aquaculture needs you! - university of washingtondepts.washington.edu/wracuw/front page/retired...
TRANSCRIPT
Aquaculture needs you!
Ronald W. Hardy, Director
Aquaculture Research Institute
How solid science is
needed by the
aquaculture industry
Tuna farming in Mexico – example of
poor aquaculture practice
Topics to be covered
• Global aquaculture – scale and scope
• Aquaculture’s contribution to the food supply– Three examples: salmon, tilapia, shrimp
• Challenges associated with aquaculture’s growth– Water resources
– Feed resources
• Science – academics & critical thinking– Science-based and value-based approaches
– Scientists must strive to improve aquaculture, being critical is not enough
– Examples of current research in fish nutrition
Global Aquaculture
Marine net pen
Shrimp pondsShellfish
Examples of aquaculture production systems
Tuna farm in Mexico
Idaho trout farm
Scale and scope of aquaculture
• Currently a $97 billion global business growing at 9% per year
worldwide
• Supplies half of fishery products (traditional fishing supplies the
other half)
• Major source of income and foreign exchange for many
countries
• Major source of protein for over 3 billion people
• Average per capita fish consumption is 16.7 kg/yr (~37 pounds);
US is half of this average
• In Bangladesh, for example, 8% of diet may be fish and the rest
consists almost entirely of rice
World fisheries landings and aquaculture production
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50
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Aquaculture
Catch for food
Fish meal
Estimated
Million metric tons
Leading aquaculture producing countries
Countries Production, metric tons (2006)
China 34,429,122
India 3,123,135
Viet Nam 1,657,727
Thailand 1,385,801
Indonesia 1,292,899
Bangladesh 892,049
Chile 802,410
Japan 733,891
Norway 708,780
Philippines 623,369
United States ~500,000
Aquaculture production by country
0 10000000 20000000 30000000 40000000
China
India
Viet Nam
Thailand
Indonesia
Bangladesh
Chile
Japan
Norway
Philippines
USA
MMT
Aquaculture production by species groups
0
2,000,000
4,000,000
6,000,000
8,000,000
10,000,000
12,000,000
metric tons
Our global food supply
PRODUCTS Million metric tonsCereals 1,886
Sugar crops 1,580
Root and oilseed crops 1, 271
Fruits, vegetables and others 1,358
TOTAL PLANT PRODUCTS 6,095
Milk and eggs 675
Meat and meat products 303
TOTAL ANIMAL
PRODUCTS
978
Fisheries landings 64
Aquaculture 51
ALL TERRESTRIAL FOOD 7,188
Comparison of global food sources
US meat and fish consumption (pounds/person/yr)
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90
Chicken Beef Pork Turkey Fish Lamb
per capita consumption
Chicken
Beef
Pork
Turkey
Fish
Lamb
Top ten consumed seafood in the USA (pounds/person)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Tuna 3.5 Shrimp 3.4 Shrimp 3.7 Shrimp 4.0 Shrimp 4.2 Shrimp 4.1 Shrimp 4.4
Shrimp 3.2 Tuna 2.9 Tuna 3.1 Tuna 3.4 Tuna 3.1 Tuna 3.1 Tuna 2.9
Pollock 1.6 Salmon 2.0 Salmon 2.0 Salmon 2.2 Salmon 2.2 Salmon 2.4 Salmon 2.0
Salmon 1.5 Pollock 1.2 Pollock 1.1 Pollock 1.7 Pollock 1.57 Pollock 1.5 Pollock 1.6
Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.0 Tilapia 1.0
Cod 0.8 Cod 0.6 Cod 0.7 Cod 0.6 Tilapia 0.8 Tilapia 0.9 Catfish 0.97
Clams 0.5 Clams 0.5 Crab 0.6 Crab 0.6 Cod 0.6 Crab 0.6 Crab 0.66
Crab 0.4 Crab 0.4 Clams 0.5 Tilapia 0.6 Crab 0.6 Cod 0.6 Cod 0.5
Flatfish 0.4 Flatfish 0.4 Tilapia 0.5 Clams 0.5 Clams 0.5 Clams 0.4 Clams 0.4
Scallops 0.3 Tilapia 0.4 Flatfish 0.4 Scallops 0.3 Scallops 0.3 Scallops 0.3 Scallops 0.3
Tilapia 0.3
Farmed species in red
US Fish Consumption (pounds/person/yr)
Aquaculture production driven by demand for seafood
• Landings from capture fisheries peaked– Stocks have been overfished
• Costs to grow fish declined– More efficient feeds– Shorter production cycles – Lower losses to disease
• Rising incomes in developing countries– Eating more fish
• Shifts in eating habits in developed countries– Healthful eating - beef consumption decreased, fish consumption
increased
Research enabled aquaculture growth thus far
• Nutrition: estimates of dietary nutritional requirements of
salmon and catfish
– Dr. John Halver (my professor) developed a test diet to which all vitamins & amino acids
could be added in excess except one being studied
– One vitamin at a time was added at various levels and fish response (growth, enzyme
activity, etc.) was measured
– This was a major advance in fish feed formulation and production
• Life-cycles of new species were closed
– Farmers no longer relied on wild fish to stock farms
– Researchers developed techniques to spawn fish and rear tiny larvae
• Disease prevention
– Vaccines to prevent fish diseases
– Development of specific genetic markers for disease resistance
Further research needed for aquaculture to grow
• Feeds and nutrition
– Complete elimination of marine resources in feeds
– Determine dietary nutrient requirements for fish other than salmonids
– Increased nutrient retention
• Must close life cycles of species such as tuna
– Been done in Japan and Australia
– Combination of reproductive physiology and larval rearing
• Disease prevention
– Improved detection of pathogens in fish, esp. broodstock
– Biosecurity, especially in recirculation systems
Three top farmed fish consumed in the USA
• Salmon (freshwater & marine)– Mostly Atlantic salmon (native to north Atlantic ocean)
– Big producers are Norway, Chile, Scotland, Canada
• Shrimp (marine)– Primarily Pacific white shrimp and tiger shrimp
– Thailand, Indonesia, Ecuador, Mexico supply US markets
• Tilapia (freshwater)– Several species – mainly Nile tilapia
– China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Mexico, Costa Rico supply US market
Salmon farming
Expanded greatly over the past 20 years
Salmon is affordable and available year round
Economic boon to coastal communities
Farmed salmon is harvested
and in stores in 48 hrs
Quality is consistently high
Effect of salmon aquaculture for the consumer
• Quantity of salmon has tripled(capture + farmed)
– Farmed is 1.5x of global supply and 8x the supply of wild salmon for ‘white-tablecloth’ (not canned or smoked)
• Consumer intake of omega-3 fatty acids increased
– Positive effects on CVD, neonatal development, other conditions
• Levels of contaminants in farmed salmon– Essentially zero mercury
– Very low levels of PCBs and other persistent organic pollutants
Salmon destined for fillet market (not canned or smoked)
0 500000 1000000 1500000 2000000
Wild Chinook
Wild Coho
Wild Sockeye
Total Farmed
Million metric tons
Challenges for salmon farming
• Maintain healthful levels of omega-3 fatty acids while lowering fish oil levels in feeds– Need new sources of omega-3 fatty acids besides fish oil
• Improve biosecurity, especially in Chile and China– Chile production reduced ~90% by a virus (ISA) imported from Norway
– New vaccine for ISA, plus new rules on fish transfers
• Reduce environmental impacts– Metabolic and fecal wastes from farming that cause local impacts below pens
on the sea floor
– Escapees that could colonize natural salmon streams and compete with native salmon stocks
Shrimp farming
• Two major species of farmed shrimp– Litopenaeus vannamei (Pacific white shrimp – Pacific coast, Ecuador to
Mexico) – smaller size (30-50 count)
– Penaeus monodon (tiger shrimp – Asia) – larger size (7-12 count)
• Shrimp farming occurs in salt/brackish-water ponds in coastal areas
• Viral diseases are a huge problem for shrimp farmers– Associated with poor water quality and overcrowding
– Pacific shrimp are less susceptible than tiger shrimp
• Asian shrimp farmers switched to Pacific shrimp over the past few years
Farmed shrimp production (Pacific white shrimp)
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
25000001
98
7
19
88
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89
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90
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91
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92
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Metric tons
Switchover to Litopenaeus vannamai in Asia
Shrimp farming
• Farmed shrimp have the highest value of any aquaculture production species group
• Shrimp are available year round and are relatively inexpensive
• Shrimp farming has transitioned from large ponds to intensively managed smaller ponds– Higher feed inputs and intensive water quality management
– Productivity increased from 300 kg/hectare to 12,000+ kg/hectare
• Industry reduced dependence on wild broodstock– Able to rear shrimp broodstock to maturation with high reproductive performance
– This allows genetic improvement and production of specific pathogen-free post-larvae for stocking
– (natural progression – needed for many other species)
Tilapia aquaculture
• Tilapia are native to Africa – many species
• Now raised around the globe– Major food source in food-deficit and developing countries
– Grown in tropical or semi-tropical areas (also in geothermal water in Idaho)
• Have digestive system similar to a pig or chicken– Post-juveniles grow well on all-plant diet
– So do fry but growers use fish meal–based diets
• Yield of edible fillet is 32-33% of live weight– Compares to 50% for salmon, trout or shrimp
– Good potential to recover and utilize processing byproduct
• Good candidate for organic production
Tilapia grown in geothermal water in Idaho
Farmed tilapia production 1987-2007
US consumption of tilapia
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
350000
400000
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
metric tons
Why has tilapia production grown so much?
• Demand for white-flesh fish cannot be met from wild catch– Tilapia tastes bland (not fishy)– No bones in fillets
• Tilapia consume low-protein, high grain feeds
• Tilapia are a tough fish– Disease resistant– Tolerate high water temperatures and low dissolved oxygen levels in water
(can’t handle cold)– Grow at high densities
• Tilapia have a short life cycle
• Tilapia are inexpensive to produce
Tilapia products have increased in quality
Processing and trimming
is done by hand
Frozen fillets have a
fresh appearance
Improvements in packaging
Individually Quick Frozen (IQF) fillets
in re-sealable packages
Development of breaded, ready-to-cook products
Tilapia (June 2007, Tesco, UK)
• $18 US per kg whole fish!!!!
Tilapia Orange Juice
Even skins are used to make tilapia leather
Let’s talk about science now
• Aquaculture – not a scientific discipline
• Aquaculture is the application of a range of scientific disciplines and technology to grow aquatic organisms
• Disciplines required by aquaculture include:– Biochemistry/molecular biology/metabolomics/etc.
– General fish biology/life history
– Physiology/reproduction/endocrinology
– Genetics and breeding
– Fish diseases/microbiology/virology/parasitology
Key issues in fish nutrition
• Replacing marine ingredients in fish feeds– Conservation or enhancement hatcheries
– Commercial aquaculture
– Aquarium trade, public aquariums
• Feed costs are 50-60% of operating costs of fish farms and key determinate of profitability
• Environmental effects of fish farms totally depend on feed efficiency and nutrient retention
Global fish feed production
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1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015
Feed Production (mmt)
Amount of fish meal (gold) used in
aquafeeds has also increased
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5.000
10.000
15.000
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25.000
30.000
35.000
40.000
45.000
50.000
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015
Global fish meal production is static
• In 1970s, >90% of fish meal was used in poultry and swine feeds
• Today, fish feeds use 65% of annual fish meal production– Use in poultry and swine feeds is about 32%
• Use in fish feeds has displaced use in livestock and poultry feeds
• Except for higher recovery and utilization of seafood processing waste, FM production will not increase
Good news – FM levels in feeds are lower
• The percentage of fish meal used in fish/shrimp feeds has gone down dramatically– More information on use of alternative protein sources
• Amino acid digestibility• Appropriate dietary levels
– More precise feed formulation
– Wider range of supplemental, feed-grade amino acids
• Now, economics favors reducing fish meal levels even more
Fishmeal and soymeal prices (USD/mt)
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Dec 02 Dec 03 Dec 04 Dec 05 Dec 06 Dec 07 Dec 08 Dec 09
Fishmeal
Soymeal
Bad news – total FM use is higher
• Production of species requiring high protein feed is way up– Increase offset improvements in lowering the percentages FM in feeds for various species
• Increasing intensification of freshwater pond production in Asia– use of feeds containing fish meal for carp, tilapia, etc.
• Conversion from farm-made feeds to pelleted feeds, requiring fish meal– Especially for marine fish in Asia
Fish meal use in salmon feeds
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1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007
Percent FM in feeds
Tonnes FM used (x104)
Fish meal use in shrimp feeds
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1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007
Percent FM in feeds
Tonnes FM used (x104)
Fish meal use in carp feeds
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1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007
Percent FM in feeds
Tonnes FM used (x104)
Sustainable feeds - progress to date
• Fish meal levels in feeds average half of levels used a decade ago
• Fish oil levels also down in feeds for salmon, trout and marine species (major users)
• Researchers around the world are actively testing/developing sustainable alternative protein sources
• New sources of EPA and DHA being developed
But….challenges remain
• Growing world population
• Increasing demand for fish
• Static or declining capture fisheries
• FM and FO levels in feeds must be reduced further
– Aquaculture production will continue to increase
– So will fish feed production
• The easy bit is done– Not difficult to reduce FM levels by half
– Lowering fish meal and fish oil levels further will require a deeper understanding of biochemistry and physiology of fish as well as nutritional requirements
We’ve hit a wall
• Not difficult to produce omnivorous fish species w/o fish meal in feeds (tilapia, carp, catfish)
• Possible to produce salmon/trout using feeds w/o fish meal but…– Sometimes need animal protein (poultry byproduct meal, etc.)
– Best plant protein concentrates are used in human foods - costly
• Problem: balancing all amino acids in all-plant feed doesn’t make the nutritional value of the feed equivalent to fish meal-based feed– What other nutrients or biologically active compounds are in fish meal and
missing from plant proteins?
– Vice-versa with plant proteins
Other challenges with fish feeds
• Maintain healthful levels of omega-3 fatty acids while lowering fish oil levels in feeds– Need to understand the dynamics and drivers of long-chain PUFA
deposition in fish
• Reduce metabolic and fecal wastes– Plant ingredients have more fiber and non-soluble carbohydrates (NSPs)
that are indigestible
– Substituting plant proteins for FM alters tissue protein metabolism
• Maintain economic FCRs– Cost of feed compared to value of products
Critical research needs in fish nutrition
• Nutritional Requirements– We only have estimates for salmonids, catfish, carp and shrimp
– No clue on the other 190 species being farmed
• Ingredients, Formulation, and Processing– As levels of fish meal and oil are reduced, we lose essential amino acids,
vitamins & minerals (especially phosphorus)
– As levels of plant-derived proteins increase, we add fiber, non-soluble polysaccarides, anti-nutrients, phytate-phosphorus and create an imbalance of essential amino acids
– This increases the environmental impacts of fish farming
• Digestion, Metabolism, and Utilization– Amazing how little we know about intestinal transporters, nutrient
signaling, energy allocation, drivers of muscle growth, etc.
Next step – integration of disciplines
• Gene expression, proteomics and metabolomics
– Determine how nutrients affect metabolic pathways, muscle growth, energy allocation, immune function, etc.
– Use high-throughput data generation coupled with new computational software & data mining tools for pathway building and developing large biomolecular networks
• Combine molecular approach with cellular and physiological response data to understand effects of nutrients and diet components
• Selective breeding using marker-based selection– Develop strains of fish have improved performance when fed plant-
based feeds– Use molecular tools to follow improvements and avoid co-selection for
undesirable traits
Progress to date (trout, my lab)
• “All-plant protein” trout feeds– Developed over 6 years of experimentation
– Growth of trout is equivalent to fishmeal-based feeds, but only with selected family lines from our breeding program
– Sensory analysis shows no effect on fillet quality
– Mercury is nearly undetectable; POPs lower than English muffin
– Feed cost is in the ball-park, so feed cost per unit gain is close
• BUT…protein retention lower than on FM diets– Higher loss of nitrogen to the environment
• Successful all-plant trout diets were less successful for Atlantic salmon– Growth reduced and feed conversion ratio higher
– However, this was not with selected strains of Atlantic salmon
What might be the cause of lower protein retention?
• Mismatched amino acid profiles
– Plant proteins are deficient in EAA, such as soy (MET), corn (LYS), wheat (ARG)
– Some have high levels of branched chain amino acids, like blood meal
(isoleucine) and corn gluten (leucine)
• Other differences
– Plant proteins contain phytoestrogens, phytic acid, other antinutrients
– Plant proteins lack taurine, andogens and bone minerals
– Animal proteins are mainly muscle, and thus are structurally complex, whereas
plant proteins are not
– FM takes longer to digest and appear in the blood compared to plant proteins
How can genomics help us understand the effects of these differences?
• Tissue culture (mouse liver cells) show altered mTOR
expression when cells are given the amino acid leucine
• Studies showing elevated expression of stress genes in
trout when soy proteins are fed (liver again)
• Researchers in Scotland report BOTH higher protein
synthesis rates and degradation rates when fish are fed
soy protein compared to FM. WHY??
Study to compare FM with soy protein
• Design soy-based feeds with exaggerated amino acid imbalances (branched-chain amino acids)
• Look at expression of genes that are central players in metabolism
– mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) which is the central component of a complex signaling network regulating cell growth and proliferation
– REDD1, which indicates metabolic stress
• Others that indicate metabolic shifts
– carnitylpalmitate transferase– acetyl CoA dehydrogenase– PPARα, PPARβ. PPARγ– glucose-6-dehydrogenase, fructose 1,6-biphosphate, pyruvate carboxylase– TNFα (more immune-related but responding to nutritional input)
Simplified schematic of TOR cascade
TOR expression responds to a variety of inputs
• Feeding FM or soy diets with exactly the same AA profile leads to different TOR expression
• REDD1 is one factor that regulates TOR cascade
• REDD1 expression is elevated with cellular stresses, like hypoxia, energy depletion
• Not known how dietary AA communicate to REDD1 or any components of TOR cascade
• However, both respond to differences in dietary protein source, at least at the transcriptional level
Regulation of TOR cascade in cells: possibly related phytoestrogens in soy proteins
REDD1 stimulates
TSC complex and
blocks mTOR
Outcome of our genomics work so far
• Identified genes involved in protein synthesis and degradation in trout (anabolic and catabolic pathways in muscle)
• Measure gene expression for elongation and desaturation of fatty acids – important for alternate dietary lipid work
• Gene expression associated with bone mineralization and phosphorus status– Important as we reduce fishmeal in feeds
• Carbohydrate (glucose) metabolism
• Immune response factors
• But…these are in isolated systems in known pathways and do not show interactions among pathways or systems
Next level of effort - pyrosequencing
• High-throughput transcriptome evaluation
• Construct target-specific transcriptome libraries
• Use novel software to construct, expand and analyze pathways from gene expression data
• Identify cellular processes affected by – Diet
– Alternate ingredient
– Nutrient level for requirement studies
• Major advance is that this software identifies interactions among isolated systems or pathways affected by diet or treatment, not just the ones we know to look at– Developed from medicine and pharmacology
Nutrient requirements
• For a century, research has been based on “one nutrient – one disease” cause-effect connection– All are short latency, discrete conditions affecting a single tissue
– Rickets/osteomalacia (vit D), beriberi (thiamin), pellegra (niacin)
• Dietary requirements (MDRs) are minimum intake to prevent deficiency signs– No reason why intake to prevent short-latency diseases prevents long-
latency conditions
• Intake needed to prevent “modern” diseases likely higher than MDR– Increased vitamin D intake associated with lower risk of diabetes,
hypertension, various cancers, multiple sclerosis and periodontal disease, to name a few
Nutrient requirements…
• Now recognized that many nutrients act through multiple mechanisms (pleiotropic) and affect multiple pathways and processes– Vitamin D is classic example
• This calls for a re-assessment of nutrient intake recommendations (fish, animals & humans) which will result in significantly higher dietary intake recommendations– Based on responses of multiple tissues and organs
– Could use gene expression but better to use pathway analysis from transcriptome data to discover new relationships and responses
– Must couple with physiological and perfomance assessment• Weight gain• Enzyme activity• Stress response• Immune function
Fish oil use in feeds
• Challenge – replace fish oil levels in feeds and maintain healthful omega-3 levels in fillets
• Progress to date (trout)– Developing ‘phase-feeding’ protocols to lower total use of fish oils
• Use plant oil during growth phase, end with fish oil to increase EPA and DHA
– Evaluating trout lines to see if differences exist in fatty acid deposition rates and gene expression that could be used in selective breeding
– Looking at effects of different dietary fatty acid ratios on metabolism and immune responses
18:3n-3 18:4n-3
18:2n-6
18:1n-9
20:4n-3
18:3n-6
20:3n-6
18:2n-9
20:2n-9
20:5n-3
22:5n-3
24:5n-320:4n-6
20:3n-9
22:6n-3
24:6n-3
Δ6 desaturase
Δ5 desaturase
From Fish Nutrition, Ed 3
Biosynthesis of C20 and C22 LC-PUFA from n-3, n-6 and n-9 precursors
linolenic acid
linoleic acid
oleic acid
Docosohexaenoic
acid (DHA)
Eicosapentaenoic-
acid (EPA)
∆6-Desaturase expression in trout family lines
Delta 6 Desaturase
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CX99 CX98 CX51 CX53 CX84 CX80 CX78 CX82 CX55 CX72 CX71 CX75 CX92 CX97 CX77
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Canola oil diet
Delta 6 Desaturase
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CX55 CX53 CX51 CX99 CX84 CX72 CX78 CX71 CX98 CX75 CX80 CX77 CX92 CX97 CX82
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Fish oil diet
∆5-Desaturase expression in trout family lines
Delta 5 Desaturase
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CX-71 CX-51 CX-53 CX-99 CX-55 CX-75 CX-98 CX-80 CX-97 CX-72 CX-92 CX-82 CX-77 CX-84 CX-78
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Canola oil diet
Delta 5 Desaturase
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CX-99 CX-51 CX-97 CX-53 CX-55 CX-77 CX-75 CX-92 CX-98 CX-71 CX-72 CX-80 CX-84 CX-78 CX-82
Famiily
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Fish oil diet
Back to landings and aquaculture production
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Aquaculture
Catch for food
Fish meal
Million metric tons
The past and the future
• Aquaculture production increased by 10x over the past 20 years (1990-2010)– Lifetime of undergraduates in the audience
– Aquaculture production increased 10x
• What will aquaculture look like when today’s infants are undergrads in 2030?– Just to keep up with population growth and per capita intake will require
production to more than double
– Feed production will also have to double
– Freshwater production – cannot double freshwater resources but maybe increase productivity of existing freshwater systems
– Marine and offshore aquaculture? Cost and environmental issues
– Recirculation systems? Cost and efficiency
FM use will not be a problem in feeds
• Single-cell bacteria/yeast products
– Bioprotein from Norway produced on methane
• Duckweed protein concentrate– 80mt/hectare/yr of duckweed
– Native species everywhere
– No competition with food or crop production
– Little water consumption
– Protein concentrate is 65% protein and 86% digestible to fish
• Recovered seafood processing waste
Skills needed to advance aquaculture
• Strong background in integrative biology– Physiology
– Genetics and molecular biology
– Nutrition and biochemisty
– Diseases and immunology
• Critical and creative thinking skills
• Cultural and sociological perspectives
• Value-based and science-based approaches– Values (personal, cultural) are crucial elements of our decisions
– Our cultural values are not always important to other cultures
– Our science is, however, persuasive
• Aquaculture is here to stay – use science to make it better
Biggest Fish Farm in the World
Lake Llanquique, Chile.
The End
Progress over the past decade in finfish aquaculture
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1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007
FI:F
O
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Fish-In to Fish-Out Ratios for Fed Species
Progress over the past decade finfish aquaculture
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1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007
FI:F
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Fish-In to Fish-Out Ratios for Fed Species
Fish oil is the major driver of FI:FO ratio for salmon
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% Fish Oil Inclusion
Fish
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sh O
ut
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% Fishmeal Inclusion
FM Inclusion where FCR 1.3 and FO 16%
FO Inclusion where FCR 1.3 and FM 24%
b
Global food supply - Aquatic
Category - Aquatic Million metric tonsMarine landings (food only) 53.9
Freshwater landings 10.1
TOTAL CAPTURE FISHERIES 64
Marine aquaculture 23.1
Freshwater aquaculture 27.9
TOTAL AQUACULTURE 51.0
Wild harvest marine plants 1.8
Aquaculture marine plants 15.7
TOTAL MARINE PLANTS 17.5
ALL AQUATIC PRODUCTS 132.5
Aquaculture production in the USA
Species Metric tons production
Channel catfish 276,364
Rainbow trout 27,561
Crawfish 16,788
Atlantic salmon 9,420
Tilapia 7,820
Hybrid striped bass 500
Yellow perch 50
Efficiency compared to swine & poultry
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Salmon Trout Shrimp Chicken Swine Wild fish
Feed conversion ratio (feed fed/live weight gain)
Efficiency compared to livestock & poultry
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Protein retention (% of dietary protein used for growth)