questions that have

attracted the interest of chemists for

many years. There is probably no


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liquid that has received more intensive study, and there is now a huge

literature on this subject.

The following facts are well established:

H2O molecules attract

each other through thespecial type of dipole-

dipole interactionknown as hydrogen

bonding

a hydrogen-bonded

cluster in which fourH2Os are located at thecorners of an

imaginary tetrahedronis an especially

favorable (low-potential energy)configuration, but...

the molecules undergorapid thermal motionson a time scale ofpicoseconds (10

12 second), so thelifetime of any specific

clustered configurationwill be fleetingly brief.

A variety of techniques including infrared absorption, neutron

scattering, and nuclear magnetic resonance have been used to probe

the microscopic structure of water. The information garnered from

these experiments and from theoretical calculations has led to the

development of around twenty "models" that attempt to explain the


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structure and behavior of water. More recently, computer simulations

of various kinds have been employed to explore how well these models

are able to predict the observed physical properties of water.

This work has led to a gradual refinement of our views about the

structure of liquid water, but it has not produced any definitive

answer. There are several reasons for this, but the principal one is that

the very concept of "structure" (and of water "clusters") depends on

both the time frame and volume under consideration. Thus questions

of the following kinds are still open:

How do you distinguishthe members of a"cluster" from adjacentmolecules that are not

in that cluster?

Since individual

hydrogen bonds arecontinually breaking

and re-forming on apicosecond time scale,

do water clusters haveany meaningfulexistence over longer

periods of time? Inother words, clusters

are transient, whereas"structure" implies a

moleculararrangement that is

more enduring. Canwe then legitimatelyuse the term "clusters"


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in describing the

structure of water?

The possible locations

of neighboringmolecules around agiven H2O are limitedby energetic andgeometric

considerations, thusgiving rise to a certain

amount of "structure"within any small

volume element. It isnot clear, however, towhat extent these

structures interact asthe size of the volume

element is enlarged.And as mentioned

above, to what extent

are these structuresmaintained for periodslonger than a fewpicoseconds?


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The view first developed in the 1950's that

water is a collection of "flickering clusters"

of varying sizes (right) has gradually been

abandoned as being unable to account for

many of the observed properties of the

liquid.

Current views of

water structure

The present thinking, influenced greatly by molecular modeling

simulations beginning in the 1980s, is that on a very short time scale

(less than a picosecond), water is more like a "gel" consisting of a

single, huge hydrogen-bonded cluster. On a 10-12-10-9 sec time scale,

rotations and other thermal motions cause individual hydrogen bonds

to break and re-form in new configurations, inducing ever-changing

local discontinuities whose extent and influence depends on thetemperature and pressure.

Recent work from Richard

SayKally's laboratoryshows

that the hydrogen bonds in

liquid water break and re-form

This computer-generated

nanoscale view of liquid

water is from the lab of

Gene Stanley of Boston
http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2005/October/03-water-contoversy.htmlhttp://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2005/October/03-water-contoversy.htmlhttp://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2005/October/03-water-contoversy.htmlhttp://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2005/October/03-water-contoversy.htmlhttp://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2005/October/03-water-contoversy.html


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so rapidly (often in distorted

configurations) that the liquid

can be regarded as a

continuous network of

hydrogen-bonded molecules.

University [source]. The

oxygen atoms are red, the

hydrogen atoms white

Local structuresand water clusters

It is quite likely that over very small volumes, localized

(H2O)n polymeric clusters may have a fleeting existence, and many

theoretical calculations have been made showing that some

combinations are more stable than others. While this might prolong

their lifetimes, it does not appear that they remain intact long enough

to detect as directly observable entities in ordinary bulk water at

normal pressures.

Theoretical models suggest that the average cluster may encompass

as many as 90 H2O molecules at 0C, so that very cold water can be

thought of as a collection of ever-changing ice-like structures. At 70

C, the average cluster size is probably no greater than about 25.

It must be emphasized that no stable clustered unit or

arrangement has ever been isolated or identified in pure bulkliquid water. A 2006 reportsuggests that a simple

tetrahedral arrangement is the only long-range structure thatpersists at time scales of a picosecond or beyond. But for an

interesting (and somewhat controversial) alternative view,seethis PDF articlebyRustum Roy. And a2007

study suggests that infrared radiation can stabilize clathrate-like clusters for up to several hours.
http://web.archive.org/web/20081002095747/http:/www.bu.edu/alumni/bostonia/2004/fall/stanley/http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/PBD-water-controversy.htmlhttp://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/PBD-water-controversy.htmlhttp://wayback.archive.org/web/20110801000000*/http:/www.rustumroy.com/Roy_Structure%20of%20Water.pdfhttp://wayback.archive.org/web/20110801000000*/http:/www.rustumroy.com/Roy_Structure%20of%20Water.pdfhttp://wayback.archive.org/web/20110801000000*/http:/www.rustumroy.com/Roy_Structure%20of%20Water.pdfhttp://www.rustumroy.com/http://www.rustumroy.com/http://jjap.ipap.jp/link?JJAP/46/333/.http://jjap.ipap.jp/link?JJAP/46/333/.http://jjap.ipap.jp/link?JJAP/46/333/.http://jjap.ipap.jp/link?JJAP/46/333/.http://jjap.ipap.jp/link?JJAP/46/333/.http://www.rustumroy.com/http://wayback.archive.org/web/20110801000000*/http:/www.rustumroy.com/Roy_Structure%20of%20Water.pdfhttp://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/PBD-water-controversy.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20081002095747/http:/www.bu.edu/alumni/bostonia/2004/fall/stanley/


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Water clusters are of considerable interest as models for the study of

water and water surfaces, and many articles on them are published

every year. Some notable work reported in 2004 extended our view of

water to the femtosecond time scale. The principal finding was that 80

percent of the water molecules are bound in chain-like fashion to only

two other molecules at room temperature, thus supporting the

prevailing view of a dynamically-changing, disordered water structure.

Some recent work involving novel experimental and computational techniques has

revealed more about water structure:

Lawrence Livermore

NationalLaboratory:Revealing

the Mysteries of Water

Water: Dissolving theControversy this

page is from the UC-

Berkely lab of RichardSaykally, one of theworld's experts on

water structure.

Liquid and solid

water

Ice, like all solids, has a well-defined structure;

each water molecule is surrounded by four

neighboring H2Os. two of these are hydrogen-

bonded to the oxygen atom on the central H2O

molecule, and each of the two hydrogen atoms is

similarly bonded to another neighboring H2O.
https://www.llnl.gov/str/October05/Mundy.htmlhttps://www.llnl.gov/str/October05/Mundy.htmlhttps://www.llnl.gov/str/October05/Mundy.htmlhttps://www.llnl.gov/str/October05/Mundy.htmlhttp://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2005/October/03-water-contoversy.htmlhttp://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2005/October/03-water-contoversy.htmlhttp://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2005/October/03-water-contoversy.htmlhttp://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2005/October/03-water-contoversy.htmlhttp://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2005/October/03-water-contoversy.htmlhttp://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2005/October/03-water-contoversy.htmlhttp://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2005/October/03-water-contoversy.htmlhttps://www.llnl.gov/str/October05/Mundy.htmlhttps://www.llnl.gov/str/October05/Mundy.html


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The hydrogen bonds are represented by the dashed lines in this 2-

dimensional schematic diagram. In reality, the four bonds from each O

atom point toward the four corners of a tetrahedron centered on the O

atom. This basic assembly repeats itself in three dimensions to build

the ice crystal.

When ice melts to form liquid water, the

uniform three-dimensional tetrahedral

organization of the solid breaks down as thermal

motions disrupt, distort, and occasionally break

hydrogen bonds. The methods used to

determine the positions of molecules in a solid

do not work with liquids, so there is no unambiguous way of

determining the detailed structure of water. The illustration here is

probably typical of the arrangement of neighbors around any particular

H2O molecule, but very little is known about the extent to which an

arrangement like this gets propagated to more distant molecules.

Here are three-dimensional views

of a typical local structure of water

(left) and ice (right.) Notice the

greater openness of the ice

structure which is necessary to

ensure the strongest degree of

hydrogen bonding in a uniform, extended crystal lattice. The

more crowded and jumbled arrangement in liquid water can

be sustained only by the greater amount thermal energy

available above the freezing point. [image source]

For more on the structure of ice:

A very readablearticleon ice structure.
http://www.edinformatics.com/interactive_molecules/ice.htmhttp://www.edinformatics.com/interactive_molecules/ice.htmhttp://web.archive.org/web/20060522104407/http:/mdp2.phys.ucl.ac.uk/Talks/Ice/Ice.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20060522104407/http:/mdp2.phys.ucl.ac.uk/Talks/Ice/Ice.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20060522104407/http:/mdp2.phys.ucl.ac.uk/Talks/Ice/Ice.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20060522104407/http:/mdp2.phys.ucl.ac.uk/Talks/Ice/Ice.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20060522104407/http:/mdp2.phys.ucl.ac.uk/Talks/Ice/Ice.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20060522104407/http:/mdp2.phys.ucl.ac.uk/Talks/Ice/Ice.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20060522104407/http:/mdp2.phys.ucl.ac.uk/Talks/Ice/Ice.htmlhttp://www.edinformatics.com/interactive_molecules/ice.htm


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ThisIce Structurepagefrom U. ofWisconsin has someexcellent graphics

illustrating thestructures of ordinaryice as well as of its high-pressure polymorphs.

The stable arrangement of

hydrogen-bonded water

molecules in ice gives rise to

the beautiful hexagonal

symmetry that reveals itself

in every snowflake.

For almost everything there

is to know about snowflakes

(and a lot of nice images),

see thisSnowCrystals

pagefrom CalTech.
http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/projects/geoweb/participants/dutch/PETROLGY/Ice%20Structure.HTMhttp://www.uwsp.edu/geo/projects/geoweb/participants/dutch/PETROLGY/Ice%20Structure.HTMhttp://www.uwsp.edu/geo/projects/geoweb/participants/dutch/PETROLGY/Ice%20Structure.HTMhttp://www.uwsp.edu/geo/projects/geoweb/participants/dutch/PETROLGY/Ice%20Structure.HTMhttp://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/projects/geoweb/participants/dutch/PETROLGY/Ice%20Structure.HTMhttp://www.uwsp.edu/geo/projects/geoweb/participants/dutch/PETROLGY/Ice%20Structure.HTM


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Why is ice slippery?

At temperatures as low as 200K, the surface of ice

is highly disordered and water-like. As the

temperature approaches the freezing point, this

region of disorder extends farther down from the

surface and acts as a lubricant.

The illustration is taken from from an article in the April 7, 2008 issue

ofC&ENhonoring the physical chemistGabor Somorjaiwho pioneered modern

methods of studying surfaces.

"Pure" water

To a chemist, the term "pure" has meaning only in the context of a

particular application or process. The distilled or de-ionized water we

use in the laboratory contains dissolved atmospheric gases and

occasionally some silica, but their small amounts and relative inertness

make these impurities insignificant for most purposes. When water of

the highest obtainable purity is required for certain types of exacting

measurements, it is commonly filtered, de-ionized, and triple-vacuumdistilled. But even this "chemically pure" water is a mixture of isotopic

species: there are two stable isotopes of both hydrogen (H1 and H2,

the latter often denoted by D) and oxygen (O16 and O18) which give

rise to combinations such as H2O18, HDO16, etc., all of which are

readily identifiable in the infrared spectra of water vapor. And to top

this off, the two hydrogen atoms in water contain protons whose

magnetic moments can be parallel or antiparallel, giving rise to ortho-andpara-water, respectively. The two forms are normally present in

a o/p ratio of 3:1.

The amount of the rare isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen in water varies

enough from place to place that it is now possible to determine the age and source

of a particular water sample with some precision. These differences are reflected in
http://pubs.acs.org/cen/http://pubs.acs.org/cen/http://pubs.acs.org/cen/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabor_A._Somorjaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabor_A._Somorjaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabor_A._Somorjaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabor_A._Somorjaihttp://pubs.acs.org/cen/


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the H and O isotopic profiles of organisms. Thus theisotopic analysis of human

haircan be a useful tool for crime investigations and anthropology research. See

also thisMicrobe Forensics page, andthis general resourceon water isotopes.

It has recently been found (Langmuir2003, 19, 6851-6856) that freshly

distilled water takes a surprisingly long time to equilibrate with the

atmosphere, that it undergoes large fluctuations in pH and redox potential,

and that these effects are greater when the water is exposed to a magnetic

field. The reasons for this behavior are not clear, but one possibility is that

dissolved O2 molecles, which are paramagnetic, might be involved.

Drinking water

Our ordinary drinking water, by contrast, is never chemically pure,especially if it has been in contact with sediments. Groundwaters (from

springs or wells) always contain ions of calcium and magnesium, and

often iron and manganese as well; the positive charges of these ions

are balanced by the negative ions carbonate/bicarbonate, and

occasionally some chloride and sulfate. Groundwaters in some regions

contain unacceptably high concentrations of naturally-occuring toxic

elements such as selenium and arsenic.

One might think that rain or snow would be exempt from

contamination, but when water vapor condenses out of the

atmosphere it always does so on a particle of dust which releases

substances into the water, and even the purest air contains carbon

dioxide which dissolves to form carbonic acid. Except in highly polluted

atmospheres, the impurities picked up by snow and rain are too

minute to be of concern.

Various governments have established upper limits on the amounts of

contaminants allowable in drinking water; the best known of these are

theU.S. EPA Drinking Water Standards.
http://www.physorg.com/news123180241.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news123180241.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news123180241.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news123180241.htmlhttp://www.omicsonline.org/2157-2526/2157-2526-S3-007.php?aid=3792http://www.omicsonline.org/2157-2526/2157-2526-S3-007.php?aid=3792http://www.omicsonline.org/2157-2526/2157-2526-S3-007.php?aid=3792http://wateriso.eas.purdue.edu/waterisotopes/pages/resources/web.htmlhttp://wateriso.eas.purdue.edu/waterisotopes/pages/resources/web.htmlhttp://wateriso.eas.purdue.edu/waterisotopes/pages/resources/web.htmlhttp://www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.htmlhttp://www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.htmlhttp://www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.htmlhttp://wateriso.eas.purdue.edu/waterisotopes/pages/resources/web.htmlhttp://www.omicsonline.org/2157-2526/2157-2526-S3-007.php?aid=3792http://www.physorg.com/news123180241.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news123180241.html


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What kind of water is most healthy to drink?

I am not aware of any evidence indicating that any one type of water

(including highly "pure" water) is more beneficial to health than any

other, as long as the water is pathogen-free and meets acceptedstandards such as those mentioned above. For those who are sensitive

to residual chlorine or still have concerns, a good activated-carbon

filter is usually satisfactory. More extreme measures such as reverse-

osmosis or distillation are only justified in demonstrably extreme

situations.

"Pure" rainwater always contains some

dissolved carbon dioxide which makes it

slightly acidic. When this water comes into

contact with sediments, it tends to dissolve

them, and in the process becomes

alkaline. The pH of drinking water can vary

from around 5 to 9, and it has no effect on one's health. The idea that

alkaline water is better to drink than acidic water is widely promoted

by alternative-health hucksters who market worthless"water ionizer"

machinesfor this purpose. Acidic water is sometimes described by

engineers as "aggressive"; this refers to its tendency to corrode metal

distribution pipes, but in this sense it is no more active than the

hydrochloric acid already present in your gastric fluid!

Ion-free water

One occasionally hears that mineral-free water, andespecially distilled water, are unhealthy because they "leach out"

required minerals from the body. There is no truth to this; the fact is

that mineral ions do not pass through cell walls by ordinary osmotic

diffusion, but rather areactively transportedby metabolic
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processes.An extensive 2008 studyfailed to confirm earlier reports

that low calcium/magnesium in drinking water correlates with

cardiovascular disease. Any well-balanced diet should supply all the

mineral substances we need.

It is well known that people who are engaged in heavy physical activity

or are in a very hot environment should avoid drinking large quantities

of even ordinary water. In order to prevent serious electrolyte

imbalance problems, it is necessary to make up for the salts lost

through perspiration. This can be accomplished by ingestion of salted

foods or beverages (including "sports beverages"), or salt tablets.

Water in our

bodies

About two-thirds of the weight of an adult human consists of water.

About two-thirds of this water is located within cells, while theremaining third consists of extracellular water, mostly in the blood

plasma and in the interstitial fluid that bathes the cells. This water,

amounting to about five percent of body weight (about 5 L in the

adult), serves as a supporting fluid for the blood cells and acts as a

means of transporting chemicals between cells and the external

environment. It is basically a 0.15M solution of salt (NaCl) containing

smaller amounts of other electrolytes, the most important of which arebicarbonate (HCO3

) and protein anions.

For more information, see thisFluid Physiology on-line text.

The water content of our bodies is tightly controlled in respect to both

total volume and its content of dissolved substances, particulary ions.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12803370?dopt=abstractplushttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12803370?dopt=abstractplushttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12803370?dopt=abstractplushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_drinkhttp://www.anaesthesiamcq.com/FluidBook/index.phphttp://www.anaesthesiamcq.com/FluidBook/index.phphttp://www.anaesthesiamcq.com/FluidBook/index.phphttp://www.anaesthesiamcq.com/FluidBook/index.phphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_drinkhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12803370?dopt=abstractplus


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Drinking constitutes only one source of our water; many foods,

especially those containing cells (fruits, vegetables, meats) are an

important secondary source. In addition, a considerable amount of

water (350-400 mL/day) is produced metabolically that is, from the

oxidation of glucose derived from foods.

The quantity of water exchanged within various parts of our bodies is surprisinglylarge. The kidneys process about 180 L/day, returning most of the water to theblood stream. Lymph flow amounts to 1-2.5 L/day, and turnover of fluids in thebowel to 8-9 L/day. These figures are dwarfed by the 80,000 L/day of water thatdiffuses in both directions through capillary walls.

How much water

should I drink?

The idea that everyone should drink "eight glasses" of water a day is

one of those urban legends that never seems to go away; it is nicely

debunked atthis medical myths site. ThisMayo Clinic page offers

sensible guidelines.

The body's daily water loss

Loss through breath: 800 mLMinimal sweat loss: 100 mLFecal loss: 200 mL

Minimal urine loss: 500 mL

Total: 1600 mL

Ultimately, total water intake plus metabolic production must balance

water loss. For a healthy unstressed adult, the figures shown here are

typical minimum values. Notice that the major loss is through simple

breathing. The minimal urinary loss is determined by the need to

remove salts and other solutes taken in with foods or produced by

metabolic processes. Individuals (such as many elderly) having

reduced kidney function produce more dilute urine, and must therefore
http://www.snopes.com/medical/myths/8glasses.asphttp://www.snopes.com/medical/myths/8glasses.asphttp://www.snopes.com/medical/myths/8glasses.asphttp://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283http://www.snopes.com/medical/myths/8glasses.asp


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take in more water. And of course stress factors such as strenuous

exercise, exposure to very high temperatures, or diarrhea can greatly

increase the need for water intake.

Consumption of overly large quantities of water can lead to electrolyte

imbalance resulting inwater intoxication. Children, with their low body

masses, are especially susceptible.A 2008 reportrecommends that

young infants should never be given water.

Bound waterAs we explained above, bulk liquid water consists of a seething mass

of various-sized chain-like groups and that flicker in and out of

existence on a time scale of picoseconds. But in the vicinity of a solid

surface or of another molecule or ion that possesses an unbalanced

electric charge, water molecules can become oriented and sometimes

even bound into relatively stable structures.

Water in ionichydration shells

Water molecules interact strongly with ions, which are electrically-

charged atoms or molecules. Dissolution of ordinary salt (NaCl) in

water yields a solution containing the ions Na+ and Cl . Owing to its

high polarity, the H2O molecules closest to the dissolved ion are

strongly attached to it, forming what is known as the inneror primary

hydration shell. Positively-charged ions such as Na+ attract the

negative (oxygen) ends of the H2O molecules, as shown in the diagram
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_intoxicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_intoxicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_intoxicationhttp://tvnz.co.nz/view/page/411416/1791981http://tvnz.co.nz/view/page/411416/1791981http://tvnz.co.nz/view/page/411416/1791981http://tvnz.co.nz/view/page/411416/1791981http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_intoxication


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below. The ordered structure within the primary shell creates, through

hydrogen-bonding, a region in which the surrounding waters are also

somewhat ordered; this is the outer hydration shell,

or cybotacticregion.

Somerecent experimentshave revealed a degree of covalent

bonding between the d-orbitals of transition metal ions andthe oxygen atoms of water molecules in the inner hydration

shell.

In 2003, some chemists in India found (Inorg. Chem. 44(4) pp

816 - 818) that a suitable molecular backbone (above) can cause

water molecules to form a "thread" that can snake its way thoughthe more open space of the larger molecules. What all of these

examples show is that water can have highly organized local

structures when it interacts with molecules capable of imposing

these structures on the water.
http://web.archive.org/web/20080309133253/http:/www-als.lbl.gov/als/science/sci_archive/67orbitmix.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20080309133253/http:/www-als.lbl.gov/als/science/sci_archive/67orbitmix.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20080309133253/http:/www-als.lbl.gov/als/science/sci_archive/67orbitmix.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20080309133253/http:/www-als.lbl.gov/als/science/sci_archive/67orbitmix.html


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Finally, a2006 publicationfrom U. Nebraska-Lincoln describes how

water can form a DNA-like double-helix within a carbon nanotube

that is subjected to high pressure.

Biowater: Boundwater in biological

systems

It has long been known that the intracellular water very close to any

membrane or organelle (sometimes called vicinal water) is organized

very differently from bulk water, and that this structured water plays a

significant role in governing the shape (and thus biological activity) of

large folded biopolymers. It is important to bear in mind, however,

that the structure of the water in these regions is imposed solely by

the geometry of the surrounding hydrogen bonding sites.

Water can hydrogen-bond not only to itself, but also to any other

molecules that have -OH or -NH2 units hanging off of them. This

includes simple molecules such as alcohols, surfaces such as glass,

and macromolecules such as proteins. The biological activity of

proteins (of which enzymes are an important subset) is critically

dependent not only on their composition but also on the way these

huge molecules are folded; this folding involves hydrogen-bonded

interactions with water, and also between different parts of the

molecule itself. Anything that disrupts these intramolecular hydrogen

bonds will denature the protein and destroy its biological activity. This

is essentially what happens when you boil an egg; the bonds that hold

the eggwhite protein in its compact folded arrangement break apart so

that the molecules unfold into a tangled, insoluble mass which, like

Humpty Dumpty, cannot be restored to their original forms. Note that
http://www.physorg.com/news85225602.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news85225602.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news85225602.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news85225602.html


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hydrogen-bonding need not always involve water; thus the two parts

of the DNA double helix are held together by HNH hydrogen bonds.

This image, taken from the work

ofWilliam Royer Jr. of the U. Mass.Medical School, shows the water structure

(small green circles) that exists in the

space between the two halves of a kind of

dimeric hemoglobin. The thin dotted lines

represent hydrogen bonds. Owing to the

geometry of the hydrogen-bonding sites

on the heme protein backbones, the H2O

molecules within this region are highlyordered; the local water structure is stabilized by these

hydrogen bonds, and the resulting water cluster in turn

stabilizes this particular geometric form of the hemoglobin

dimer. More diagrams, with commentary, can be found here.

Prof. Pollock's latest (2013) book,The Fourth Phase of Water, is as

beautifully written and illustrated as his earlier one. And it will likely

prove equally controversial, firming up the author's reputation (at least

among some chemists) as "The Bad Boy of Water Science". Thepublisher offers afree pdf filecontaining several chapters.

Cells, Gels and the Engines of

Life: A New, Unifying

Approach to Cell Functionis

the title of a fascinating,

beautifully illustrated book by

Gerald Pollack of the

University of Washington. His

central theme relates to the

structuring effect of the water

molecule on the dynamics of

the cytoplasmic gel. As with
http://www.umassmed.edu/bmp/faculty/royer.cfmhttp://www.umassmed.edu/bmp/faculty/royer.cfmhttp://www.umassmed.edu/bmp/faculty/royer.cfmhttp://web.archive.org/web/20070608075643/http:/www.umassmed.edu/bmp/faculty/royer.cfm?start=Figureshttp://web.archive.org/web/20070608075643/http:/www.umassmed.edu/bmp/faculty/royer.cfm?start=Figureshttp://www.ebnerandsons.com/http://www.ebnerandsons.com/http://www.ebnerandsons.com/http://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0161/7154/t/2/assets/FOURTH_PHASE_SAMPLE.pdf?1410http://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0161/7154/t/2/assets/FOURTH_PHASE_SAMPLE.pdf?1410http://www.washington.edu/news/archive/id/12517http://www.washington.edu/news/archive/id/12517http://www.washington.edu/news/archive/id/12517http://www.washington.edu/news/archive/id/12517http://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0161/7154/t/2/assets/FOURTH_PHASE_SAMPLE.pdf?1410http://www.ebnerandsons.com/http://web.archive.org/web/20070608075643/http:/www.umassmed.edu/bmp/faculty/royer.cfm?start=Figureshttp://www.umassmed.edu/bmp/faculty/royer.cfm


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most theories that challenge

conventional scientific

understanding, Pollack's ideas

have attracted a lot of

criticism from the scientific

community (example), but

asthis review

in Naturesuggests, there is a

lot here that is certainly

worth exploring. This

videoof his 2009 UW Faculty

Lecture is entertaining and

informative.

Water

Pseudoscience

See the "AquaScams" site for much more on this subject. Here are a

few highlights.

"Clustered","Unclustered" and

other structure-altered waters

The "alternative" health market is full ofgoofy

productswhich purport to alter the structure of water

by stabilizing groups of H2O molecules into

permanent clusters of 4-8 molecules, or alternatively,

to break up what they claim are the larger clusters

(usually 10-15 molecules) that they say normally
http://jcs.biologists.org/content/115/19/3717http://jcs.biologists.org/content/115/19/3717http://www.nature.com/icb/journal/v80/n5/full/icb200270a.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/icb/journal/v80/n5/full/icb200270a.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/icb/journal/v80/n5/full/icb200270a.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/icb/journal/v80/n5/full/icb200270a.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/http://www.chem1.com/CQ/clusqk.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/clusqk.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/clusqk.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/clusqk.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/clusqk.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/http://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/icb/journal/v80/n5/full/icb200270a.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/icb/journal/v80/n5/full/icb200270a.htmlhttp://jcs.biologists.org/content/115/19/3717


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exist in water. The object in either case is to promote theflow of water

into the body's cells("cellular hydration"). This is of course utter

nonsense; there is no credible scientific evidence for any of these

claims, many of which verge on the bizarre. There are even

some scientifically absurd U.S. Patentsfor the manufacture of so-

called "Clustered Water". At least 20 nostrums of this kind are

offered to the scientifically-nave public through hundreds of Web sites

and late-night radio "infomercials". None of this misleading sales hype

should be believed.

Does water have"memory"?

According to modern-day proponents of homeopathy, it must.

Homeopathic remedies are made by diluting solutions of various

substances so greatly that not even a single molecule of the active

substance can be expected to be present in the final medication. Now

that even the homeopaths have come to accept this fact, they explain

that the water somehow retains the "imprint" or "memory" of the

original solute.

Some references (mostly skeptical) on homeopathy

In 1985, the lateJacques Benveniste, a French biologist, conducted

experiments that purported to show that a certain type of cellular

immune response could be brought about by an anti-immunoglobulin

agent that had been diluted to such an extent that it is highly unlikely

that even one molecule of this agent remained in the aqueous

solution. He interpreted this to indicate that water could somehow

retain an impression, or "memory", of a solute that had been diluted

out of existence. This result was immediately taken by believers in
http://www.chem1.com/CQ/aquaporin.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/aquaporin.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/aquaporin.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/aquaporin.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/clusterpats.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/clusterpats.htmlhttp://www.phy.syr.edu/courses/modules/PSEUDO/pseudo_main.html#homeopathyhttp://www.phy.syr.edu/courses/modules/PSEUDO/pseudo_main.html#homeopathyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Benvenistehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Benvenistehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Benvenistehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Benvenistehttp://www.phy.syr.edu/courses/modules/PSEUDO/pseudo_main.html#homeopathyhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/clusterpats.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/aquaporin.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/CQ/aquaporin.html


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homeopathy as justification for their dogma that similarly diluted

remedies could be effective as alternative medical agents. The

consensus among chemists is that any temporary disruption of the

water structure by a dissolved agent would disappear within a fraction

of a second after its removal by dilution, owing to the vigorous thermal

motions of the water molecules. Benveniste's results have never been

convincingly replicated by other scientists (see here for a recent

summary).

In 2010, a UK parliamentry committee report urged the

government to withdraw funding and licensing of

homeopathy.

Can you run yourcaron

wat

er?

Not really. For water to act as a fuel, there

must be some combination of oxygen and

hydrogen that is energetically more stable

than H2O, and no such molecule is known.

This fact has failed to put to rest the venerable urban legend

that some obscure inventor discovered a process to do this,

but the invention was secretly bought up by the oilcompanies in order to preserve their monopoly.

It takes 286 kJ of energy to break up 18 g of water into its elements. Allowing theoxygen and hydrogen to recombine yields this same amount of energy back in the

form of heat. But to do anything useful with this heat, it must be converted intowork, and theSecond Law of Thermodynamicslimits the efficiency of this step toless (usually far less) than 100%. If the hydrogen and oxygen are recombined in afuel cell, the Second Law limitation is removed, but theFirst Lawstill limits energy
http://www.angelfire.com/falcon/starbird/technopagan/index.blog?entry_id=300227http://www.angelfire.com/falcon/starbird/technopagan/index.blog?entry_id=300227http://www.angelfire.com/falcon/starbird/technopagan/index.blog?entry_id=300227http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-archive/science-technology/s-t-homeopathy-inquiry/http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/thermeq/TE3.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/thermeq/TE3.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/thermeq/TE3.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/energetics/CE-2.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/energetics/CE-2.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/energetics/CE-2.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/energetics/CE-2.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/thermeq/TE3.htmlhttp://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-archive/science-technology/s-t-homeopathy-inquiry/http://www.angelfire.com/falcon/starbird/technopagan/index.blog?entry_id=300227http://www.angelfire.com/falcon/starbird/technopagan/index.blog?entry_id=300227


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recovery to 100%, and this does not count inefficiencies in the initial decompositionof water.Any scheme to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen requires a netinput of energy.

However, adding water to the fuel-air mixture in an internal

combustion engine, a process known as water injection, hasbeen employed for many years as a method of improving theperformance of both piston- and turbine engines. Water

injection kits are widely available, many offered by hucksterswhose marketing (sample) falsely implies that their products

allow you to "run your car on water". Don't believe it! Andget some solid advice before you try this on a modern

computer-controlled high compression engine.

Burning waterIn 2007, a widely-citedYouTube videoappeared that showed a

sample of salt water "burning". This occurs only in the presence

of a strong radio-frequency field, which supposedly dissociates

the water into H2 and O2. These two gases then recombine,

producing the flame. Although there has been much uninformed

hype about this being some kind of a breakthrough as a source of

"energy from water", there is no reason to believe that the First

Law of Thermodynamics has been repealed. If the energy

supplied by the radio-frequency source is taken into account, you

can be sure that there has been no net energy gain.

The actual mechanism of the process remains unclear. The fact that salt or

some other ionic solute is required suggests that ions at the water's surface

might be accelerated in the local field produced by the plasma discharge,

helping to break up the molecules in the water vapor.

But for something reallyfar-out, few things beat the sub-culture of the

"free energy" pseudoscience enthusiasts and their religion-likeobsession with "HHO"(also known as "Brown's gas") for whom the

lateStan Meyerseemed to be the guru. Seethis videoabout Stan

Meyer's "water fuel cell" that apparently flouts allthe laws of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_injection_(engines)http://www.runyourscarwithwater.com/http://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.htmlhttp://www.watertogas.com/http://www.watertogas.com/http://www.watertogas.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan_Meyerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan_Meyerhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan_Meyerhttp://www.watertogas.com/http://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.htmlhttp://www.runyourscarwithwater.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_injection_(engines)


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thermodynamics! (and see here orherefor some competent

debunking of this nonsense.)

References

The mystery, art and science of water. This site provides

a view of water in all the many ways it impacts upon the

multiple facets of our culture. Highly recommended.

Water Treatment- this Wikipedia page covers the basics of

water treatment and disinfection.Water Structure and Propertiesis a Web site developed

by Martin Chaplin at South Bank University in England. It is a

scientifically sound, well laid-out collection of articles on

water and its structure which should answer any of your

questions.

Does hot water freeze faster than cold water? Yes, this

can happen under the right conditions. Brief

explanation,more complete explanation. See also Warm

water vibrates for a longer time.

Special Report on the Chemistry of Waterfrom the U.S.

National Science Foundation. An interesting summary of new

work on water and its structure, with some striking images.

"Water Buckyballs": Chemical, catalytic and cosmic

implications. This rather technical paper by Keith Johnson

of MIT explores the quantum theory and far-i.r. spectra ofwater clusters and speculates on their role in

cosmochemistry.

{The structure of ideal liquid water}- a well-organized

but rather technical Web site by Gregory Moreno. It includes
http://blog.everydayscientist.com/?cat=50http://blog.everydayscientist.com/?cat=50http://www.aardvark.co.nz/stanley_meyer.shtmlhttp://www.aardvark.co.nz/stanley_meyer.shtmlhttp://witcombe.sbc.edu/water/http://witcombe.sbc.edu/water/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatmenthttp://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/http://www.answerbag.com/q_view.php/11063http://www.answerbag.com/q_view.php/11063http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/hot_water.htmlhttp://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/hot_water.htmlhttp://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/hot_water.htmlhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.buzzle.com/img/articleImages/431422-28.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/2-22-2004-50859.asp&h=292&w=250&sz=22&hl=en&start=303&sig2=NA3_tzLtT1NQ5f4bpv767w&um=1&tbnid=gL_3pmreTu1QKM:&tbnh=115&tbnw=98&ei=pDsuRrPhPJDMgAPAj5D7Cg&prev=/images?q=water+molecule&start=300&ndsp=20&svnum=50&um=1&hl=en&newwindow=1&safe=off&sa=Nhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.buzzle.com/img/articleImages/431422-28.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/2-22-2004-50859.asp&h=292&w=250&sz=22&hl=en&start=303&sig2=NA3_tzLtT1NQ5f4bpv767w&um=1&tbnid=gL_3pmreTu1QKM:&tbnh=115&tbnw=98&ei=pDsuRrPhPJDMgAPAj5D7Cg&prev=/images?q=water+molecule&start=300&ndsp=20&svnum=50&um=1&hl=en&newwindow=1&safe=off&sa=Nhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.buzzle.com/img/articleImages/431422-28.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/2-22-2004-50859.asp&h=292&w=250&sz=22&hl=en&start=303&sig2=NA3_tzLtT1NQ5f4bpv767w&um=1&tbnid=gL_3pmreTu1QKM:&tbnh=115&tbnw=98&ei=pDsuRrPhPJDMgAPAj5D7Cg&prev=/images?q=water+molecule&start=300&ndsp=20&svnum=50&um=1&hl=en&newwindow=1&safe=off&sa=Nhttp://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/water/http://www.watercluster.com/http://www.watercluster.com/http://web.archive.org/web/20021207085952/http:/www.morenos.com/waterstructure.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20021207085952/http:/www.morenos.com/waterstructure.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20021207085952/http:/www.morenos.com/waterstructure.htmlhttp://www.watercluster.com/http://www.watercluster.com/http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/water/http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.buzzle.com/img/articleImages/431422-28.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/2-22-2004-50859.asp&h=292&w=250&sz=22&hl=en&start=303&sig2=NA3_tzLtT1NQ5f4bpv767w&um=1&tbnid=gL_3pmreTu1QKM:&tbnh=115&tbnw=98&ei=pDsuRrPhPJDMgAPAj5D7Cg&prev=/images?q=water+molecule&start=300&ndsp=20&svnum=50&um=1&hl=en&newwindow=1&safe=off&sa=Nhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.buzzle.com/img/articleImages/431422-28.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/2-22-2004-50859.asp&h=292&w=250&sz=22&hl=en&start=303&sig2=NA3_tzLtT1NQ5f4bpv767w&um=1&tbnid=gL_3pmreTu1QKM:&tbnh=115&tbnw=98&ei=pDsuRrPhPJDMgAPAj5D7Cg&prev=/images?q=water+molecule&start=300&ndsp=20&svnum=50&um=1&hl=en&newwindow=1&safe=off&sa=Nhttp://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/hot_water.htmlhttp://www.answerbag.com/q_view.php/11063http://www.answerbag.com/q_view.php/11063http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatmenthttp://witcombe.sbc.edu/water/http://www.aardvark.co.nz/stanley_meyer.shtmlhttp://blog.everydayscientist.com/?cat=50


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an extensive bibliography of scientific articles on water

structure from 1915 through 1992.

Water on earth: the hydrosphere and the oceans- this site,

from the Author's former course in Environmental Chemistry,presents a general survey.

Why is water blue?It's all about O-H bond stretching!A

more technical site. See also this nicely illustrated NASA

article Where is the ocean bluest?

For a darker view of water, see theBan DHMOpage

and finally...

Science tells us about the world, but the arts help us

discoverourselves. Here are a few water-related

artistic works that I would like to share:
http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/geochem/05txt.htmlhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/geochem/05txt.htmlhttp://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htmhttp://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htmhttp://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htmhttp://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htmhttp://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htmhttp://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htmhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.buzzle.com/img/articleImages/431422-28.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/2-22-2004-50859.asp&h=292&w=250&sz=22&hl=en&start=303&sig2=NA3_tzLtT1NQ5f4bpv767w&um=1&tbnid=gL_3pmreTu1QKM:&tbnh=115&tbnw=98&ei=pDsuRrPhPJDMgAPAj5D7Cg&prev=/images?q=water+molecule&start=300&ndsp=20&svnum=50&um=1&hl=en&newwindow=1&safe=off&sa=Nhttp://www.dhmo.org/http://www.dhmo.org/http://www.dhmo.org/http://www.dhmo.org/http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.buzzle.com/img/articleImages/431422-28.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/2-22-2004-50859.asp&h=292&w=250&sz=22&hl=en&start=303&sig2=NA3_tzLtT1NQ5f4bpv767w&um=1&tbnid=gL_3pmreTu1QKM:&tbnh=115&tbnw=98&ei=pDsuRrPhPJDMgAPAj5D7Cg&prev=/images?q=water+molecule&start=300&ndsp=20&svnum=50&um=1&hl=en&newwindow=1&safe=off&sa=Nhttp://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htmhttp://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htmhttp://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htmhttp://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/geochem/05txt.html


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WATER FILTERS | Water Filtration Methods | VITALIZER PLUS Structure your

own water!KANGENDetox Water | Distilled Water | Contamination |Benefits of Hexagonal

Water

Whole House Water Filter | Bottled Water | Censorship | Science ofStructured Water

Ozone & Water | Ozonator | Dehydration | Expert Opinions | TheMessagefrom Water

Magnets and Water | Infrared Light | Ultraviolet Light | Carbon | RelatedArticles

STRUCTURED WATER:

ITS HEALING EFFECTS ON THE DISEASED STATE

By Norman deLauder Mikesell, 1985

ABSTRACT ON STRUCTURED WATER RESEARCH

Structured water is found in the cytoplasm of healthy tissue. It has a high solubility for the body'sminerals, so minerals and vitamins, which are formed with structured water, tend to go from the digestivetract and bloodstream into the tissues. Structured water can be formed using lights, magnets,temperature changes, quartz crystals, pyramids, motion, and sounds. Structured water formed with bluelight or North Pole magnetic energy is slightly alkaline and has an increased surface tension. Waterstructured with yellow and red light, south pole magnetic energy or within a pyramid is slightly acidic andhas a decreased surface tension. The two types of structured water each have increased mineralsolubilities and different healing effects on the body. North pole magnetic energy and water is known tostop the growth of pathogenic bacteria and cancer tumors while south-pole magnetic energy and waterenhances organ functions and endocrine excretions. The structured water research will investigate thephysical, chemical and biological characteristics of water structured under different conditions of light,temperature, magnets, quartz crystals, pyramids and sounds. The physical changes in dielectricconductivity and surface tension will be investigated. The chemical changes in the pH and mineralsolubilities will be correlated with the different biological actions found for each type of structured water.

FORMATION OF STRUCTURED WATER

All light structures water. Light centered in the blue, violet and ultraviolet end of the spectrum will producean alkaline structured water. Examples of these kinds of light are sunlight at high noon (blue) bilirubin light(blue) and germicidal light (U.V.). Light centered in the green part of the spectrum; early morning and lateafternoon sunlight, tree shade and Kiva lights structure water at a neutral pH. Light centered in the yellowand red end of the spectrum produces an acid structured water. Examples of these kinds of light are
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incandescent light bulbs (yellow), cool white fluorescent tubes (yellow), warm white fluorescent tubes(yellow) and Gro-Lites (pink) (Bachechi, 1982 p. 14).

North-pole magnetic energy structures water and amino acid solutions to an alkaline pH and increaseswater surface tension. South-pole magnetic energy structures water amino acid solutions to an acid pHand decreases water surface tension (Davis & Rawls, 1979 pp. 85-86 and Rees, pp. 26-27). A decrease

in surface tension is also found with water placed under a pyramid (Schul & Pettit, 1975 pp. 91-92).

Structured water has a higher solubility for minerals than bulk water. Water activated by Kiva lights(Bachechi, 1984), red light and electrical discharge from a neon & mercury filled vial (Gauquelin, 1969)and south-pole magnetic energy (Davis and Rawls, 1979 p.89) will dissolve calcium deposits found inhard water and boiler scale. These three types of activated water are structured to an acid pH and havean increased solubility for structure-maker ions -- ions that cause water to become more highly structured.Structure-maker ions are all multivalent ions and monovalent ions the size of sodium or smaller. Theseare Li

+1, Na

+1, H30

+1, Ca

+2, Ga

+2, Mg

+3, Al

+2, Er

+3, OH

-1, and F

-1.

Ions which are more soluble in alkaline structured water are called structure-breaker ions and include allmonovalent ions, the size of potassium or larger. These are K

+1, NH4

-1, Rb

+1, Co

+1, Br

-1, I

-1, NO3

-1, BrO3

-1,

I03-1

, CIO4-1

. (Mikesell 1974,pp. 2-3). These solubility differences are reflected in the cells ionic make-up.

The cytoplasm of healthy tissues have a slightly basic pH and a high potassium to sodium ratio while thebloodstream, nucleus and extracellular fluid is more acidic with a higher sodium content (Mikesell, 1974pp. 5-14).

Structured water has a decreased solubility for dissolved gases. Kiva light activated water has a decreasein the amount of dissolved chlorine gas, that which remains is turned into a chloride ion (Bachechi, 1984).Magnet activated water has a decrease in the dissolved oxygen and nitrogen (Davis & Rawls, 1975 pp.118-119). Water with 1.2 ppm dissolved nitrogen, which is exposed to either a North Pole or South Polemagnet, loses half of its dissolved nitrogen. The same water, which is exposed to an alternating north-pole south-pole electromagnet, has one quarter the original amount of dissolved nitrogen (Davis & Rawls,1979 p. 88).

Structured water can be formed using lights, magnets, temperature changes, quartz crystals, pyramid

energy, sounds and minerals. The effect of lights should first be studied since all laboratory experimentsare done under some kind of artificial lights - usually either cool white fluorescence, warm whitefluorescence or incandescent bulbs. Since these three lights are centered in the yellow end of thespectrum, all structured water data will be biased toward an acid pH condition. Therefore structured waterexperiments on the changes in pH, dielectric conductivity and surface tension should be done onincandescent bulbs, Gro-Lites, warm white and cool white fluorescent lights, Kiva lights, bilirubin lightsand UV germicidal lights in order to find out the amount each light will bias subsequent experiments onother water structuring energies. It could be that standard lighting conditions for structured waterexperiments should be all cool whites, all Kiva lights or even that experiments should only be done in thedark. The activation of water by a Kiva light, because it is centered in the green, structures both the acidand the alkaline ions. The North Pole and south pole magnetized water will structure both the acid andalkaline ions. One explanation for the decrease in the dissolved gas content of Kiva lighted and sunenergized water is that the acid structured water, with its decreased surface tension, opens the water

bonding up and allows the dissolved chlorine to escape into the atmosphere. The alkaline structured-water is more soluble for H3O+1

, OH-1

, NH4+1

, NO3-1

, Cl-1

, ClO-1

, ions. The hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ionswill react with chlorine to form Cl ions and CIO4

-1ions, with nitrogen to form NH4

+1and NO3

-1and will react

with oxygen to form additional hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. Dissolved CO 2 will react with hydrogen ions toform carboxylic acid (HCOO

-1).

The structuring of water can be done using both light and magnetic energy. Parccardi demonstrated thisby stirring a vial of low-pressure neon with a drop of mercury around in a beaker of water. The mercury,rubbing on the wall of the vial produces a slight electromagnetic current, which causes the neon todischarge a red fluorescent light. This produces an acid structured water which dissolves boiler scale


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(Gauquelin, 1969). The inert gases, subjected to pressure and a magnetic field, have been used onwater, juice or as whole body irradiation to cure a variety of diseases (Cook, 1980 pp. 1-7).

Changes in temperature have been used to structure water. An increase in temperature is used in makingcell salt solutions. Each successive dilution is prepared by either raising the temperature 10 degreesCentigrade or shaking a bottle 2/3's full of the salt solution 40-50 times. This forms hydration shells

around each of the ions, which causes an increased separation between the ions and structures thewater around the ions (Mikesell, 1974 pp. 14-16). A decrease in temperature is used in structuringvortexya water. Water is vortexed, under vacuum, at 4 degrees Centigrade with C02, 02 and traceminerals, which combine with the oxygen and with the carbon dioxide (Baumgardner pp. 5-7). Thiscreates both acid and alkaline structured water with an increased solubility of the trace minerals. Freshlymelted snow and water, which has been boiled and quickly cooled, is degassed to the point where thewater becomes structured. This kind of water is more biologically active, shows an increased surfacetension, density and viscosity and a decrease in electrical conductivity. (Maugh II, 1978 p. 414)

Minerals will structure water. Silica gel will cause an alkaline structuring of water with an increasedsurface tension and solubility of potassium structure-breaking type ions (Mikesell 1974, pp. 7-9). Hunzawater is composed of all the sea waters minerals except NaCl and has a decreased surface tension(Flanagan, 1984).

Pyramid energy will produce acid structured water with a decrease in surface tension if water is placedinside a pyramid. The pyramid's effect on water has been attributed to an increase in the water's dipolemoment. (Schul-Pettit, 1975 pp. 91-92 & 102-105).

Quartz crystals structure water for several reasons. They will impart pyramid energy to water becausetheir points are at the pyramid angle of 76 degrees. The silica dioxide will increase the water's viscositywhen water is placed between two silica plates (Peschel, G. & P Belouschek, 1979 p. 9). Crystals have apiezoelectric energy, which varies depending upon their orientation in the earth's magnetic field. Pierralosfound a pulse rate of 9/mm. with the leading edge of a crystal facing south, 6/mm. facing west, 4/mm.facing north and 14/mm. when facing east (Pierralos, 1971 p.18). The crystal's piezoelectric energy willalso amplify the variations in pressure caused by sound while the pyroelectric energy will reflect variationsin heat produced by different frequencies of light. Water treated on top of pyramids and with Ralf

Bergstresser's pyramid energized aluminum plates should be tested to see how the water is structured.

Sound structuring of water needs to be tested. Keely found that striking a resonate chord of an object inthree octaves, the third, sixth and ninth of a chord scale would produce a variable effect. The sixth wouldcause the matter to condense while the ninth would have an expanding or levitating effect (Sykes 1964pp. 20-21, Richards 1983 p. 2, & Richards 1984 p. 12).

The structuring of water by these various means should be measured by looking at changes in pH,oxidation-reduction potential, dielectric conductivity, UV spectrophotometry, surface tension, viscosity,density, freezing temperature, ice crystal formation, dried crystal formation, mineral solubilities, biologicalactivity and healing abilities.

DETOXIFYING THE BODY TO HEAL PATHOGENIC AND METABOLIC DISEASES

In my review of alternative healing procedures I have found four methods which will detoxify the body andcure pathogenic and metabolic diseases -- Koch Therapy, Kiva Lights, vortexya Water and the John RayProgram of minerals. They work by inducing a periodic healing crisis, which includes diarrhea andendocrine activation. The Koch Therapy heals by providing two activators of cellular oxidative reactions,Glyoxyide and Coenzyme Q10 that allows the cells to remove pathogenic bacteria and viruses andreabsorb cancerous tumors. (Koch 1961, p. 278 & 288). Kiva lights, when used on cooking water andfood, cause the food to be properly absorbed by the body and induces the body to heal itself of cancers,Candida yeast, food allergies, arthritis, overweight and underweight metabolism. When used over the


35/46

cooking water and bath water, the Kiva lights remove chlorine and structure the water so minerals aremore soluble and biologically active. Both the Koch Therapy and the Kiva Process detoxify the body insuch a way that every month on the Kiva Process equals one year's worth of toxic elimination. Forexample, if you had quit smoking or drinking six years ago, then after six months of Kiva food processingyou would find yourself starting to eliminate nicotine or alcohol toxins from your body. This would continuein terms of months, for however many years you smoked or drank (Bachicha, 1984). With Koch Therapy,polio victims who have been paralyzed for three years require three months to recover 95% normalfunction, while one patient who was paralyzed for twenty years had 95% normal functioning and musclereconstruction after two years of Koch Therapy detoxification. (Koch 1961, p. 16). The John Ray Programuses a high amount of chelated trace minerals from kelp, enzymes, vitamins, acidophilus and herbs topromote good nutrition and periodic diarrhea. Acupressure points are pressed to activate the organs, theendocrine system and to remove calcifications. Colon elimination is so good that intestinal tumors anddiverticuli are flushed out and cancers in other parts of the body are reabsorbed (John Ray LectureTapes, 1984).

Vortexya water has the same trace minerals found in kelp. They are activated by vortexing under vacuumwith oxygen and carbon dioxide at 4 degrees Centigrade. This bio-active water rejuvenates the endocrineglands, normalizes intestinal elimination and heals the body of cancers, arthritis, kidney stones, gallstones and other metabolic disorders by flooding the tissues with an active form of oxygen, carbondioxide and trace minerals. (Baumgardner, p. 5-7)

KIVA LIGHTS

Chemical mechanisms on Orie Bachechi's eight year study of the effects of full spectrum Kiva lightssubmitted to One for his use in grant proposals and the designing of future experiments.

Kiva light removes dust and static electricity from the air while holding the humidity between 45 and 55%.This balances the positive and negative ion contents in a room. Rooms, which are dry and dusty, aredepleted in negative ions while rooms, which are very humid, have few positive or negative ions. The Kivalight produces highly active water molecules, which precipitate the dust (positive ions), and excesshumidity (negative ions) to produce a room, which has an equal balance of, charged positive andnegative ions. Negative ion studies show a balance of positive and negative ions increases oxygen

absorption in man.

The Kiva light changes the pH of water. This change comes from the light structuring or activating thewater to form free radicals or highly reactive positive and negative ions within the water. These chargedions will react with other water molecules to form ionized chains of water molecules and will ionizedissolved gases and minerals. Dissolved minerals become more highly soluble because there are morewater hydration shells around each mineral. This increase in the charged molecule changes the chemicalstrength of the dissolved minerals and changes the pH of the water. Dissolved gases become ionized instructured water. Kiva lights change dissolved chlorine gas into chloride ions by the structured waterionizing the Cl2 molecules into two Cl free radicals which then react with two H free radicals to form twoHCl molecules. This reaction will change the water to a more acid pH.

Dissolved CO2 gas will become HCOO-1

(carboxylic acid) while dissolved 02 will react with H free radicals

to become two basic hydroxyl (OH-1

ions).

Kiva lights seem to inhibit several well-known free radical organic and biochemical reactions. Epoxy gluewill not bond under Kiva light but will stick when placed under incandescent lights.

These reactions probably need an acid environment to go from the free radical condition to the ionic orcovalently bonded state. Fats and oils do not become rancid under Kiva lights so meat and vegetables donot spoil as readily with Kiva light as they do under acid causing yellow or pink lights.


36/46

Kiva lights are modified 4 foot fluorescent Vita-Lites which when placed over the kitchen sink structure thetap water and the food prepared in the kitchen. People using these lights in this manner experienceperiodic detoxification reactions, which include a slight fever and diarrhea. Many diseased conditions areimproved by this use of structured water including poor circulation, high blood pressure, cellulite loss, dryskin, kidney and gall bladder stones, toxicity, anemia, ulcers, diabetes, arthritis, fibroid tumors andparalysis (Bachechi, 1982).

In the body, poor circulation, high blood pressure, arterial sclerosis and cellulite from cholesterol depositsare dissolved after KIVA activated water has been used for cooking. Also skin becomes softer and lesswrinkled. Cholesterol deposits are due to free radical oxidation while skin wrinkles are caused by freeradical cross linkage of collagen molecules.

Arthritis, kidney stones and gall bladder stones are alleviated by a rebalancing of the calcium metabolism.

- END -

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vortex, increasing the amount of oxygen in your drinkingwater - up to 30%.3. Add Minerals a mineral core within the unitreleases structure-making minerals during the vitalizingprocess to help structure the water and increasealkalinity. NOTE: these are minimal and dissolvedcompletely for easy simulation into the body.4. Add Energy the resulting energy in Vitalized wateris enough to begin to balance the organs of your bodywithin minutes after drinking.

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Bibliography Bachechi, Orie (1982) When Light Touches Many Changes Take Place, Kiva, Inc., 912 Broadway N.E., Albuquerque,

NM 87102 Bachechi, Orie (1984) Personal Communication, Albuquerque, NM: Kiva, Inc. Baumgardner, Walter Vortexya Water, Albuquerque, NM: Energy Unlimited, p. 5-7 Beall, Paula T. (1979) "Applications of Cell Biology to an Understanding of Biological Water" in Cell-Associated Water,

(Drost-Hansen, W. and James S. Clegg; Eds.) New York: Academic Press Bradford, Robert W., Henry W. Allen and Michael L. Culbert (1981) Phase I Research Project (The HLB Blood Test),

San Francisco, CA: The Robert Bradford Research Institute, 111 Ellis St., Suite 300, San Francisco, CA 94102 C1egg, James S. (1979) "Metabolism and the Intracellular Environment: The Vincinal-Water Network Model" in Cell-

Associated Water, (Drost-Hansen, W. and James S. Clegg; Eds.) New York: Academic Press Clifford, J., B.A. Pethica and E.G. Smith (1968) "A Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Investigation of Molecular Motion in

Erythrocyte Membranes" in Membrane Models and the Formation of Biological Membranes, (Bolis, Liana and Pethica;Eds.) pp. 19-42

Cook, Maurice B. (1980) The Inert Gases, Toronto, Canada: Marcus Books

Davis, A.R. & W.C. Rawls (1979) The Magnetic Blueprint of Life, Smithtown, NY: Exposition Press Davis, A.R. & W.C. Rawls (1975) The Magnetic Effect, Smithtown, NY: Exposition Press Flanagan, Patrick (1984) Hunza Crystal Water, Novato, CA: Flanagan Research LTD Gauquelin, M. (1969) The Cosmic Clocks, London: Peter Owen Koch, William F. (1961) The Survival Factor in Neoplastic and Viral Diseases, p. 16, pp. 278 & 288 Levine, S.A. and P.M. Kidd (1985) Antioxidant Adaptation: Its Role in Free Radical Pathology, San Leandro, CA:

Biocurrents Div., Allergy Research Group (400 Preda St., San Leandro, CA 94577) Ling, G.N. (1969) "A New Model for the Living Cell: A Summary of the Theory and Recent Experimental Evidence in its

Support" in International Review of Cytology 26, pp. 1-61 Maugh II, Thomas H. (1978) "Soviet Science: A Wonder Water From Kaza" Science 202, p. 414 (8/27/78) Mikesell, Norman (1974) "Cellular Regeneration", pp. 2-16 Peschel, G. & P. Belouschek (1979) "The Problem of Water Structure in Biological Systems" Cell-Associated Water,

(edited by W. Drost-Kansen & James S. Clegg) NY: Academic Press Pierralos, J.C. (1971) The Energy Field in Man and Nature, NY: Institute of Bioenergetic Analysis, p. 18

Ray, John (September 1984) Tapes from John Ray Lectures at Boulder, Colorado. Rees, M.L. Lambdoid, Cell Salt Line, p. 26 & 27 Richards, Shine E.E. (1983) Earth Power Spectrum and Its Potential As A Usable Energy Source, Pie Town, NM Richards, Shine E.E. (1984) Multi-Octave

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