approaches to language teaching learning activity 2.1
TRANSCRIPT
APPROACHES TO
LANGUAGE TEACHING
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
CHAPTER V
STUDENT: WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
GRAMMAR TRANSLATION
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
REQUIREMENTS FOR OPTIMAL
INPUTComprehensible. It is focused entirely on the form, students are forced to
read word by word and rarely focus completely on the message
Interesting/relevant. To provide topics of interest in the reading selection,
They clearly do not catch the students' attention to such an extent that they
forget that it is written in another language
Not grammatically sequenced. The most of texts attempting to proceed
from what the author considers easy rules to more complex rules. Each
lesson introduces certain rules, and these rules dominate the lesson.
Quantity. It can not provide a great deal of comprehensible input. The small
amount of comprehensible rarely is supplemented by teacher talk in the
target language.
Affective filter level. it violates nearly every component of the Input
Hypothesis, it has been pointed out, is also raised for some students who are
less inclined toward grammar study
Tools. it makes no attempt, explicitly or implicitly, to help students manage
conversations with native speakers.
GRAMMAR TRANSLATION
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
LEARNING
Learning needs to precede acquisition. This
assumption necessitates that all target
structures be introduced and explained,
therefore, no limitation of the set of rules to
be learned. There is no attempt to account
for individual variation in Monitor use, nor is
there any attempt to specify when rules are
to be used, the implicit assumption being
that all students will be able to use all the
rules all the time.
GRAMMAR TRANSLATION
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
SUMMARY
Grammar-translation, if the above analysis is
correct, should result in very low amounts of
acquired competence; what comprehensible
input is available faces a high affective filter,
and learning is vastly overemphasized.
AUDIO-LINGUALISM
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
REQUIREMENTS FOR OPTIMAL
INPUTComprehensible. It provides comprehensible input. The dialogues and
pattern practice are certainly understandable by most students.
Interesting/relevant. it is useful language, that it be age-appropriate and
natural, most dialogues fall far short of the mark of true interest and
relevance.Not grammatically sequenced. it is based usually on linguistic simplicity, but
also influenced by frequency and predictions of difficulty by contrastive
analysis. As is the case with grammar-translation, the entire lesson is
dominated by the "structure of the day".
Quantity. The goal is the memorization of the dialogue, not the
comprehension of a message.
Affective filter level. It violates several aspects of the Input Hypothesis:
production is expected immediately, and is expected to be error-free. Over-use
of drill and repetition, procedures such as not allowing students access to the
written word in early stages may also add to anxiety
Tools. Most dialogues are actually scripts, and are not designed to be used
to negotiate meaning.
LEARNING
The goal is to have the student over-learn a variety of
patterns to be used directly in performance. In practice,
however, audio-lingual teaching often results in inductive
learning, the student attempting to work out a conscious
rule on the basis of the dialogue and pattern practice, with
the explanation section serving to confirm or disconfirm his
guess. There is thus no explicit attempt to restrict learning
to rules that are learnable, portable and not yet acquired,
nor is there any attempt to encourage rule use only in
certain situations. Despite the fact that pattern practice
attempt to focus students off rules, the requirement of
complete correctness probably encourages Monitor use at
all times..
AUDIO-LINGUALISM
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
SUMMARY
Some acquisition should result from the use of the
audio-lingual method, but nowhere near what is
obtainable with other methods that provide a larger
amount of comprehensible and interesting/relevant
input with a low filter. If learned according to plan,
students will end up with a stock of sentences and
patterns that will be of occasional use in
conversation, and also serve the conversational
management goal, to some extent. Inductive learning
is implicitly encouraged, but no attempt is made to
limit which rules are to be learned or when they are
to be applied..
AUDIO-LINGUALISM
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
COGNITIVE-CODE
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
REQUIREMENTS FOR OPTIMAL
INPUTComprehensible. It promises to provide greater amounts of comprehensible
input, but this potential is diminished if activities are limited what can be
discussed, and disturbs the naturalness of the communication.
Interesting/relevant. This depends, of the communicative competence
section. Regardless of what is chosen, however, the goal remains the learning
of a specific structure.Not grammatically sequenced. Cognitive-code, like grammar-translation, is
sequenced, and the structure of the day dominates all parts of the lesson.
Quantity. To live up to the ideal of a class full of comprehensible input with
total focus on the message, since the communicative competence section is
only a part of the program and even here, the focus is on form.
Affective filter level. Error correction on all output is part of most cognitive-
code classrooms, students are expected to produce right away, and it is
expected that this production will be accurate.
Tools. There is no announced attempt to provide this, but it is quite possible
that some activities in the communicative competence section will provide
some of these tools.
COGNITIVE – CODE
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
LEARNING
The assumption of cognitive-code is that
conscious learning can be accomplished
by everyone, that all rules are learnable,
and that conscious knowledge should be
available at all times. We can only
conclude that cognitive-code encourages
overuse of the Monitor, unless all rules
"fade away" as soon as the structures
become automatic.
COGNITIVE - CODE
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
SUMMARY
Cognitive-code should provide greater
quantities of comprehensible input
than grammar-translation does, and
hence more acquisition, but does not
come near to fulfilling the potential of
the classroom. As in grammar-
translation, learning is
overemphasized.
DIRECT METHOD
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
REQUIREMENTS FOR OPTIMAL
INPUTComprehensible. It provides a great deal of comprehensible input. As is the
case with the Natural Approach, the entire period is filled with target language
use with a variety of topics and structures utilized.
Interesting/relevant. The goal of the lesson is the grammar teaching with
limitations, but is rarely genuinely communicative, are recommended to help
the student induce various points of grammar. it based in the
contextualization, the requirement that all discussion embed a grammar point
makes this requirement hard to meet.
Not grammatically sequenced. The direct method is strictly sequenced,
which distorts efforts at real communication.
Quantity. It meets this requirement as well as any classroom method can,
filling the entire hour with comprehensible input.
Affective filter level. The use of error correction, and the grammatical focus of
the course may cause anxiety and a high filter for all but the most dedicated
Monitor user.Tools. Tools for interaction in the classroom in the target language--they are
soon able to initiate discussion with the teacher and ask questions
THE DIRECT METHOD
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
LEARNING
Presumes that conscious control is
necessary for acquisition, that conscious
knowledge of grammar can be accessed
at all times, and by all students. It
demands full control of late-acquired
structures in oral production from the very
beginning (e.g. gender), and may thus
encourage over-use of the grammar.
THE DIRECT METHOD
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
SUMMARY
Provides greater amounts of comprehensible input
than many of its competitors. It remains, how ever,
grammar-based, and this constrains its ability to
provide truly interesting messages, and leads to over-
use of the Monitor. The direct method has been very
successful with certain populations, among students
who have intrinsic motivation for language study and
who believe that the study of conscious grammar is
essential. For these students, the inductive study of
grammar is in itself interesting, and provides all the
interest necessary. In other words, grammar is subject
matter.
NATURAL APPROACH
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
REQUIREMENTS FOR OPTIMAL
INPUTComprehensible. The entire goal of classroom practice in the Natural
Approach is to provide comprehensible input. teachers utilize realia, pictures,
and students' previous knowledge to make their speech comprehensible from
the first day.Interesting/relevant. This is a serious problem for a foreign language class.
Natural Approach attempts to capture students' interest by using what Terrell
terms "Affective Acquisition Activities", adapted from Christensen, that
encourage discussion of topics of personal interest to the students
Not grammatically sequenced. The focus of the class is not on the
presentation of grammar. There is a tendency for certain structures to be used
more often in certain stages, but there is no deliberate sequencing.
Quantity. The Natural Approach meets this requirement as well as any
foreign language teaching method can.
Affective filter level. the sources of anxiety are reduced or eliminated.
Students do not have to produce in the second language until they feel they
are ready. Error correction for form is not done in the classroom.
Tools. Some tools help to students to talk with native speakers on
predictable and frequent topics. Also, students are introduced, phrases and
expressions that will help them control the teacher's input.
THE NATURAL APPROACH
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
LEARNING
The Natural Approach is designed to be consistent with
what is known of Monitor functioning. The absence of error
correction in the classroom is a recognition that there are
constraints on when the conscious grammar is used:
students are expected to utilize the Monitor only at home,
when they have time, when they are focused on form, and
when they know, or are learning, a rule. At the university
level, grammar homework is assigned to everyone, but it is
conceivable that the Natural Approach can be adapted for
variations in Monitor use, with varying amounts of
homework, or different type homework assignments for
under, or optimal users., younger children would not profit
from grammar homework, while older children and
adolescents might be able to handle limited amounts.
THE NATURAL APPROACH
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
SUMMARY
The Natural Approach makes a deliberate effort to fit
all requirements for both Learning and Acquisition.
Its only weakness, according to SLA theory, is that it
remains a classroom method, and for some students
this prohibits the communication of interesting and
relevant topics (see discussion below).
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
REQUIREMENTS FOR OPTIMAL
INPUTComprehensible. it meets this requirement. The total physical response
required of the student is, in effect, a manifestation of his comprehension of
the teacher's utterance.
Interesting/relevant. The novelty and freshness of the TPR technique
probably does a great deal to make the class experience interesting. It may
be difficult to remain interesting if one holds to the requirement of producing
imperatives 100% of the time.Not grammatically sequenced. According to Asher's description, each
lesson does have a grammatical focus in TPR. In other words, commands
contextualize various points of grammar.
Quantity. TPR can fill an entire class period with comprehensible input in the
form of commands. It thus has the potential of meeting this requirement fully.
Affective filter level. Students are not asked to produce in the second
language until they themselves decide they are ready. They are, in other
words, allowed a silent period.
Tools. Tools for conversational management. This is no explicit mention of
this in Asher's papers.
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
LEARNING
The assumption of TPR is that grammar
will be learned inductively, that is,
students will work out the correct form of
the rule during the class activity. In terms
of the theory presented in this book, this
can be interpreted as claiming that much
of the grammar will be acquired and/or
inductively learned in the technical sense
of inductive learning.
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
SUMMARY
Second Language Acquisition theory predicts that TPR
should result in substantial language acquisition, and
should not encourage overuse of the conscious Monitor.
The use of TPR insures the active participation of
students, helps the teacher know when utterances are
understood, and also provides contexts to help students
understand the language they hear. It may fail to
completely satisfy the interesting/relevant requirement,
first, since it is a classroom method, and second,
because of constraints imposed by the continuous use of
imperatives and the grammatical focus of lessons. It
should, however, do far better than methods such as
audio-lingual and grammar-translation.
SUGGESTOPEDIA
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
REQUIREMENTS FOR OPTIMAL
INPUTComprehensible. Initial dialogues are based on situations familiar to the
student, and the use of the students' first language in Part One is partially
justified on the ground that it helps the student confirm that he has indeed
understood the text presented in the target language (Racle, 1979, p. 100).
Interesting/relevant. The topics of the dialogues are designed not only to be
of inherent interest, but also to be of some practical value and relevant to
students' needs.Not grammatically sequenced. All writers on Suggestopedia emphasize that
the focus, from the very beginning, is on communication, and the dialogues do
not seem to focus on specific points of grammar. Suggestopedia seems to
depend on the net of grammatical structures provided by successful
communication.Quantity. It seems meeting this requirement as well. While there is some
explanation in the first language, the long and varied dialogue dominates the
session, both as pure input and as a basis for communicative use of the L2.
Affective filter level. Practically every feature of Suggestopedia is aimed at
relaxing the student, reducing anxieties, removing mental blocks, and building
confidence.Tools. There is no explicit mention, however, of giving students the tools they
need to converse with more competent speakers.
SUGGESTOPEDIA
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
LEARNING
According to Bushman and Madsen
(1976), "Content precedes form. Accurate
pronunciation and grammar are to come
in due course" (p. 32). While there is
error correction and grammar explanation
in part one of each lesson, grammar use
in Suggestopedia apparently does not
interfere with communication.
SUGGESTOPEDIA
WASHINGTON MONTENEGRO
SUMMARY
Suggestopedia comes very close to completely
matching the requirements for optimal input.
Elements that Lozanov might consider to invoke
hyper- or super-memory, or that "desuggest"
limitations, are, in our terms, conditions that
lower the affective filter and that allow the
subconscious language acquisition system to
operate at full, or near full capacity and
efficiency. Suggestopedia also seems to put
grammar in its proper place..