Approaches to the study of Immigration

• Migration is defined as the movement of people and their temporary or permanent geographical relocation.

• Immigration is a multi-causal phenomenon, the product of many different forces operating at different levels.

– For a world history of immigration, see David Held et al (2000) Global Transformations, ‘People on the Move’

(Macro) Theory of neoclassical economics

• Geographical differences in labor and wages plus a micro-economic model of decision-making motivate international migration (Massey et al 2002:9). For example, the U.S. has higher levels of income and consumption than Mexicans, so any rational Mexican individual would assume a positive net return to migrate and therefore make the cost-benefit calculation to cross the border.

• This theory focuses on macro-structures of supply and demand and then assumes migrants are always acting in self-interest rather than part of a household.

• This theory fails to explain international migration in the absence of wage differentials and circular migration practices.

New Economics of Labor Migration model

• Claims that people act collectively to maximize opportunity and return for the family, household, or community (Stark and Bloom 1985:11).

• Households engage in migration to manage risk (e.g. without stable insurance and futures markets) “by diversifying their allocation of productive resources, one of which is labor” (12). In this way, households “manage risk through diversification”—placing members in different economies. Despite examining smaller units of analysis, this model is still largely economically focused.

World Systems Theory

• Wallerstein strikes again• Relates migration processes to macrolevel social

and economic structures, such as the expansion of capitalist markets from the core into the peripheries (13). As the quest for profits yields greater technology and mechanization, the demand for labor sinks and results in a “mobile labor force” (13). These global economic forces also create social and cultural links between nations that encourage migration.

Segmented Labor Market theory • Similar to World Systems Theory• Declares that migration stems from the “permanent demand for unskilled labor that is built

into the economic structure of developed nations”—not by push but rather by pull factors (15). This demand for “cheap, flexible labor” is sustained by native-born residents resisting lower tier jobs that do not correlate to increases in social status (social constraints on motivation) and the demands of capitalism to minimize the “variable portion of demand to be met by the addition and subtraction of labor” (duality of labor and capital) (16).

• While this historical-structuralist approach recognizes the macro-economic forces and neo-colonial implications on migration, it can overlook the role of the state (such as the strength of public policies). Zolberg (1999) asserts that the “role of state policies”—specifically how legality and illegality are defined, variation in receiving labor markets, and obstacles to exit—mustn’t be neglected (73).

• The segmented labor market theoretical approach may also presume all migrants belong to one low class (Grosfoguel 1997, Portes & Rumbaut 2006). Geography and status of dependence affect the quantity and class of migrants while public policies affect the success of migrant incorporation. Grosfoguel warns against overly deterministic analyses such as push-pull factors, however claims that the majority of migrants reside in urban areas due to incorporation into the labor market without consideration of social networks (see Menjivar).

Social Capital theory

• An individual’s access to “social capital through membership in interpersonal networks and social institutions...improve or maintain their position in society” (19). For a potential migrant, a social network in the foreign country minimizes potential costs and maximizes benefits through access to greater resources.

Cumulative Causation of Migration

• Each migration undergirds the web of social networks and subsequently stimulates greater migration.

• However, social networks are not always unproblematic and do not always reduce costs or maximize benefits.

Tripartite Causal Model of activated labor demand, cultural penetration of sending countries, and

development of social networks

• Portes and Rumbaut (2006) determined that contemporary immigrants are incorporated into society according to their personal resources (which prepare them to be unskilled laborers, skilled professionals, or entrepreneurs) and classification by the government (20). While this model adds the “role of the state,” which was missing from Massey’s theory, it is still oriented to macro-level forces.

Gender in the Migratory Process• Dominant theories of international migration have failed to consider the

implications of gender. For years, female migrants were perceived as passive, involuntary victims of migration, partly due to an imbalance in gender relations and the disregard of migration to labor markets in the private sphere. However, statistical evidence suggests that female migrants outnumber men and analyses elucidate their active role in patterns of migration.

• According to Lutz (2010), a gendered approach to migration must consider feminized and masculinized labor markets (e.g. private versus public sphere), care practices (management of labor and childrearing), and the shifting discourses and practices on gender orders in both the receiving and sending countries within three levels of analysis—the macro (labor markets), meso (organization of work) and micro (individual practices).

Transnationalism

• Process by which immigrants (transmigrants) forge and sustain multi-stranded social relations that link together their societies of origin and settlement (Glick-Schiller, 1993).

• Continuous circulation of goods, services, people, information and capital between various settlements that constitutes a single community across multiple sites (Menjivar 2000:28, Kearney, 1991).

History of Immigration Law

• Colonial: 1609-1775: immigrants from the British Isles• American Revolutionary 1776-1840: Euro immigration

slowed because of war and discomfort with “foreign born”• Old Immigration 1841-1882: Local govs recruited Northern

Europeans. Chinese immigrated w/ little difficulty• Regulation 1882-1920: Chinese excluded from immigrating;

major entry through Central, Eastern and Southern Europe.• Restriction and exclusion 1921-1952: quota system

restricted immigration from Central, Eastern and Southern Europe and all Asians were excluded from admission/citizenship eligibility.

• Partial liberalization period 1952-1965: Asians assigned same quota as Europeans and allowed naturalization

1965 Immigration and Nationality Act

• Liberalized policy 1965-present: quota policy was repealed, immigrants from 3rd world and all countries allowed

• Prior to 1965 immigration was mostly from Europe, but under President Johnson, immigration became based more on occupation than national origin.

• October 3, 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act (Amendments):

• Abolished national origins quota• Est preferences for relatives of citizens and permanent residents• Exempted immediate relatives of citizens • Limits of world coverage to 20k/country

1980 Refugee Act

• Removed refugees as preference category (but has a ceiling)

• Sanctuary Movement

1986 IRCA

• Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA)• Legalized many undoc’d immigrants but made

it unlawful to hire undoc’d workers

• 1990 Immigration Act: Increased annual immigrant limit to 700k and established Immigrant Investor Program (can immigrate if you are willing to invest lots of $)

• 1996 Welfare Reform: ended many cash and medical assistance programs for legal immigrants

• 1996 Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) expanded enforcement ops of Immigration and Naturalization Service

• 2001 USA Patriot Act: Response to 9/11. Federal officials get greater power to intercept national/international communications.

S.744 Comprehensive Immigration Reform

CIR S.744

• Border Security, Economic Opportunity and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013

• Written by Gang of Eight: (Bennet (CO), Durbin (IL), Flake (AZ), Graham (SC), McCain (AZ), Menendez (NJ), Rubio (FL), and Schumer (NY)

• First introduced 16 April 2013• 27 June 2013 Senate passed bill 68-32For more visit National Immigration Law Center at nilc.org/s744summary1.html

Summary

Title 1. Border Security & TriggersTitle 11. Immigration Visa Programs Title III. Future Immigrant Flows: New Merit-based Visas w Two-Tracks

Immigration IntegrationTitle IV. Interior EnforcementTitle V. Reforms to Non-Immigrant Visa Programs

Border Security• Goal is to apprehend 9 out of 10 immigrants (“effective control”• $46.3 for border enforcement• Extend to 700mi of barriers/fencing along U.S.- Mexico border• Before registered provisional immigrants can obtain lawful

permanent resident status, DHS must:– Certify U.S.-Mexico border strategy has been “substantially

deployed”– Deploy over 38,000 FT active-duty Border Patrol agents along

border– Implement mandatory E-verify system for all U.S. employers

• If effective control is not achieved, will not proceed with next steps of reform

Immigrant Visas• In order to be eligible for RPI status, individual must:

– Been in U.S. on or before 31 Dec 2011– Maintained continuous presence until application– Settled any assessed federal tax liability/pay all back taxes– No record of certain criminal offenses– Cost $500

• After 6 years in RPI status, individual may renew for an additional $500. To renew, individual must demonstrate regular employment and average income above federal poverty level

• After 10 years in RPI status, individual may apply for LPR for $1000 (green card). Must demonstrate regular employment and average income at 125% federal poverty level. Must pursue English or U.S. civics studies.

• After 3 years in LPR status, individual may apply for U.S. citizenship (13 years total)

• Includes Dream Act legislation

2-Track System for Merit-Based Permanent Visas

• Track 1– Subject to cap of b/w 120,000-250,000 per year, visas allocated based on points system– Points allocated based on education, job skills, employment in certain fields, and family

ties– Individuals with pending or approved petitions in other immigration categories may not

apply– Http://www.migration policy.org/pubs/CIRbrief-LegalFlows.pdf (Remaking Green Card)

• Track 2– Adjustment of Status to Lawful Permanent Residence for Immigrants in Conditional Legal

Status (LPR) – Eligible: (after 10 years in RPI status )– Satisfaction of federal tax liability– English skills– Registers for selective service (if eligible)– Background check– $1,000 penalty– Once granted LRP status may naturalize after 3 years

DREAM Act• “First introduced 1 August 2001 but Congress has yet to pass• Provides temporary legal status and path to permanent legal status• You may be eligible if you:

– Under 16yo when first arrived to U.S– Lived in U.S. for 5 years or more– “Have maintained good moral character”– Have graduated high school or obtained GED

• You may be eligible for legal permanent resident (LPR) status if:– Complete two years of college or four years of U.S. military service

• PA Dream Act, introduced in March 2013, would allow undocumented students to pay in-state tuition rates (SB713)

For more visit Pennsylvania Immigration and Citizenship Coalition (PICC) paimmigrant.org/programs/immigration-reform/dream-act

Adjustment to Lawful Permanent Residence for Dream Act Eligible Immigrants

• Hold RPI status for 5 years• Arrived in U.S. at age l5 or younger• Possess h.s. diploma• Meet either: 2 years college or military service

4 years

DEFERRED ACTION FOR CHILDHOOD ARRIVALS (DACA):

• Announced 15 June 2012 • Provides protection against deportation and a permit to work in the

U.S for 2 years. It is renewable. • You may be eligible if you:

– Under 31yo as of 15 June 2012– Under 16yo when first arrived to U.S.– Have lived in the U.S. continuously since 15 June 2007– Physically present in the U.S. 15 June 2012– Entered without inspection or lawful immigration exp by 15 June 2012– Enrolled in school, graduated, earned GED or were honorably discharged by

U.S. military– No convictions of felony or significant misdemeanors

For more visit U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services: www.uscis.gov/childhoodarrivals

Conditional and Lawful Permanent Residence Status for Agricultural Workers

(Blue Card)

• Exempt from numerical cap on immigrant visas.

• For one year with option of extension for up to l8 mo.

• 5 years to LPR

• Starting 10/1-2014- visas allocated to noncitizens w approved employment and family based petitions pending for at east 5 years

• Between 2015-2021 –those filed prior to bill enactment

• Eligible to apply for LPI

Interior Enforcement

• EEVS electronic employment eligibility verification system (E-Verify)

• Increased worker protections, POWER Act• Asylum and refugee provisions• Immigration court reform• Provisions for violators of immigration law

that constitute crimes

Immigrant Integration

• Establishes Office of Citizenship and New Americans to address integration policy and program need and promote citizenship efforts

• Establishes Federal Inter-agency Task Force on New Americans headed by Homeland Security (!)

• Creates US Citizenship Foundation• Authorizes funds to assist immigration benefit applicants &

state and local integration programs• Reduces barriers to naturalization• 10 million authorized for first 5 yrs of OCNA and sums as

necessary to sustain in subsequent years• 100 million to grant programs

Reforms to Non-Immigrant Visa Programs

• Establishes W non imigrant visa for lower skilled jobs, allowing multi-year employment w / option to apply for permanent residence (see visa reforms section

Non-immigrant visa types

A visas

• A1: Ambassador, diplomat, and immediate family

• A2: Foreign government official and immediate family

• A3: Personal employee of A1, A2• All A visas handled through US Dept of State

B visas

• B1: Temporary Visitor for Business (setting up a new business, taking orders, providing services for a foreign company, attending a professional conference)

• B2: Temporary Visitor for Pleasure (vacation, attend personal event, noncommercial activities, prospective students)

• B visas do not allow you to work for a US employer but you may be able to change employment status

C visas

• C1 Continuous Transit (passing through the US to another destination, stop over less than 29 days)

• C2 Travel to UN Headquarters in NY (may only travel within 25 mi radius of Columbus Circle, NY)

• C3 Like A2 but in transit• CP Similar to S

D visas

• D Crewman’s visa (landing temporarily, sea or air)

E visas

• E1 Treaty Trader• E2 Treaty Investor• E3 special for Australian Free Trade

Agreement• For managers and essential employees of

foreign companies engaged in trade with the US.

F visa• Status to attend school at any level through graduate school.

School must be accredited (by ICE?) to issue Form I-20, document proof that the school has accepted the student. Students may be able to work (limited- workstudy, coops/internships, if authorized due to unforeseen “severe economic hardship”) but must prove that individual must prove can financially support studies without working (tuition and living expenses) and that there’s no intention to immigrate to the US. This proof can be through an Affidavit of Support with supporting documentation (bank/tax records, etc). Affidavit submitted by immediate family members are most successful.

• F2 Dependent of F1• F3 Border commuter student

G visa

• G1, 2, 3, 4, 5 For individuals working for international organizations (UN, WB), their immediate family and employees. GB and GT (Guam)

H visa• H1A Professional Nurses (eliminated 9/1/1995) became H1C (nurses in

areas of healthcare worker shortage)• H1B Temporary Professional worker (requires BA/BS/equivalent);

Allowed to stay up to 6 years straight. You need not prove you have a residence abroad.

• H2A Temporary Agricultural Worker (employer must be certified and unable to find US workers, employee must be paid “prevailing wage”)

• H2B Other Temporary Workers (short term/start up). Requires proof of unavailability of US workers. Visa for 1 year at a time with 3 year limit. (Oz’s Argon visa)

• H3 Trainee (for training program not offered in home country). 2 year limit. Could be to train people for the foreign office of a US company.

• H4 Spouse of Dependent of H1A, H1B, H2, H3 workers

I visas

• International Journalist (employed by foreign media organization). No limit to stay as long as employer doesn’t change.

J visa• J1 Exchange Visitor (Students, scholars, researchers; Sometimes comes with requirement that

visa holder return home for 2 years after visa expiration, and in that period cannot change to H visa or permanent resident status. Muna had a J1 for 1 year. Did not have to return home, able to switch to B2)

• J2 Spouse, dependent children of J1• The Exchange Visitor Program is carried out under the provisions of the Fulbright-Hays Act of

1961, officially known as the Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act of 1961 (Pub.L. 87–256, 75 Stat. 527). The purpose of the Act is to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries by means of educational and cultural exchanges. The Exchange Visitor Program is administered by the Office of Exchange Coordination and Designation in the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs.

• In carrying out the responsibilities of the Exchange Visitor Program, the Department designates public and private entities to act as exchange sponsors. Sponsoring organizations facilitate the entry of foreign nationals into the United States as exchange visitors to complete the objectives of one of the exchange visitor program categories, which are:– Au Pair, Intern, Student, College/University, Student, Secondary, Government Visitor, International

Visitor (reserved for Department of State use), Physician, Professor and Research Scholar, Short-term Scholar (6 month max, no extension), Specialist (1 year max, Summer work/travel, Teacher, Trainee (18 month max)

K visa

• K1 Fiance, Fianncee Visa• K2 Minor Unmarried children of K visa holders• K3 Spouse of US citizen awaiting immigrant

visa• K4 Child of K3

L visa

• L Intracompany Transferee (employed abroad at least 1 year, with specialized knowledge; employment in US must be for that company or an affiliate). Limit 3 years.

• L2 Spouse/dependents of L1

M visa

• M1 Technical or Vocational School Student (Barred from changing to F1 status while in US. Must leave and reapply for F1. Can change to H1B)

• M2 Spouse/dependents of M2• M3 Border student

N visa

• N8 Parent of Certain Unmarried Minors who are Special Immigrants (G1 nonimmigrants may qualify for permanent residence as special immigrants)

• N9 Unmarried minor Child of N1 or special immigrant

NATO visa

O visa

• O1 Individuals of Extraordinary Ability (in sciences, arts, education, business, or athletics with national/international acclaim)

• O2 Accompanying/assisting O1• O3 Spouse/dependents of O1/O2

P visa

• P1 Internationally Recognized Athletes and Group Entertainers

• P2 Entertainers coming through an Exchange Program

• P3 Artists/Entertainers coming to Give Culturally Unique Group Performances

• P4 Spouse/dependents of P1, 2, 3• Eligible for P status for up to 5 years, with an

extension up to 5 years

Q visa

• Q1 Cultural Exchange Visitor (15 months, to participate in cultural international exchange program, approved by ICE?, that helps US public learn about foreign cultures)

• Q2 Irish Peace Process Trainee• Q3 Spouse/Dependent of Q2

R visa

• R1 Status for Religious Workers (must have been a member of religious denomination for at least 2 years preceding application, can extend 2 years)

• R2 Spouse/dependents of R

S visa

• S5 Criminal Informants• S6 Informants on Terrorism• Admit up to 100 people for help related to

criminal prosecution/terrorism information. Admits spouse/dependents as well.

• S7 Spouse/dependent of S5, 6•

SIJS visa

• Special Immigrant Juvenile Status (dependents of juvenile court, would be harmed if returned to home country)

TN visa

• TN NAFTA Professionals (available to Canadian and Mexican nationals coming for professional work)

• TD Spouse/dependent of TN

T visa

• T1 Victim of trafficking• T2 Spouse of T1• T3 Child of T1• T4 Parent of T1 under 21 years of age

U visa

• U1 Victim of criminal activity (physical or mental abuse, including domestic violence)

• U2 Spouse of U1• U3 Child of U1• U4 Parent of U1 under 21 years of age

V visa

• V1 Spouse of lawful permanent resident awaiting immigrant visa who have already waiting 3 years for the approval of their visa petition or for an immigrant visa to become available.

• V2 Child of lawful permanent resident awaiting immigrant visa

• V3 Derivative child of V1 and V2

W visa

• WB Temporary visitor, business• WT Temporary visitor, pleasure

What about regulation in our neck of the woods?

2012 Congressional Districts by PartyThe PA congressional delegation is heavily red. Republicans control the legislature (13/18 seats) and governor’s office.

Despite claims of partisan gerrymandering, they are largely unresolved/unchanged. In a fractured 2004 decision, the Supreme Court upheld a gerrymander in PA by Republicans.

PA support of controversial law

• As a state attorney general, Tom Corbett supported Arizona’s controversial immigration law, which challenges a law suit brought on by the US Dept of Justice, which claims that the Arizona law unjustly asserts state power in the federal issue of immigration.

Who gets to decide?

• During the federal legislative stalemate, global cities and states enact their own immigration legislation

• In 2006, Hazleton PA enacted the Illegal Immigration Relief Act Ordinance, which made it unlawful for anyone to employ or rent to an undocumented immigrant (and in some cases even those the federal government considers lawfully present), and did not provide due process.

• California’s Prop 187, requires people to identify and report suspected unauthorized immigrants

• Raises the question of who qualifies as a citizen/resident and who gets to decide.

Law of the land• Under the Supremacy Clause, federal law is the “supreme [l]aw of the [land]” and

preempts state law. However, pursuant to De Canas v Bica (1976), a court must first engage in a 3-pronged test (De Canas test) to determine if a state/local law regulating immigration is preempted. It is preempted if:– Congress has manifested an express intent to preempt any state law– Congress has intended completely to occupy the field in which the law attempts to

regulate– The state law “stands as an obstacle to the accomplishment and execution of the full

purposes/objectives of Congress”. In other words if it conflicts, if compliance to state law makes compliance to federal law impossible. For example, if the state restricted employment of aliens who under federal law were permitted to work, that would conflict.

• In this regard, the Hazleton Original Ordinance specified immigrants “whose current status is illegal” which is incompatible with federal law, which doesn’t classify immigrants as illegal (but rather unauthorized alien) (349). Hazleton then revised the ordinance to be consistent with the federal definition. The revised ordinance

CIR in PHL?

• Philadelphia legislators (democratic) already support CIR

• Local immigrant organizations are working to gain republican support for CIR

• The Targets: – Rep. Gerlach, PA 6TH District– Rep. Meehan, PA 7TH District– Rep. Fitzpatrick, PA 8th District

Sanctuary or Ice Collaborator?• The Original (U.S.-Central American) Sanctuary Movement of the

1980s. Dictatorships, civil war, and revolution in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua led many to seek asylum in the United States. According to Byrne (Perla and Coutin 2010), 25 percent of the Salvadoran population were displaced or refugees.

• However, the U.S. government’s entanglement with some of the Central American regimes complicated its reception of refugees. For example, the Refugee Act of 1980 allowed for political refugees, but the Reagan Administration labeled the Central American refugees as economic migrants (Press 1985).

• In response, immigrant and religious organizations built a movement to secure Central Americans’ rights and protect them from deportation.

Philadelphia before 2008

• Philadelphia was largely regarded as a sanctuary city until its contract with ICE in 2008.

• To recover from population declination and compete in the global city marketplace, Philadelphia Councilman James Kenney proposed a 12-step plan to attract immigrants as “new Philadelphians” or “replacement people,” capable of revitalizing Philadelphia through economic development, increased tax revenues and blight mitigation. However, increased xenophobia consequent of 9/11 terrorism dissolved Kenney’s proposed Office of New Philadelphians and the city has remained divided on immigrant reception ever since.

Philadelphia since 2008• In 2008, Philadelphia agreed to support the USCIS Secure Communities Program

and entered into a contract with ICE to facilitate ICE access to the Preliminary Arraignment System (PARS) database.

• Secure Communities enlists local law enforcement to send biometric data of all arrested individuals to ICE’s database.

• PARS is a real-time database of everyone in Philadelphia Police Department (PPD) custody. These arrest records include individuals regardless of citizenship status, for offenses as minor as traffic violations.

• When the data culled via the Secure Communities Program or the PARS database match someone previously apprehended by ICE (e.g. at the border), ICE orders local law enforcement to detain the individual for 48 hours to facilitate their transfer to ICE custody. This process occurs before the Constitutional right to due process and is subsequently a threat to civil and human rights. Participation in Secure Communities and the PARS contract are completely voluntary. New York, Chicago, New Orleans and Newark have all terminated their collaborations with ICE.

Philadelphia 2013

• In 2013, Philadelphia Mayor Michael Nutter established the Mayor’s Office of Immigrant and Multicultural Affairs as an extension of his 2008 Executive Order No. 8-09, which mandated that immigrants have access to city services without barriers or fear that their immigration status will be questioned or disclosed.

• At the very same time, the Mayor renewed a contract to collaborate with Immigration and Citizenship Enforcement (ICE) deportation initiatives, by sharing biometric data, conducting raids, and detaining individuals, regardless of their citizenship status and violating their right to due process.

March 12, 2014

• Philadelphia City Council held a public meeting to discuss the drafting of a new mayoral executive order that eliminates ICE holds for non-citizens in city custody

Top 10 Myths about Immigrants

1. They steal American jobs

• Between 2000 and 2005, the supply of low-skilled American-born workers decreased by 1.8 million, part of a larger trend resulting from better education and an aging population. To fill the void, employers rely on immigrant workers. For decades, Mexican laborers were recruited—even hoodwinked—into migrating to the U.S. for work through the Roosevelt initiated bracero program.

2. They don’t pay taxes

• Immigrants pay taxes every time they purchase gas, clothes, or food. The Social Security Administration estimates that half to three-quarters of undocumented immigrants pay federal, state and local taxes, including $6 billion to $7 billion in Social Security taxes for benefits they will never be able to claim.

• Where the fallout occurs is that most of their taxes go to the federal government rather than to the local, state entities that fund necessary social services. This leads to a tension between local, state and federal governments over who will pay.

3. They’re a drain on the economy

• Despite paying taxes, undocumented immigrants are not eligible for welfare or food stamps. Moreover, once naturalized, the foreign-born are better able to seek employment and open small businesses, which increase local revenues and taxes and create jobs. These new jobs result in greater disposable incomes, which lead to greater consumer demand and spending and ultimately economic growth.

4. They should’ve immigrated the right way like my parents/grandparents…

• Immigration was largely unregulated until the 1870 Naturalization Act (a precursor to the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act). Under current immigration policy, many of our immigrant ancestors who arrived between 1790 and 1924 would not be permitted.

5. There’s no more room, America is getting overpopulated

• If the entire world’s population of 7 billion moved to Texas, it would only be as dense as New York.

6. They immigrate because of poverty in their home country

• Migration requires a lot of resources. Furthermore, increases in emigration levels typically coincide with increases in the gross national product (GNP). In the 1970s, South Korea had one of the highest GNP growth rates and highest immigration rates to the U.S. More than not, immigration results from the growth of political and economic ties to the U.S. Check out NAFTA’s role in Mexican migration to the U.S: http://www.thenation.com/article/165438/how-us-policies-fueled-mexicos-great-migration.

7. The U.S. only deports criminals• In 2011, the Obama administration promised it would only deport

“individuals who have been convicted of serious crimes” rather than those whose only crime was entering the U.S. undocumented. However, according to data analyzed by Syracuse University, less than 15% of deportations have been related to criminal activity.

• Local participation in federal deportation programs is completely voluntary. Chicago, Miami, New York, New Orleans, and Newark have all terminated their collaborations with Immigration and Citizenship Enforcement (ICE). However, Philadelphia continues to comply with ICE, allowing them access to biometric data of anyone arrested—regardless of citizenship status—for offenses as minor as traffic violations. ICE then orders local law enforcement to detain the individual for 48 hours to facilitate their transfer to ICE custody. This process occurs before the Constitutional right to due process and is subsequently a threat to civil and human rights.

8. Deportation makes the country safer

• When local law enforcement collaborate with ICE, it destroys community trust. When large portions of the community do not feel safe reporting crimes and cooperating with the police, all local residents are put in danger. This summer, a community member told me that she and fellow “undocumented people are unable to speak out if they see something bad happening in the streets,” because they are afraid of being detained and deported (July 30, 2013).

9. They make our neighborhoods worse

• According to Census and FBI data, between 1990 and 2010, the foreign-born population in the U.S. grew from 7.9% to 12.9%, and the number of undocumented immigrants grew from 3.5 million to 11.2 million. During the same period, the violent crime rate declined by 45% and the property crime rate fell by 42%. Newcomers immigrate to secure a better life for themselves and their families, so they are unlikely to commit crimes.

10. They’re undermining American culture

• Culture is not static. American culture is constantly evolving. But immigrants do share American values—family, morality, education, hard work, and community.

What’s the big deal?

Cultural Identity

• “A national culture is a discourse—a way of constructing meanings which influences and organizes both our actions and our conception of ourselves. National cultures construct identities by producing meanings about “the nation” with which we can identify; these are contained in the stories which are told about it, memories which connect its present with its past, and images which are constructed of it.”

--Stuart Hall

Representation

• Signs synecdochically stand for or represent our concepts, ideals and feelings in such a way as to enable others to “read,” decode or interpret their meaning.

--Stuart Hall• Tropes, icons, and emblems• In Covering Immigration: Popular Images and the Politics of the

Nation (2001), Leo Chavez discovered a direct correlation between an economic recession and a magazine cover concerning immigration between 1965-1999. Frequency of covers is also related to public opinion, attitudes favoring less immigration reached an all time high in 1980 (likely compounded by recession and increasing media attention).

So what is American culture?

Multi/culturalism

• According to Vertovec’s definition of culturalism (241), how can we understand the implications of multiculturalism

• What is the danger of having culture?• What is nativism?

Cultural citizenship

• How culture informs notions of citizenship, which is often taken for granted as a universal, natural entity, rather than a marginalizing, productive project

• The right to be different (in terms of race, ethnicity, or native language) with respect to the norms of the dominant national community, without compromising one’s right to belong, in the sense of participating in the nation-state’s democratic processes. The enduring exclusions of the color line often deny full citizenship to people of color.

--Renato Rosaldo

IBO Model

• Identities-borders-orders (245)• Some sense of cultural identity is presumed to characterize a

people• This identity/people is believed to be continguous with a

territory, demarcated by a border• Within the border, laws and a moral economy underpin a

specific social and political order…different from orders outside the border, both draws on and reinforces the sense of collective identity

• Kearney saw the border as a “composite geographic, legal, institutional, and sociocultural structure and process” (2004:131)

Un/desired

• Desired as laborers• Contributors to society• Evidence that US is superior• Praised for multiculturalism

• Excluded from public benefits

• Suspect of maintaining disparate loyalties

• Challenge to US sovereignty• Maligned as “illegals” that

won’t assimilate

Naturalization ceremonies

• Attributed naturalization to immigrants’ desire for Americanization

• Choice of the US over country of origin• Need of US to be renewed through “new

blood”• Privatized, homogenized, and tamed what

might otherwise be characterized as disruptive foreign differences and thus created generic public citizens (515)

Disjuncture

• Naturalization can be a way of furthering international integration rather than transferring migrants’ allegiance from one nation to another

• Naturalization ceremonies celebrate creation/incorporation of new citizen-subjects but these subjects are created by (ritually) erasing histories and rendering difference generic

• Naturalization may be driven by fear of disenfranchisement rather than desire to become American

Self-made manChock: Remaking and Unmaking Citizen in Policymaking Talk about Immigration (1994)• (Re)defining citizenship is a political act with material consequences• The terms citizen and immigrant are dynamic and in a dialectical

relationship. • The immigrant success story is a performative enactment, which

constructs ideologies of acceptable personhood--it enables aliens to transform into "new men," "persons" that can be "legalized" (IRCA). These narratives try to erase social difference or deny its significance.

• Those who don't conform to this mold (whitened, sanitized, self-creating, male) are denied access to social/moral personhood, which implies that women and children are not citizens/immigrants in their own right but reliant on citizenship by proxy of their patriarch's status.