By Kit Parker

Expanding Earth Theory0 The expanding Earth or growing

Earth hypothesis asserts that the

position and relative movement of

continents is at least partially due to

the volume of Earth increasing.

Conversely, geophysical global

cooling was the hypothesis that

various features could be explained

by Earth contracting.

0 In 1889 and 1909 Roberto Mantovani published

a hypothesis of Earth expansion and continental

drift. He assumed that a closed continent

covered the entire surface of a smaller Earth.

Thermal expansion led to volcanic activity,

which broke the land mass into smaller

continents. These continents drifted away from

each other because of further expansion at the

rip-zones, where oceans currently lie. Although

Alfred Wegener noticed some similarities to his

own hypothesis of continental drift, he did not

mention Earth expansion as the cause of drift in

Mantovani's hypothesis.

0 A compromise between Earth-expansion and

Earth-contraction is the "theory of thermal

cycles" by Irish physicist John Joly. He

assumed that heat flow from radioactive decay

inside Earth surpasses the cooling of Earth's

exterior. Together with British geologist Arthur

Holmes, Joly proposed a hypothesis in which

Earth loses its heat by cyclic periods of

expansion. In their hypothesis, expansion led to

cracks and joints in Earth's interior, that could fill

with magma. This was followed by a cooling

phase, where the magma would freeze and

become solid rock again, causing Earth to

shrink.

Physical Factors Affecting an Earthquake

Small Earthquake Factors Affecting Big Earthquake

Deep/ Intermediate

(70 –700km deep)Depth of Focus

Shallow Focus (0-

70km deep)

Far away from it Epicentre Location Close to an area

Kashmir - 20050 Epicentre 80km North –East of

Islamabad

0 Magnitude 7.6 on the Richter scale

0 Depth of focus 10km deep

0 88,000 people dead, 70,000 people

injured and the earthquake affected 3.5m

people. 20th highest death toll ever

0 earthquake was strong enough to topple

a building 100km from the epicentre. To

add to this winter was approaching after

the earthquake. Freezing temperatures

of –15C to –20 and heavy snow in

highland areas meant that there was

more chances of diseases spreading and

aid workers found it difficult to get

through to these remote areas (e.g.

Neelum Valley).

0 80% of health facilities in the earthquake

struck region where destroyed.

0 Muzaffarabad a sports stadium is being

used to look after the homeless and

provide food and water.

0 Due to lack of recourses and shelter the

government had to distribute 350,000

tents, 3.2 million blankets and 3,000

tonnes of medicine.

0 The Pakistani government has

distributed $44milion to 379,600 people

to rebuild homes.

0 $4.5 billion dollars of International aid

was given to help relief efforts in the area

struck by the earthquake.

0 The UK government has provided £12

million to help the relief effort.

0 Pakistan’s Earthquake Reconstruction

and Rehabilitation Authority (Erra) has

been put in place.

Haiti 20100 The magnitude of the earthquake was actually

quite small, at only 7.0 on the Richter scale. In

comparison, The Japanese tsunami of 2011 had

bigger fore and aftershocks!

0 The epicentre was 15 miles or 20km from the

nation’s capital, port au Prince, and the

hypocentre or focus was very shallow at only

13km deep. Seismic waves started at a fault

line that was 10km in length.

0 200 years since the last major earthquake –

1755

0 V.Poor

0 38% of the population are under 14

0 Infant Mortality is 60/1000

0 Life expectancy was just 60

0 GDP was only $1,300

0 80% of the population lived below the

poverty line and

0 53% were literate

0 Geologist Paul Mann wrote a report in 2008 that

a major earthquake could happen here, and that

the damage could be catastrophic.

0 reliant on international aid for over 30% of

national GDP even before the earthquake.

0 50% of buildings collapsed due to cheap

construction methods

0 316,000 people died and more than a million

people were made homeless

0 It is estimated that 1 in 5 jobs were lost as a

result of the quake

0 The EU gave $330 million and the World Bank

waived the countries debt repayments for 5

years.

0 The Senegalese offered land in Senegal to any

Haitians who wanted it!

0 6 months after the quake, 98% of the rubble

remained uncleared

0 23 major charities, $1.1 billion had been

collected for Haiti for relief efforts, but only two

percent of the money had been released

0 Dwayne Wade donated $175000 as well as

other sport stars due to Haitian roots.

Kuril Islands 19630 The 1963 Kuril Islands earthquake occurred

at 05:17 UTC, on October 13. The earthquake had a magnitude of 8.5 and was followed by a Mw=7.8 event seven days later. Both earthquakes triggered tsunamis that were observed around the northern part of the Pacific ocean.

0 The Kuril Islands form part of the island arc formed above the subduction zone, where the Pacific Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate. This convergent boundary has been the site of many large megathrust earthquakes.

0 No damage, deaths or injuries are recorded for these two earthquakes or their associated tsunamis. The tsunami triggered by the earthquake of October 13, caused a 4.5 m wave locally. The tsunami was also observed in Canada, Japan, Mexico, Hawaii, Alaska, California and on many islands across the northern Pacific Ocean. The tsunami associated with the October 20 event was larger in the local area with a maximum recorded run-up of 15 m at Urup, but was only observed in the western part of the northern Pacific

0 Also had another 8+ earthquake in 1994

0 The 2003 Colima earthquake occurred on 21 January 2003 and registered a magnitude of 7.6 on the Richter scale. The epicentre was located on the Pacific coast in the Mexican state of Colima.

0 The 2003 Colima earthquake resulted in the death of 29 people and 300 injured. Additionally, approximately 10,000 were left homeless as the earthquake destroyed 2,005 homes and seriously damaged 6,615. Most of the deaths and damage occurred in Villa de Álvarez, a city which borders the northern part of the city of Colima. Extensive damage (rating VIII) occurred in the city of Colima and in Tecomán. Some deaths and damage occurred in the states of Jalisco and Michoacán and a few buildings were damaged as far away as Guanajuato and Morelos. The quake was felt strongly (rating VI) in parts of Mexico City

0 After the massive 1982 earthquake the country which is often corrupted has set up an effective earthquake management group.

2003 Colima earthquake

Izmit 1999 Earthquake0 7.4 on Richter Scale

0 17 000 people were killed by the

disaster

0 A further 24 000 people were

injured, and 600 000 people were

made homeless

0 1000 aftershocks shook Izmit after

the quake.

0 60-70% of buildings near the plate

boundary collapsed.

0 Many of the builders and contractors who

built houses and other buildings in Izmit

took short cuts to save money and time.

0 The government regulations about

making sure buildings can withstand

earthquakes were often ignored in this

part of Turkey.

0 The quake sparked a disastrous fire at

the Tüpraş petroleum refinery & also a

Ford Plant there

0 Economic cost: $26 billion

0 The U.K announced an immediate grant

of £50,000 to help the Turkish Red

Crescent, while the International Red

Cross and Red Crescent pledged £4.5

million to help victims. Blankets, medical

supplies and food were flown from

Stansted airport. Engineers from Thames

Water went to help restore water

supplies. India also assisted by providing

32,000 tents and 2 million rupees to help

in the reconstruction process.

California Earthquake Proof0 California Memorial Stadium on the Hayward

fault. where right-lateral strike-slip motion is

shifting the northeast half of the building to the

southwest at a rate of 1.2 mm/yr. $14 million

renovation of sand foundation under a portion of

the stadium

0 Earthquakes have caused over $60 billion in

losses in California since 1971

0 All insurance companies that sell residential

property insurance in California are required by

law to offer earthquake insurance to

homeowners when the policy is first sold and

then every two years thereafter.

0 California Earthquake Authority (CEA)

insurance policies, which are designed to

rebuild your home if it suffers significant

damage from an earthquake.

0 2009, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger

promulgated the 2009 edition of the State of

California Emergency Plan

0 New buildings shorter than three stories are

required to have reinforced walls and foundation

slabs of a certain thickness

0 Mid-rise buildings, those up to 100 feet, require

much more-intensive engineering, while designs

for high-rise structures often employ innovative

earthquake-resistant designs that undergo

rigorous review by the country's top structural

engineers.

0 The most sophisticated systems employ fluid-

filled shock absorbers that slosh thick oil in the

opposite direction of any swaying. One of the

tallest buildings in Tokyo, the 781-foot Roppongi

Hills Mori Tower, included such a "semi-active

oil damper" design when completed in 2003.

0 2,200 people died in wood-and-tile homes

during the Kobe earthquake

0 That toll prompted the Japanese government to

launch an intensive research and retrofitting

program - called "Dai-Dai-Toku," or, roughly

translated, "very, very special" - to prevent a

similar catastrophe

JapanEarthquake Proof

Japan tsunami0 Japan was hit with a 9.0 magnitude

earthquake which then triggered a 23

foot tall tsunami

0 45,700 buildings were destroyed and

144,300 were damaged by the quake

and tsunami

0 98% of damage from the tsunami very

little effect from the earthquake

0 Whole population notified 1 minute

before quake

0 Tsunami wave height of 38.9 meters

(128 ft.) at Omoe peninsula, Miyako city,

Japan

0 over 1000 aftershocks since the

earthquake, with 80 registering over

magnitude 6.0 Mw and several of which

have been over magnitude 7.0 Mw

0 the disaster left 15,839 dead, 5,950

injured, and 3,642 missing. According to

the World Bank the estimates of the

damages are placed around $122 billion

and $235 billion. The Japanese estimate

costs to reach $309 billion making it the

world’s most expensive natural disaster

on record.

0 Japan government provided 15 trillion ¥

to help businesses and stabilise markets.

0 Have started to build the Great Wall of

Japan. A sea wall to prevent tsunamis.

230m long

0 Killed 2 people in California from the

resulting tsunami.

0 . Aid organizations both in Japan and

worldwide also responded, with the

Japanese Red Cross reporting $1 billion

in donations

Physical Factors Affecting an Eruption

Small Eruption Factors Affecting Big Eruption

Basaltic Magma Type Andesitic/ Rhyolitic

Low Viscosity High

Low Silica Content High

Little violence; gas

escapes easilyType of Eruption

Potentially explosive;

lava shatters into

pieces

Mainly Lava Material EruptedLava Bombs, ash,

dust

Regular can be

continuousFrequency Long Dormant Periods

Mount Pinatubo0 Mount Pinatubo had been dormant for

500 years. The first sign that this situation might be changing occurred on July 16, 1990 when a magnitude 7.8 earthquake

0 June 15th, the volcano exploded in a massive eruption that ejected more than 5 cu. kms. of volcanic material. The ash cloud from this huge eruption rose 22 miles (35 kms.) into the air. A blanket of volcanic ash and larger pumice pebbles blanketed the countryside. Fine ash fell as far away as the Indian Ocean, and satellites tracked the ash cloud several times around the globe. Huge avalanches of red hot ash, gas, and pumice fragments called pyroclastic flows roared down the sides of Mount Pinatubo, filling the deep valleys with fresh volcanic deposits as much as 660 ft. (200 m.) thick. The eruption removed so much magma and rock from below the volcano that the summit collapsed to form a large volcanic depression or caldera 1.6 miles (2.5 kms.) across.

0 847 People Killed - 300 from collapsing

roofs , 100 from the mud flows known as

lahars, the rest from disease in the

evacuation centres including measles

0 650,000 workers lost jobs

0 $700 Million Damages

0 1.2million people lost homes

0 Volcanic ash is blown in all directions

over hundreds of KMs, smothering fields

and buildings.

0 Global cooling caused by ash in the

atmosphere of 0.5°C

0 75,000 people were evacuated due to

accurate predictions. There was no

monitoring until the 3rd of April but

seismometers were put into place.

0 The United States Geological Service

helped to predict the disaster

Montserrat0 After a long period of dormancy (500 year), the

Soufriere Hills volcano became active in 1995, and

has continued to erupt ever since.

0 When pyroclastic flows and mudflows began

occurring regularly, the capital, Plymouth, was

evacuated, and a few weeks later a pyroclastic flow

covered the city in several metres of debris.

0 2/3 of the island was covered in ash

0 A second large eruption on 25 June 1997 resulted in

the deaths of nineteen people. The island's airport

was directly in the path of the main pyroclastic flow

and was completely destroyed

0 The governments of the United Kingdom and

Montserrat led the aid effort, including a £41 million

package provided to the people of Montserrat;

however, riots followed as the people protested that

the British Government was not doing enough to aid

relief. The riots followed a £10 million aid offer by

International Development Secretary Claire Short,

prompting the resignation of Bertrand Osborne, then

Chief Minister of Montserrat after allegations of

being too pro-British and not demanding a better

offer.

0 About 7,000 people, or two-thirds of the population, left

Montserrat; 4,000 to the United Kingdom

0 The volcano has become one of the most closely

monitored volcanoes in the world since its eruption

began, with the Montserrat Volcano Observatory

taking detailed measurements and reporting on its

activity to the government and population of

Montserrat. The observatory is operated by the British

Geological Survey under contract to the government of

Montserrat

0 Located in Southern Chile

0 In May 2008, Chaitén began erupting violently, producing numerous

plumes, pyroclastic flows, minor earthquakes and lahars. It produced

a high Plinian eruption. Chaitén was classified as a VEI of 4. By late

May the lava eruptions had created a new dome of 540,000m2

containing 55million m3 of material.

0 Chile only has 20 volcanoes with completed geological studies, 7

which have had hazard assessments and 7 more that are monitored.

Chaitén was classified as a low threat volcano, but even without this

low rating there is only one volcano observatory in all of Chile. USGS

didn’t start monitoring until after eruption.

0 The town of Chaitén, located about 10 kilometres southwest of the

eruption site, was blanketed with ash. About 4,000 people who lived

there were evacuated by boat.

0 The ash plume was so thick in some parts of Argentina that schools,

highways and airports were forced to close. Indeed, Chaitén was a

major concern to both the airline industry and the neighbouring

country of Argentina

0 90% of Chaitén was flooded due to increased flows

0 80-90% of the town of Chaitén reported damaged,

0 The Chilean Navy had managed to evacuate 3900 people initially and

emergency measures included the following; not to drink the water,

they distributed face masks and fresh water, ordered a 50km

exclusion around the town, issued a monthly disaster grant of $1200

and $2200 per month per family as well as a freeze on payment of

existing loans on the state bank Banco Estado to aid businesses in

trouble

0 The long term response to this eruption was that Chile's geological

survey (the Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, or

SERNAGEOMIN) created a new program to improve monitoring and

hazard mitigation at 43 of Chile's high-threat volcanoes. The program

will support studies of the history of eruptions at these volcanoes,

assessments of volcanic hazards, and the creation of a real-time

monitoring network and early warning system.

Chaitén

Eyjafjallajökull (E15)0 Seismic activity started at the end of 2009 and

gradually increased in intensity until on 20 March

2010, a small eruption started rated as a 1VEI

0 Britain had fine anticyclonic weather for a lot of the

time that the Ash cloud existed. This was a problem

because winds would have dispersed the cloud better.

0 The other complicating factor is that the volcano is

covered by the Eyjafjallajökull glacier. This caused a

flood (a jökulhlaups - glacier outburst flood) on the

14th of April, when an eruption partly melted a glacier

and set off a major flood which prompted authorities to

order 700 people to evacuate. This flood had huge

discharges of 2000-3000 m3/sec

0 The volcano also emitted lava from a 500m long

fissure, spewing the 1,000°C lava 150m into the air.

The volcano was classified with a VEI of 4, with

greater than 1.4 ± 0.1 x 107 m3 (100 million cubic

meters) of lava erupted and > 1.4 x 108 m3

(1,000million cubic meters!) of Tephra erupted. It was

also categorised as both a fissure and explosive

eruption

0 From 14–20 April, ash covered large areas of northern

Europe when the volcano erupted. About 20 countries

closed their airspace to commercial jet traffic and it

affected more than 100,000 travellers.

0 IATA stated that the total loss for the airline industry

was around US$1.7 billion (£1.1 billion, €1.3 billion

0 Following Air France-KLM's and British Airways'

requests to the European Union, and additionally in

the latter's case to the British government, for

compensation, Gordon Brown announced that the EU

Solidarity fund, designed to aid EU member states in

the event of large-scale disasters, could be a possible

source of compensation)

0 Beginning on 14 April 2010, the eruption entered a

second phase and created an ash cloud that led to the

closure of most of the European IFR airspace from 15

until 20 April 2010. Consequently, a very high

proportion of flights within, to, and from Europe were

cancelled, creating the highest level of air travel

disruption since the Second World War. The second

phase resulted in an estimated 250 million cubic

metres (330,000,000 cu yd.) (0.25 km3) of ejected

tephra and an ash plume that rose to a height of

approximately 9 kilometres (30,000 ft.), which rates the

explosive power of the eruption as a 4 on the Volcanic

Exclusivity Index. By 21 May 2010, the second

eruption phase had subsided to the point that no

further lava or ash was being produced.

0 By the evening of 6 June 2010, a small new crater had

opened up on the west side of the main crater.

Explosive activity from this new crater was observed

with emission of small quantities of ash. Seismic data

showed that the frequency and intensity of earth

tremors still exceeded the levels observed before the

eruption, therefore scientists at the Icelandic

Meteorological Office and the Institute of Earth

Sciences, University of Iceland (IES) continued to

monitor the volcano.

0 Effects on Economies:

0 EU- weren’t able to send manufactured goods,

BMW, FedEx food and flowers and other fresh

goods lost

0 ROW- Kenya is reported to have destroyed 400

tonnes of flowers it was unable to airship into the

UK . As a result, their economy was estimated to

be incurring losses of $3.8m each day of the

disruption. Many lost jobs.

Etna0 The eruption in 1991 started on 14th December

and lasted for 473 day

0 The lava flowed down the SE flank of the

volcano into the Valle del Bove The acidic lava

had a low effusion rate (rate and volume of lava

emitted in m³/sec)which posed very little threat

to human life

0 The UN has classified it as a Decade Volcano

due to its activity and nearby population

0 Supports rich agricultural land and it is

estimated that 35% of Sicily’s population live on

its slopes.

0 Since 2001, it has seen an eruption every year.

0 It is well monitored and actively managed. 77

deaths can be attributed to eruptions on Mount

Etna.

0 The majority were caused when visitors strayed

into hazardous areas, such as the nine tourists

killed in September 1979 near Bocca Nuova by

a phreatic explosion,

0 In the last 20 years, all deaths on Etna have

been due to lightening strikes and accidents.

0 The eruptions of 2002 completely destroyed the

tourist station at Piano Provenzana and part of

the tourist station around the Rifugio Sapienza

on the south side of the volcano. It took the lava

two weeks to reach the station. On July 29th

airports of Catania were closed due to ash and

the winter tourist industry was affected badly.

0 In most instances locals have rebuilt their own

properties from salvaged materials or relocated

elsewhere, and government intervention has

been rare.

0 One intervention occurred in 1991-3 when

Zafferana was threatened by a lava flow. Initial

attempts proved unsuccessful when hastily built

earth barriers were surmounted. Instead,

explosives were detonated to disrupt and

redirect the flow and break up the efficient lava

tubing system which had guided it 7km

downslope. Later in 2002, dams of soil and

volcanic rock were put up to protect the tourist

base at Rifugio Sapienza and helped divert the

flow. The Army’s heavy earth-moving equipment

was also brought in to block the flows. The

Italian government pledged immediate financial

assistance to losses in tourism and agriculture

of more than £5.6m and tax breaks for villagers

0 The Catania Section of the Instituto Nazionale

di Geofiisica e Vulconalogia (INGV) has

monitored the volcano for 20 years with a

permanent network of remote sensors (seismic,

gedetic, magnetic, gravimetric and videos)

connected in real time, radio and by mobile

phone, to the acquisition centre.

Hawaii0 Encompassing more than 50 percent of Hawaii's Big

Island, the active volcano of Mauna Loa is one of the most imposing land masses on earth. Measuring from the sea floor, Mauna Loa rises 56,000 feet above its base. One of the planet's most active volcanoes, Mauna Loa has wrought destruction through the ages. Although this "Long Mountain" hasn't erupted since 1884

0 A very active volcano, it has produced large, voluminous flows of basalt (very fluid, dark lava) that have reached the ocean eight times since 1868. It last erupted in 1984, when a lava flow came within 7.2 km (4.5 miles) of Hilo, the largest population centre on the island.

0 Since 1843, Mauna Loa has erupted 33 times, averaging one eruption every 5 years.

0 the Island of Hawaii is the fastest growing region in the State of Hawai‘i, with more than 100,000 residents and a population that grew by 24 percent in the past decade. High levels of interest and affordable land lead to developmental pressures, which means that more and more construction will occur on the flanks of the island’s volcanoes.

0 This rapid growth includes several multimillion-dollar developments built or proposed on the slopes of Mauna Loa in Waikoloa, Hilo, and Hawaiian Ocean View Estates—the last is the Nation’s largest development in terms of area. Between 1984, the most recent eruption of Mauna Loa, and 2002, approximately $2.3 billion were invested in new construction on the flanks of the volcano.

0 The USGS’s Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) has recently upgraded its monitoring networks to improve its ability to detect early unrest. Numerous seismic, GPS, and tilt stations across the flanks of Mauna Loa keep a vigilant eye on the mountain 24 hours a day. When unrest is detected, scientists notify emergency-management officials and increase monitoring efforts

0 The greatest direct hazards associated with shield

volcanoes are the lava flows and emissions of

volcanic gases. Although these seldom cause

deaths, lava flows typically do extensive damage by

covering, burning, and crushing everything in their

path. Basalt flows can travel more than 50 km from

their vent, making most communities on the Island

of Hawai‘i susceptible to lava-flow inundation. And

gas emissions can be carried by the wind and reach

other islands in the State, producing human health

concerns and damaging crops and livestock.

0 The whole island is zoned,

0 Management

0 Deformation, they check the summit

deformation. This monitoring has gone on

since the 1970s, although at times it has

decreased in size, the general trend is a

2cm/year increase in the size, probably due to

an increase in lava.

0 Seismicity, Since 2005, seismic activity has

been near background levels, with an average

of two earthquakes per month. Before Mauna

Loa's next eruption becomes imminent, we

expect that rates of shallow seismicity will

elevate to levels much higher than those

currently observed.

0 Monitoring volcanic gases can provide clues

about the internal workings of an active

volcano. So, in 2005, HVO installed two gas

monitors atop Mauna Loa: a fixed-view

ultraviolet spectrometer system and a real-time

ambient gas monitor.

By Kit Parker

Millennium Development Goals: UAE

0 The UAE has been very impressive as by 2007 it had already completed most of the goals and started to implement more goals to beat. The government has focused on raising the level of education, health care and social welfare services. It has adopted a number of policies to diversify and increase income, including: allocating farmland to farmers of limited income; supporting agriculture; providing interest-free loans to small and medium enterprises; distributing highly subsidized or free housing; giving fishermen financial and material support; and providing citizens and economic utilities with water and electricity services at subsidized prices.

0 One of the main reasons the country had been able to achieve these goals is in part due to urban planning. 84% of the country live in urban areas which allows them to have greater access to services such as health and education but it also means that they are more likely to be hooked up to electricity and also to clean water.

0 One of the biggest issues is that the UAE needs diversify its sources of income and expand the production base, so as not to depend on oil production and exports; and to further activate the role of the private sector as a partner in the development process. This could become a much larger issue in the future as their oil reserves start to dry up and so developing a private sector is important. Especially as how successful the country has been about catering to Western Culture compared to other countries in the Middle East has encouraged a lot of development from business trying to move into the Middle Eastern Market.

Goal Achieved Stats To Back it up

Eradicate extreme

poverty and hungerYes

Achieve universal

primary educationYes

Net enrolment ratio in primary education (%

both sexes): 95.1

Percentage of pupils starting Grade 1 and

reach Grade 5 (% both sexes): 99.1

Promote gender

equality and

empower women

Yes

Gender parity Index in primary level

enrolment (ratio of girls to boys): 1.0

Literacy rates of 15-24 years old (% both

sexes): 97.7

Seats held by women in national parliament

(%): 22.5

Reduce child

mortalityYes

Mortality rate of children under 5 years old

(per 1,000 live births): 8

1-year-old children immunized against

measles (%): 92

Improve maternal

healthYes

Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 births):

37

Combat HIV/AIDS,

malaria and other

diseases

Yes

People living with HIV,15-49 yrs. old (%):

0.2%

Prevalence of tuberculosis (per 100,000

people): 24

Ensure

environmental

sustainability

Yes

Land area covered by forest (%): 3.7

Carbon dioxide emissions per capita (metric

tons): 37.7966

Access to improved drinking water sources (%

of total population): 100

Develop a global

partnership for

development

Insufficient Evidence Internet users (per 100 people): 36.7

South KoreaDemographic

Population 48,955,203

Dependency Ratio 37.1%

Pop Growth 0.18%

Life Expectancy 79.55

Social

Urbanisation 83.2%

Literacy Rates 97.7%

HIV prevalence <0.1%

Pop Below poverty line 16.5%

Economic

Unemployment 9.6%

GDP Growth 2%

GDP per capita $32,300

Inflation 2.2%

1970s

Rural & Social Development. Due to large inequality between

rural and urban areas the government implemented a new tax

policy similar to England to redistribute income in the two areas.

‘Barnett Formula’

1980s

Economic change. The market changed from a closed system

looking out to a more open market with easy access especially

from the outside such as a reduction on foreign tariffs and also of

government intervention. This was in conjunction with the early

growth of the RIC’s who had lower wages which was very

appealing to foreign companies.

Investment in education & skills. A way to allow for the

manufacturing of more high tech goods, as a way to keep

domestic brands such as Samsung and LG in the country instead

of exporting their manufacturing.

1990s

Economic Downturn. The Asian Financial crisis of 1997 started

after the collapse of the Thai Baht (currency), which caused many

western countries and businesses to lose confidence in the area.

Wasn’t helped as the biggest importer in the area also had a

recession which heavily reduced the demand for Asian products.

This saw many criticise the previously heavily government run

markets which left companies with a limited knowledge of world

markets. However did have a positive as it later saw a reduced

value of its currency which made it cheaper to import South

Korean goods which saw demand increase.

Now

South Korea has a market economy which ranks 15th in the world

by nominal GDP and 12th by purchasing power parity (PPP),

identifying it as one of the G-20 major economies. Trade Balance

of $29.79bn

1960sExport Led Growth. Encouraged all businesses to focus on

exporting their goods, due to a larger and more stable market.

They did this due to a weak currency meant that foreign

countries could buy more of their exports as it was cheaper.

Subsidies to further reduce the prices of their goods. Tariffs on

raw material imports were reduced to further bring down the

costs of production. They also stabilised relations with Japan

and a large and near market they could easily expand to.

Improvements in Infrastructure. Grants were given to firms to

buy machinery to expand production. Improved the transport

inside of the country, not only allowed the goods to be

transported easier but also the workforce.

FDI was encouraged by the government with all of their

subsidies and tariff reductions also allowed to new businesses.

Many Chaebols started up, large enterprises with multiple areas

of production such as Daewoo & Hyundai.

0 ExxonMobil is the largest of the world's

supermajors (Also known as Big Oil" it is

used to describe the world's five or six

largest publicly owned oil and gas

companies; BP, Chevron Corporation, Royal

Dutch Shell and Total SA) with daily

production of 3.921 million BOE. In 2008,

this was approximately 3 percent of world

production, which is less than several of the

largest state-owned petroleum companies.

When ranked by oil and gas reserves, it is

14th in the world

0 They are the world's third largest company

by revenue; ExxonMobil is also the second

largest publicly traded company by market

capitalization. The company was ranked No.

5 globally in Forbes Global 2000 list in

2013. ExxonMobil's reserves were 72 billion

BOE (barrels of oil equivalent) at the end of

2007. With 37 oil refineries in 21 countries

constituting a combined daily refining

capacity of 6.3 million barrels, ExxonMobil is

the largest refiner in the world.

0 2012 profit of $44.9B

0 All-time annual earnings record for any

company, of $45.2 billion before recession.

It then halved the next year.

0 The core of Exxon Mobil’s business is oil

and gas. Petroleum is mostly sold through

Exxon’s/Esso’s service stations of which

they have 45,000 in 118 countries. Aviation

fuel is sold at more than 700 airports in 80

countries, and ExxonMobil Marine Fuels

serves more than 300 ports in 70 countries.

They are the world’s largest non-

governmental marketer of equity natural

gas. It is also the world’s leading marketer

of finished lubricants, using the brand name

Mobil and the world’s largest wholesaler of

helium. Exxon Chemical products include

plastics, oriented polypropylene film,

synthetic rubber, fluids, plasticizers, basic

chemical building blocks such as ethylene,

ethylene glycol, propylene and paraxylene,

fuel and lubricant additives and synthetic

lubricant base stock.

0 Worldwide it employs over 100,000 people.

They pay different amounts to their staff

depending on their job. The CEO Rex

Tillerson earns $25m a year (2011),

whereas a cashier at one of their US gas

stations earns $8.45 an hour.

0 It mainly grew around the world to get

different resources as well as to supply

around the world.

China0 China’s economy is predicted to overtake the US

economy in GDP by 2020.

0 Biggest Manufacturing producer in the world.

0 The non-democratic and authoritarian political regime in China has meant that it has been possible to embrace western-style free market economics while maintaining control over the political system. In many ways, the planned economy of China (where the state controls economic activity rather than private business) has accelerated economic growth because the government has controlled all decision-making.

0 China first began moving away from a centrally planned economy towards a market-oriented system in 1978. Deng Xiaoping was Mao’s successor and he sought to bring an end to China’s relative economic isolation.

0 This is the strategy which China initially pursued. The strategy is beginning to become phased out in favour of Import Substitution Industrialisation.

0 Followed USSR 5 year plans to encourage production rates. (12th 5 year plan aims to grow GDP by 8% annually, also remove variations in living and reduce population growth)

0 Average yearly salary is under $8k a year

0 77% of woman in workforce

0 6 SEZs or 14 Open Cities. These are designated zones where TNCs are offered incentives such as reduced tax rates to set up manufacturing operations. An example is a Taiwanese TNC, EUPA, which manufactures coffee machines in Xiamen (an Open City) and employs 25,000 workers.

0 6 SEZs or 14 Open Cities. These are designated zones where TNCs are offered incentives such as reduced tax rates to set up manufacturing operations. An example is a Taiwanese TNC, EUPA, which manufactures coffee machines in Xiamen (an Open City) and employs 25,000 workers.

0 Since the 1990s China has been developing its energy base, with new hydroelectric and nuclear power plants.

0 The government has built many new roads, improved the rail system and made China’s major rivers navigable all year round. It has also encouraged urbanisation.

0 95% literacy levels – 600,000 new engineers each year

0 China has started to globalise economically by buying up foreign companies. In fact, in 2010 China invested $56bn in in outward FDI. With inward FDI averaging some $60bn per year, China is poised to turn from a net recipient to a net investor in FDI, a marker of its economic maturity in many respects.

0 China has a great wealth of natural resources, having vast reserves of coal, oil and natural gas. These are being used to fuel the industrial development of the country

India0 The Economy of India is the 8th-largest in the

world by nominal GDP and the third-largest by

purchasing power parity. India is one of the

fastest developing economic Superpower with

potential to become world third largest

economy(nominal gdp) by 2020.The country is

one of the G-20 major economies and a

member of BRICS. According to the IMF. India

is the 16th-largest exporter and the 8th-largest

importer in the world

India Economy Stats

GDP $2.13t (8th)

GDP per capita $1.7k (135th)

Below Poverty 21.9%

Labour Force by occupationagriculture: 51.1%, industry: 22.4%, services: 26.6% (2012

est.)

Unemployment 3.8%

Average Salary $1,580

Exports $312b

Imports $451b

Public Debt 67% of GDP

0 During the year 2011, FDI inflow into India stood

at $36.5 billion, 51.1% higher than 2010 figure

of $24.15 billion. India has strengths in

telecommunication, information technology and

other significant areas such as auto

components, chemicals, apparels,

pharmaceuticals, and jewellery. Despite a surge

in foreign investments, rigid FDI policies were a

significant hindrance.

0 Goldman Sachs predicted that "from 2007 to

2020, India's GDP per capita in US$ terms will

quadruple", and that the Indian economy will

surpass the United States (in US$) by 2043. In

spite of the high growth rate, the report stated

that India would continue to remain a low-

income country for decades to come but could

be a "motor for the world economy" if it fulfils its

growth potential.

0 74% Literacy rate

0 High levels of corruption on all scales

Brazil0 Brazil has the seventh largest economy by nominal GDP in

the world, and seventh largest by purchasing power parity.

The Brazilian economy is characterized by moderately free

markets and an inward-oriented economy.

0 Brazil’s economy is the largest of the Latin American nations

and the second largest in the western hemisphere. Brazil is

one of the fastest-growing major economies in the world with

an average annual GDP growth rate of over 5 percent. In

future decades, Brazil is expected to become one of the five

largest economies in the world

0 The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 67.0

percent, followed by the industrial sector at 27.5 percent.

Agriculture represents 5.5 percent of GDP (2011). Brazilian

labour force is estimated at 100.77 million of which 10 percent

is occupied in agriculture, 19 percent in the industry sector

and 71 percent in the service sector.

0 The Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious

program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum.

Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the

country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in

2006-2007. Brazil is one of the world's leading producers of

hydroelectric power, with a current capacity of about 260,000

megawatts. Existing hydroelectric power provides 90 percent

of the nation's electricity

0 In the last decade, domestic production increased by 32.3

percent and agribusiness (agriculture and cattle-raising),

which grew by 47 percent or 3.6 percent per year, was the

most dynamic sector – even after having weathered

international crises that demanded constant adjustments to

the Brazilian economy. The Brazilian government also

launched a program for economic development acceleration

called Programa de Aceleração do Crescimento, aiming to

spur growth.

0 Dubai's gross domestic product as of 2008 was US $82.11 billion The

International Herald Tribune has described it as "centrally-planned free-

market capitalism."[ Dubai's economy was initially built on revenues from

the oil industry, revenue from petroleum and natural gas currently account

for less than 2% of the emirate's gross domestic product. Dubai became

important ports of call for Western manufacturers. Most of the new city's

banking and financial centres were headquartered in the port area. Dubai

maintained its importance as a trade route

0 Today, Dubai has focused its economy on tourism by building hotels and

developing real estate. Port Jebel Ali, constructed in the 1970s, has the

largest man-made harbour in the world, but is also increasingly developing

as a hub for service industries such as IT and finance, with the new Dubai

International Financial Centre.

0 Dubai is stepping up its efforts to improve energy efficiency, while boosting

the role played by renewable resources in meeting demand

0 Dubai has teamed up with the Environmental Centre for Arab Towns, a

research institute, in a bid to drive down energy usage by 20% over the

next three years. Its efforts also include a plan to cut CO2 emissions by

6200 tonnes annually.

0 Dubai is greatly dependent on the availability of cheap energy, and its per

capita consumption of energy is amongst the highest in the world. Cheaply

available oil is used to desalinize the water that irrigates the lush tropical

landscapes implanted in its desert, and that supports the water-spending

habits of its leisure tourism and residents. It is used to air-condition its

massive interior spaces during the gruellingly hot summer months. It is

used to run motor vehicles in a city designed exclusively for automobiles

(which increasingly are stuck in traffic) and not for pedestrians.

0 As global warming is becoming a more serious and real threat to the

livelihood of the planet, there is a rising awareness that such a lifestyle that

is dependent on an intensive consumption of fossil fuels may not be

sustainable. Dubai's coastal location and low-lying reclaimed land mean it

is at increased risk from flooding as sea-levels rise.

0 The city's location requires an almost total dependency on medium-haul air

travel to survive, most visitors coming from Europe and India.

Dubai

LDCBasic Facts

0 50 Least Developed Countries (34 in Africa, 14 in Asia and the Pacific

Region, 1 in Western Asia – Yemen, 1 in the Caribbean – Haiti)

Economic Growth

0 Since 2001, LDCs have generally grown faster than other developing

countries.

0 In 2004, LDCs saw the fastest annual growth rate (6%) in four

decades.

Debt Relief

0 Total debt burden for LDCs increased to a record $158.9 billion in

2003, up $20.8 billion from 2001.

0 13 LDCs were chosen to receive 100% cancellation under the

Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative effective July 2006.

0 An additional 9 LDCs have been recommended for such debt relief.

Foreign Direct Investment

0 Foreign direct investment (FDI) in LDCs increased from $6.8 billion in

2001 to a record $10.7 billion in 2004. However, FDI in LDCs

accounted for only 1.6% of world FDI inflows.

Trade

0 Exports of LDCs increased from $45.9 billion in 2003 to $57.8 billion in

2004. The 4 largest oil exporting

0 LDCs (Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Sudan, and Yemen) accounted for

56% of that increase.

0 The share of LDC exports was a meagre 0.6% of world merchandise

exports in 2004.

Poverty

0 Almost 50% of the population in LDCs lives on less than $1 a day.

0 Rates of undernourishment over 40% reported in 10 LDCs.

Aid

0 Total ODA to LDCs from developed countries increased from $12.4

billion in 2000 to $23.5 billion in 2004.

0 Almost 90% of aid was provided in grants and 86% of aid to LDCs was

untied by 2004.

0 36% of all aid was directed to the social sector.

0 Of 22 donors, 7 met the 0.20% target for ODA to LDCs as a share of

their GNI in 2004. 2 more reached 0.15%.

Infrastructure and Communication

0 In 2004, only 4 LDCs met the target of five telephone lines per 1,000

inhabitants by 2010.

0 Only 4 LDCs reported the extensive use of railways for freight in 2004.

0 In 2000, there were only 7 LDCs with one or more Internet connections per

100 inhabitants. In 2006, use has grown by 3 to 10 times although still

below 1 per 100 in 25 LDCs.

0 Road length has been increased by at least 20% since 1990 in 13 LDCs.

Education

0 Universal primary enrolment in primary education has improved.

0 The target of 50% adult literacy by 2015 has been met for women in 26 of

33 LDCs with data. For men, the target has been met in only 10 of 32 LDCs

with trend data.

Population

0 Average annual population growth in LDCs is 5%, the highest in the world,

compared to developing countries (1.2%).

0 Annual fertility rate in LDCs is at 5 children per woman compared to an

average of 2.6 in the rest of the world.

0 Over 40% of LDC population is under 15 years compared to 28% in

developing countries.

0 Average life expectancy is the lowest in the world (51 years), compared to

65 years in industrialized nations.

Health

0 Maternal mortality in the LDCs remains the highest (890 deaths per

100,000 live births) in the world.

0 Under five mortality rate is 160 deaths per 1,000 live births compared to 86

in the rest of the world.

0 2.1 million new TB cases were reported in 2004, mainly as a result of

HIV/AIDS.

0 Rate of new HIV/AIDS cases (3.2%) in LDCs remains the highest in the

world.

Malaria (Reduction in malaria prevalence in 15 LDCs but deterioration in 13

among 30 LDCs with trend data.)

Water (Only 58 % of the population in LDCs has access to improved water.)

Slums (Nearly 140 million people in LDCs live in poor housing conditions.)

EU0 The EU was created in the aftermath of the Second World War. The

first steps were to foster economic cooperation: the idea being that

countries who trade with one another become economically

interdependent and so more likely to avoid conflict. The result was the

European Economic Community (EEC), created in 1958

0 The EU has delivered half a century of peace, stability and prosperity,

helped raise living standards, and launched a single European

currency, the euro.

0 The single or 'internal' market is the EU's main economic engine,

enabling most goods, services, money and people to move freely.

Another key objective is to develop this huge resource to ensure that

Europeans can draw the maximum benefit from it.

0 U’s main goals is to promote human rights both internally and around

the world. Human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of

law and respect for human rights (Lisbon Treaty)

0 The economy of the European Union generates a GDP of over

€12.894 trillion (US$16.566 trillion in 2012) according to Eurostat,

which makes it the largest economy in the world if treated as a single

economy

0 Reasons for this massive growth include government commitments to

stable monetary policy, export-oriented trade policies, low flat-tax

rates and the utilisation of relatively cheap labour

0 The European Union is the largest exporter in the world and as of

2008 the largest importer of goods and services. Internal trade

between the member states is aided by the removal of barriers to

trade such as tariffs and border controls. In the Eurozone, trade is

helped by not having any currency differences to deal with amongst

most members.

0 The European Union Association Agreement does something similar

for a much larger range of countries, partly as a so-called soft

approach ('a carrot instead of a stick') to influence the politics in those

countries.

0 The services sector is by far the most important sector in the

European Union, making up 69.4% of GDP, compared to the

manufacturing industry with 28.4% of GDP and agriculture with only

2.3% of GDP.

0 It is an economic and political agreement among Argentina,

Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela; with Bolivia

0 The bloc comprises a population of more than 270 million

people, and the combined Gross Domestic Product of the full-

member nations is in excess of US$3.0 trillion a year according

to IMF numbers, making Mercosur the fifth-largest economy in

the World. It is the fourth-largest trading bloc after the European

Union

0 The working of Mercosur has not met with universal approval

within interested countries. Chile has to a certain extent

preferred to pursue bilateral agreements with trading partners

0 The free transit of produced goods, services and factors among

the member states. Among other things, this includes the

elimination of customs rights and lifting of nontariff restrictions

on the transit of goods or any other measures with similar

effects on it

0 Fixing of a common external tariff and adopting of a common

trade policy with regard to non-member states or groups of

states, and the coordination of positions in regional and

international commercial and economic meetings (Mercosur

have signed free trade agreements with Israel, Egypt & the

State of Palestine)

0 Coordination of macroeconomic and sectorial policies of

member states relating to foreign trade, agriculture, industry,

taxes, monetary system, exchange and capital, services,

customs, transport and communications, and any others they

may agree on, in order to ensure free competition between

member states;

0 The commitment by the member states to make the necessary

adjustments to their laws in pertinent areas to allow for the

strengthening of the integration process.

Mercosur

NAFTA0 It is an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States,

creating a trilateral rules-based trade bloc in North America

0 The goal of NAFTA was to eliminate barriers with trading and

investment between the U.S., Canada and Mexico. The

implementation of NAFTA on January 1, 1994 brought the immediate

elimination of tariffs on more than one-half of Mexico's exports to the

U.S. and more than one-third of U.S. exports to Mexico. Within 10

years of the implementation of the agreement, all U.S.-Mexico tariffs

would be eliminated except for some U.S. agricultural exports to

Mexico that were to be phased out within 15 years. Most U.S.-Canada

trade was already duty-free. NAFTA also seeks to eliminate non-tariff

trade barriers and to protect the intellectual property right of the

products.

0 Canada received a modest positive economic benefit as measured by

GDP2008 alone, Canada exports to the United States and Mexico

were at $381.3 billion, and imports from NAFTA were at $245.1 billion

0 Maquiladoras (Mexican factories that take in imported raw materials

and produce goods for export) have become the landmark of trade in

Mexico. These are plants that moved to this region from the United

States, hence the debate over the loss of American jobs. The overall

effect of the Mexico–U.S. agricultural agreement is a matter of dispute.

Mexico did not invest in the infrastructure necessary for competition,

such as efficient railroads and highways, which resulted in more

difficult living conditions for the country's poor. Mexico's agricultural

exports increased 9.4 percent annually between 1994 and 2001, while

imports increased by only 6.9 percent a year during the same period

0 The U.S. Chamber of Commerce credits NAFTA with increasing US

trade in goods and services with Canada and Mexico from $337 billion

in 1993 to $1.2 trillion in 2011, while the AFL-CIO blames the

agreement for sending 700,000 American manufacturing jobs to

Mexico over that time.

0 It is an international organization whose mission is to coordinate the policies of the oil-producing countries. The goal is to secure a steady income to the member states and to secure supply of oil to consumers

0 Iraq, Kuwait, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. Later it was joined by nine more governments: Libya, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador & Angola.

0 OPEC's ‘Policy Statement' states that there is a right of all countries to exercise sovereignty over their natural resources.

0 OPEC is a swing producer and its decisions have had considerable influence on international oil prices. For example, in the 1973 energy crisis some OPEC members refused to ship oil to western countries that had supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War, which Israel had fought against Egypt and Syria. This refusal caused a fourfold increase in the price of oil, which lasted five months, starting on 17 October 1973, and ending on 18 March 1974. OPEC nations then agreed, on 7 January 1975, to raise crude oil prices by 10%.

0 despite technological advances that increase the productivity of oil wells, the rate of decline of oil fields will eventually increase as time continues

0 According to current estimates, more than 81% of the world's proven oil reserves are located in OPECcountries

0 However not all key oil producing countries are part of the group. The USA & Russia are huge producers but haven't joined. This can also mean that at times OPEC may try to underpin the other two countries oil prices to reduce demand for their product.

OPEC

0 Since independence in 1971, Bangladesh

has received more than $22 billion in grant

aid and loan commitments from foreign

donors, about $15 billion of which has

been disbursed. Major donors include the

World Bank, the Asian Development Bank,

the UN Development Program, the United

States, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and a

number of West European countries. As of

1991, the United States had provided

more than $3.3 billion in food and

development assistance. Food aid

provides food, promotes production, and

helps stabilize prices. Other US programs

target family planning and health,

agricultural development, and rural

unemployment. In 1991, the US forgave

Bangladesh $293 million of development

assistance debt.

0 Bangladesh historically has run a large

trade deficit, about $1.5 billion annually

during the late 1980s. This was financed

largely through foreign assistance. The

balance of payments swung into surplus in

1990-91 because of increased exports of

garments and depressed domestic

demand for imports. In recent years,

remittances from workers in the Middle

East have been Bangladesh's most

important source of foreign exchange

earnings. The US trade balance with

Bangladesh has been negative since

1986, due largely to imports of ready-

made garments.

Trade Aid

• Trade has a long-term impact upon international co-operation. Developing countries maintain trade relationship with other countries to develop on-going trading relationship. This will eventually help to flow money and goods in the developing countries, irrespective of the economical condition of the developed country. In contrast, if the developed country goes through a bad economic time, the aid budget may be cut.

• Trade helps developing countries to maintain their dignity, whereas aid is more or less related to the act of getting approval and support from the developed countries. It can be treated as a form of charity, where the developing countries need to admit the superiority of the developed country.

• Trade establishes a strong impression in the international market, whereas the country administering aid is considered as an unimpressive country.

• Trade promotes economical improvement of the country, but in the event, if aid is mishandled, then the people of the country will be deprived from getting the benefits and eventually obstruct the growth of the country.

• Aid is given to a country to be well apportioned against their need. On the other hand, trade is treated as an inefficient distributor of resources. The benefit of trade is mostly confined within elite group of people of the country.

• Aid is not always provided in the form of money and is sometimes provided through expert advisors. On the other hand, trade needs a good infrastructure of the country to prosper. It is very difficult for the developing countries to maintain a good infrastructure.

• Aid allows for money in a given country to be allocated well against need.

• Exposing fragile developing economies to free trade is very risky.

• Trade requires investment first.

Bangladesh Trade vs. Aid

Mamirauá0 In the year 2000 about 1,530,000 hectares of forest

was managed through these “simplified

management plans” in the Brazilian Amazon, which

represented less than 1% of the region’s total area.

Most of these initiatives were made viable starting in

the 1990’s with support from the government and

civil society organizations; the Mamirauá

Sustainable Development Reserve

0 In the past three decades, the Amazon lost almost

600 thousand km2. By 2001, this represented a total

loss of 13.31% of the original forested area due to

through expansion of the agricultural frontiers and

predatory economic extraction by logging

companies

0 The Mamirauá Project combines researchers,

extension workers and local community members,

working together. Approximately 20 researchers,

various specialists in ecology, social science and

the management of natural resources, from many

regions of Brazil and abroad

0 Town not joining in is called Nazareth

0 At most a successful ecotourism project could yield

at most $7 per acre much less lucrative than logging

or alternative forms

Strengths Weaknesses

Opportunities Threats

By Kit Parker

Sand Dunes0 The south east Purbeck National Nature Reserve (NNR) covers an

area of 631 hectares and comprises of a variety of habitats which include five kilometres of beach, dunes, woodland, bogs and lowland heath. In fact this is one of the largest tracts of heathland in southern Britain with all six species of British reptiles present with nightjars and Dartford warblers as well as the carnivorous plant the sundew and the globally rare masonry wasp.

0 The area of Studland heath has only been present during the last six hundred years where the accumulation of sand started to build up along the coast of south haven point. This process extended the expanse of dunes due mainly to marram grass stabilising the dunes enriching the soil and facilitating the area for the succession of heaths and woodland.

0 Studland beaches are one of the most popular beaches in Britain at any one time in summer there can be as many as 25,000 people on the beach a day, evidently there is an impact.

0 A wide sandy beach of Studland Bay forms the eastern seaward side of the South Haven Peninsula. Onshore easterly winds, especially during storms can blow the sand inland. The source of the sand is the sand bottom of Poole Bay. The sand gets trapped on the shoreline by driftwood and subsequently by vegetation which stabilises the embryo dune and dunes are simply accumulations of sand grains, shaped into mounds or ridges by the wind under the influence of gravity.

0 Until thickly vegetated, dunes are a very fragile environment, and heavy use - through recreation, for example - may cause the break-up of the roots, ultimately causing the destruction of the dune system. They are, therefore, a very dynamic system.

0 As time goes by so the type of vegetation changes and more advance and less adapted plants can colonise the areas. The pioneer plants and add humus which can hold moisture and nutrients. The pioneer plants become out competed and so gradually give way to others. This process of change is called succession. This process of succession in a sand dune system is called a psammosere.

Northern Uplands Regeneration Project

Mamirauá0 In the year 2000 about 1,530,000 hectares of forest

was managed through these “simplified

management plans” in the Brazilian Amazon, which

represented less than 1% of the region’s total area.

Most of these initiatives were made viable starting in

the 1990’s with support from the government and

civil society organizations; the Mamirauá

Sustainable Development Reserve

0 In the past three decades, the Amazon lost almost

600 thousand km2. By 2001, this represented a total

loss of 13.31% of the original forested area due to

through expansion of the agricultural frontiers and

predatory economic extraction by logging

companies

0 The Mamirauá Project combines researchers,

extension workers and local community members,

working together. Approximately 20 researchers,

various specialists in ecology, social science and

the management of natural resources, from many

regions of Brazil and abroad

0 Town not joining in is called Nazareth

0 At most a successful ecotourism project could yield

at most $7 per acre much less lucrative than logging

or alternative forms

Strengths Weaknesses

Opportunities Threats

Amazonia0 Amazonia is located either side of the equator in South

America and stretches from the eastern slopes of the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. It occupies 68% of Brazil, and smaller parts of surrounding countries

0 About 80% of Amazonia is rainforest; the rest is composed of seasonally flooded swamp forest and cleared, or cultivated, land

Biome Characteristic

ClimateHot with temperatures between 25 and27°C and rainfall averages 2677mm of precipitation.

Fauna

300 birds, 428 amphibians, 427 mammals, 378 reptile species, and 3000 typesof fish.

SoilRed Latosoils due to lots of leaching leaving behind iron

Biomes

80% of Amazonia is rainforest;the rest is composed of seasonallyflooded swamp forest and cleared,or cultivated, land

Adaptations

Amazonia, because of its equatorial position, receives high levels of solar energy throughout the year which leads to high rates of photosynthesis and lots of biomass. This together with a warm, wet climate encourages luxuriant growth.

Adaptations

Trees

Canopy trees have umbrella shaped crowns to

maximise exposure to sunlight, large leaves to

maximise photosynthesis, Leaves are dark green in

colour and have a thick cuticle and waxy surface to

help shed rainfall and provide protection against

strong solar rays. Tree bark is thin (1–2mm) because

protection is not needed against low temperatures or

high water loss.

Epiphytes

They are plants that use tree branches for support, but

do not feed off their hosts. Instead their aerial roots

extract moisture from the air and trap dead leaves and

insects.

Lianas

They are large, rooted, woody

vines which use trees to gain access

to sunlight and produce fruit and

flowers in the canopy. The plants bind themselves to

trees using hooks.

Parasitic

plants

They which live on other living organisms occur on the

floor of the rainforest, where low light levels limit

photosynthesis

Animals

• strong, large, lightweight bills to prise open fruit and

crack seeds, eg the toucan

• specially developed hands and feet which can cling

to branches, eg the sloth has an opposable thumb

• prehensile tails to facilitate easy movement through

the canopy, eg spider monkey

• mimicry, eg the false-leaf katydid looks like a leaf

• thick, scaly skin, eg the armadillo

• bright colours, eg the poison dart frog

• nocturnal habits, eg the kinkajou

Blue Loop0 The Blue Loop is a continuous loop

of waterways and riverside walkways in the heart of Sheffield, made up of The River Don and Tinsley Canal. It travels for 8 miles from the city centre and flows close by the communities of Burngreave, Attercliffe, Darnall and Tinsley.

0 Sheffield’s industrial past caused badly polluted waterways unable to provide homes for wildlife. Today, water quality in Sheffield is much improved and the Blue Loop has become a haven for wildlife, with fish, kingfishers and otters all thriving in the area. Sheffield’s waterways are one of the city’s most valuable wildlife assets.

0 The Process has also increased biodiversity in the city by adding a habitat for fish, butterflies, dragonflies, herons, kingfishers, grey wagtail, ducks, moorhens, coots, otters, Japanese knotweed, water vole, kestrel, bats and reptiles & amphibians.

0 Surrey is divided in two by the largely chalk ridge of the North

Downs, running east-west. The ridge is pierced by the rivers the

Wey and the Mole, which are tributaries of the Thames

0 Flora naturally present from west to east comprise mixed

woodland and meadow; continuing where the band of loam

continues to Farnham, but between this and the river floodplain,

Bagshot Sands is now covered by acid heathland increasingly

moving west, rising to gentle hills. In this band are the well-

maintained sites of biodiversity and woodland such as managed

by Surrey Wildlife Trust as well as government and groups who

help to manage Chobham and Horsell commons, St Anne's Hill,

Fetcham and Weyside meadows, Esher and Oxshott Commons

and Princes Coverts west of the Chessington outspur of Greater

London, east of this, wooded Epsom with Ashtead Commons

and Banstead Common and Downs.

0 Much of Surrey is in the Metropolitan Green Belt. It contains a

good deal of mature woodland. Its natural beauty spots with

widest panoramas include Box Hill, Leith Hill, Frensham Ponds,

Newlands Corner and Puttenham & Crooksbury Commons, part

of the Hog's Back. Surrey is the most wooded county in

England, with 22.4% coverage compared to a national average

of 11.8% and as such is one of the few counties not to include

new woodlands in their strategic plans. Box Hill has the oldest

untouched area of natural woodland in the UK, one of the oldest

in Europe. Surrey also contains England's principal

concentration of lowland heath, on the sandy soils in the west of

the county mentioned above.

Surrey Biodiversity

Serengeti, TanzaniaHeading Info

Geographical

A UNESCO conservation area and World Heritage Site. Close to Kenya it covers over 2 million ha and consists of

savannah grasslands and volcanic uplands. The Serengeti plains harbour the largest remaining unaltered animal

migration in the world . The volcano Ol Doinyo Lengai is one of the only volcanoes to erupt carbonite lavas making it an

incredibly rare habitat.

Biodiversity

The ecosystem supports 2 million wildebeests, 900,000 Thomson’s gazelles and 300,000 zebras as the dominant herds.

Other herbivores include 7,000 elands, 27,000 topis, 18,000 hartebeests, 70,000 buffalos, 4,000 giraffes, 15,000

warthogs, 3,000 waterbucks, 2,700 elephants, 500 hippopotamuses, 200 black rhinoceroses, 10 species of antelope and

10 species of primate. Major predators include 4,000 lions, 1000 leopards, 225 cheetahs, 3,500 spotted hyenas and 300

wild dogs

Sustainable

Lifestyle

The Maasai people had been grazing their livestock in the open plains for around 200 years when the first European

explorers visited the area. To preserve wildlife, the British evicted the resident Maasai from the park in 1959 and moved

them to the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. There is still considerable controversy surrounding this move, with claims

made of coercion and deceit on the part of the colonial authorities

TourismThe park is Tanzania's oldest national park and remains the flagship of the country's tourism industry, providing a major

draw to the Northern Safari Circuit encompassing Lake Manyara National Park, Tarangire National Park, Arusha National

Park, and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. 350,000 visitors a year.

Management

since 2009 funds have been allocated to demarcate the entire boundary. Its management is regulated by both

international and government policies and legal obligations. The National Parks Ordinance Cap 412 of 1959 provides for

Tanzania National Parks with the mandate to manage the site. In addition, The 1974 Tanzanian Wildlife Conservation Act

and the 2009 Wildlife Conservation Act provide for both within the site and adjacent area protection of resources,

respectively

Funds generated at Serengeti (US$ 22.4 million in 2009/10) have been used to strengthen protection and management of

the park, as well as other Tanzanian parks.

Threats

Development of road and other infrastructure corridors, Water shortage, Commercial poaching for trophies, Subsistence

poaching, Tourism infrastructure development, Tourist numbers, distribution and carrying capacity, Fire, Disease

transmission from domestic animals, Invasive alien species, Human-wildlife conflict, Insufficient funding for management,

Change of land-use in adjacent areas, Climate change & Insufficient regional and international collaboration