approaches for conservators to the identification of plant material used in maori artefacts

Maney Publishing and International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Studies in Conservation.

http://www.jstor.org

Maney Publishing

Approaches for Conservators to the Identification of Plant Material used in Māori Artefacts Author(s): Debra Carr, Natasha Cruthers, Elizabeth Girvan and Susan Scheele Source: Studies in Conservation, Vol. 53, No. 4 (2008), pp. 252-263Published by: on behalf of the Maney Publishing International Institute for Conservation of

Historic and Artistic WorksStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27867048Accessed: 18-08-2014 08:49 UTC

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of contentin a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

This content downloaded from 84.205.227.38 on Mon, 18 Aug 2014 08:49:11 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

http://www.jstor.org

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=maney

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=iich

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=iich

http://www.jstor.org/stable/27867048

http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp


252

Approaches for Conservators to the

Identification of Plant Material used in

Maori Artefacts

Debra Carr, Natasha Cruthers, Elizabeth Girvan and Susan Scheele

The aim of this study is to provide a suite of tools to assist with the preliminary identification of historical textile plant material

originating from New Zealand. The plants investigated are indigenous to New Zealand and were/are used by Maori for the

manufacture of baskets, mats, nets, ropes, snares and various garments. Surface morphology of leaves, fibre bundle shape and

repeating pattern observable in transverse sections of leaves, fibre dimensions and the presence of crystals were evaluated. Some

results from this research have been used to establish a free-to-use on-line database that may assist in identifying plant material

used in artefacts manufactured by Maori, but which should not be regarded as a substitute for a confirmed identification by a plant scientist.

INTRODUCTION

It is widely recognized that the identification of

material(s) used in artefacts is critical before the selection

of appropriate conservation treatments (see for example

[1?3]). Cultural institutions, both in New Zealand and

overseas, hold collections of woven and plaited artefacts

manufactured by Maori, including fragments from

archaeological excavations. The plant material used in

such objects is not always known nor easily determined

by employees in these cultural institutions. Plant material

used in artefacts from New Zealand is often recorded

as unknown or tentatively recorded as either Phormium

tenax (harakeke) or Cordyline australis (t? kouka). Processing

methods, surface dirt, historical conservation treatments,

ageing processes, storage issues and, particularly, a lack of

readily available reference information all contribute to

the difficulty of making positive identifications of plant species used.

Before European contact, Maori were reliant on

local plant resources for their survival. As well as the

Received October 2007

essentials of food, medicine and shelter, the leaves, stems

and occasionally bark of many species were used to

make clothing, containers (in the absence of pottery), mats and cordage (see for example [4-13]). The most

widely used and important species in Maori subsistence

economy was Phormium tenax (harakeke, New Zealand

flax). Leaf strips (whenu) were used to make baskets (kete) and other containers, mats for sleeping and sitting on,

fishing nets and snares, serviceable garments, sandals

(paraerae) and, in more recent times, the swinging skirt

called a piupiu.The fibre (muka or whxtau) extracted from

the leaves was used for the manufacture of cloaks and

other fine garments and cordage. Phormium cookianum

(wharariki) is not as strong and fibrous as P. tenax, but

was employed in the manufacture of items that could be

used and discarded, or where lightweight qualities were

desired. The tough fibrous leaves of Cordyline australis

(t? k?uka, cabbage tree) were valued when hard-wearing

properties were required, such as for sandals, snares,

baskets for collecting shellfish, and to create an outer

layer of thatching on rain capes (i.e. short strips of plant material inserted into the outer surface of the main body of the cape in an overlapping manner). Cordyline is more

STUDIES IN CONSERVATION 53 (2008) PAGES 252-263



APPROACHES FOR CONSERVATORS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT MATERIAL USED IN MAORI ARTEFACTS 253

resistant to rotting in seawater than Phormium, so fibre

retted from Cordyline was used for the manufacture of

anchor ropes. Cordyline indivisa, (t?t, mountain cabbage

tree) was particularly important in mountainous regions where harakeke did not grow, and the retted leaf fibre

was used in making weatherproof capes. Strips of

Freycinetia banksii (kiekie) leaves were another highly

regarded resource for weaving fine mats and baskets

and in making tukutuku (decorative panels). The retted

fibre was also used in making capes. The sedge Eleocharis

sphacelata (kutd) was favoured when softness was desired

for weaving baskets, widows' mourning caps, hats and

mats. The spongy stems of another sedge, Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (k?p?ng?wh?, and also called kutd), closely related to the worldwide genus Scirpus, were used to

plait sleeping mats and whitebait nets. The tough,

golden leaves of Desmoschoenus spir?lis ipTngao), a sedge found on sand dunes, were used to weave baskets, belts

and poho-taupa (chest protectors used in fighting), and

in decorative tukutuku panels. Strips of the lacy inner

bark of Hoheria spp. (houhere, lacebark) were used when

making decorative baskets, for ornamentation such as

braiding on hats, while the tough outer bark was plaited into strong ropes. Hierochloe redolens, (k?retu, holy grass) is

a sweet-scented grass used to manufacture women's belts, headbands and as a scented necklace. The dried leaves of

Dracophyllum spp. (neinei, inanga) were tied into cloaks as

ornamental tags. The silvery tomentum of the leaves of

large mountain daisies (Celmisia spp.) was removed and

used in making cloaks (often as ornamental tags), rain

cloaks and stuffed into leggings to protect travellers' legs from thorny plants. Among other less common plants used on cloaks for decoration or thatching are tussock

grasses, such as Poa spp. The current research focuses on the development

of a web-based atlas containing reference information

from dried and semi-processed contemporary specimens of indigenous New Zealand plant material (e.g., fibre

and leaves) that may assist employees in cultural institu

tions with the identification of plant material. It is

envisaged that the atlas will grow to include similar

information regarding historical specimens, further

assisting identification of plant material used in objects. The atlas aims to provide images that the non-specialist can use to assist in identification and thus add to the

suite of observed features available. It seeks to provide a

preliminary step towards species identification, although consultation with specialists may be required for a

positive identification.

It is useful to define some terms that are used by

object and textile conservators, and by botanists and

plant anatomists. Fibre aggregate, a term used by textile

conservators/scientists, refers to the macroscopic product of leaf or stem processing [14]. Fibre aggregates are

popularly referred to as 'the fibre' in publications, but may contain many components, i.e. ultimate fibres and often

vascular bundles which transport water and solutes [15,

16]. Ultimate fibre is a textile/fibre science term used to

describe the individual fibres or single sclerenchyma cells

(plant science term) found in fibre aggregates [14,16]. In

fibre aggregates, the ultimate fibres are twisted together or arranged in an overlapping manner, and are adhered

in a non-cellulosic matrix. Bundles of fibres may be

visible in transverse sections of leaves [15].

Diagnostic tools that can contribute to the identifi

cation of plant material and would be relatively accessible when specialized advice is not available

include morphological features such as plant leaf

surfaces, transverse sections of leaves and ultimate

fibre dimensions. In textile science and conservation,

microscopy is used primarily to distinguish among different fibres [1?3, 14?18]. The shape and size of the

fibre bundles in transverse sections of leaves and of the

individual ultimate fibres can be tools for identification

purposes [14-18]. However, minimal information has

been reported previously for plants from New Zealand.

Exceptions include Goulding, who provided criteria

and a key (but no microscopy images) for identifying 13

plants used in New Zealand artefacts, including Cordyline

spp., Dracophyllum spp., Phormium spp., Hierochloe redolens,

Freycinetia banksii, Eleocharis sphacelata and Desmoschoenus

spir?lis [17]. A number of light microscopy images of Phormium have been published, the ultimate fibres are

reportedly convex polygonal, with a round lumen and

may be pitted [14, 16, 18]. A study of the transverse sections of leaves from different cultivars of Phormium

has suggested differences in the pattern of'molar tooth

shaped' and 'keyhole shaped' fibre bundles that may enable different cultivars to be distinguished [18]. Unlike

most plants, there is an equal number of stornata on

both sides of the Cordyline leaf and this may assist is

distinguishing Cordyline from other species. There is much debate in the plant science literature

about whether the presence of crystals in plant material

can be a useful tool for their identification [16, 19?22].

However, crystals are widely used in textile science and

textile conservation to assist in the identification of plant material [2, 14-16]. At least five crystal morphologies are identified in the literature, but these are commonly

grouped into these main categories:

raphides (needle-like crystals);




254 D. CARR, . CRUTHERS, E. GIRVAN AND S. SCHEELE

sand-like, styloids and prismatic crystals; and

druses (multiple crystals that appear flower-like) [16,

19-22].

Crystals are notoriously difficult to use as a diagnostic feature as the take-up of calcium or silica by the plant and deposition in the cells is erratic and related to soil

and geology, sometimes on a very localized basis. In this

study the presence of crystals was noted, but care should

be taken not to rely too heavily on their presence as a

reliable diagnostic criterion.

The aim of this study was to provide selected refer

ence data - images of leaf surfaces, transverse sections

(to allow examination of fibre bundle shape and repeat

pattern), ultimate fibre length and width, and presence of crystals

? that might assist with identifying such plant material.

METHODS

Materials

Plant specimens for study were selected according to

their importance in early Maori material culture, as

reflected in the literature [4-13]. The selection was

approved by Maori weavers, conservators and other

museum professionals, and circulated to relevant

academic departments within the University of Otago for their comment. All plant specimens in this study were

identified, collected and supplied by an ethnobotanist of

long-standing experience and whose primary research

area is weaving plants used by Maori (S. Scheele). On

arrival at the University of Otago each plant specimen was given a unique code and documented; the locality at

which it was collected was recorded, the specimen was

photographed and notes made regarding its appearance. The botanical, Maori and common names of the species that were chosen are listed in Table 1 along with their

common uses, while other pertinent information

regarding usage is summarized above. Plant material was

generally processed in some way before the manufacture

of objects, e.g., extraction of fibre aggregates, softening of strips of leaves, drying, beating, boiling, bleaching and sometimes dyeing. It should be noted that such

processing may have degraded the diagnostic features

discussed in the current work.

Plant material transverse sections

and fibre dimensions

Pieces of fresh material (~5 x 10 mm) were cut from the

centre of leaves (right side), stems or bark as appropriate, fixed with Tellyesniczky s formula (100 mL 70% alcohol/ 5 mL glacial acetic acid/5 mL 100% formalin) for 24

Table 1 Botanical, Maori and common names of the plants studied, with details of the parts used and their common uses

Botanical name Maori name Common name Part used Common uses

Celmisia semicordata

Cordyline australis

Cordyline indivisa

Desmoschoenus spir?lis

Dracophyllum spp. Eleocharis sphacelata Freycinetia banksii

Hierochloe redolens Hoheria populnea

Phormium tenax Phormium cookianum Poa cita

Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani

tikumu

ti k?uka

toi

pingao

neinei, inanga kuta kiekie

harakeke wharariki wJ

k?pung?wh?

mountain daisy

cabbage tree

mountain cabbage tree

golden sand sedge

bamboo spike sedge kiekie

k?retu holy grass houhere lacebark

leaf, tomentum

leaf, fibre

leaf, fibre

leaf

leaf stem

leaf, fibre

leaf outer and inner bark

New Zealand flax, swamp flax leaf, fibre mountain flax, coastal flax leaf silver tussock leaf lake clubrush stem

rain-protective tags on cloaks, as stuffing in

leggings baskets, nets, snares, anchor ropes, rough garments, sandals rain capes (fibre), sandals, rough garments, baskets, cordage baskets, chest-protectors, belts, decorative house

panels decorative tags on cloaks soft hats, baskets, mats

baskets, mats, decorative house panels, rain cape (fibre) belts, necklace, headbands inner bark - kete, hats, decorative braids outer bark - cordage, piupiu, garments cloaks, baskets, cordage, mats, sandals, piupiu baskets, mats, tags on cloaks

stuffing in leggings, top layer on cloaks

mats, whitebait nets





hours and then stored in 70% alcohol. The methods used

to prepare plant material transverse sections, macerate

fibre bundles into ultimate fibres, and measure the

dimensions of the ultimate fibres have been described

previously [23]. Means, standard deviations (s.d.) and

coefficients of variation (CV) for ultimate fibre 'width'

and length measurements (for an average often samples: =

10) were calculated.

Images of plant material surfaces

Pieces of plant material were placed in buffered acid-free

paper, sandwiched between buffered museum board and

an outer metal frame and were oven dried (50?C, 72

hours). Dried, rather than fresh, material was examined

because plant material specimens removed from artefacts

are in a desiccated state. Small pieces (~5 x 10 mm) of

this dried material were mounted on 25 mm diameter

aluminium stubs with carbon tape so that the adaxial

and abaxial surfaces could be examined. The specimens were coated with approximately 5 nm of gold/palladium or carbon and viewed in a Jeol 6700F field emission

scanning electron microscope (FESEM) (3-5 kV, 7?8 mm working distance).

Chemical composition of crystals

The transverse sections previously prepared (see above) were examined using polarized light to identify which

specimens contained crystals. Crystals were observed

in specimens of Cordyline spp., Hoheria, Dracophyllum, and two selections of Phormium (provenance Karikari

Beach and the named cultivar 'Waihirere' ? both

growing at Lincoln, South Island, New Zealand). Dried

specimens for each of these were split and mounted

on an aluminium stub using carbon tape. A Jeol 2300F

energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) detector (10 kV, working distance 15 mm) was used to measure the energy of

the X-rays emitted when an electron beam collided

with the surface of the specimen, hence the elemental

composition of the crystals could be investigated. Point and area analyses were used, dead time was kept below 25% and spectra were collected for 60 seconds.

The specimens were then coated with 5 nm of gold/

palladium using an Emitech K575X high-resolution coater and crystals imaged using a Jeol 6700F FESEM

(3 kV, 10 A).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

General observations

Phormium tenax (harakeke) and P. cookianum

(wharariki): A range of provenances and cultivated

varieties (cultivars) of Phormium were examined (n =

28). Fibre bundles were either keyhole or molar-tooth

shaped, and repeating patterns for these shapes were

commonly observed (Figure la). Fibre bundles were

larger in the upper part of the leaf. Generally, the fibre

bundles in cookianum were smaller than those in

harakeke. Sclerenchyma fibres had convex polygonal

shapes with a clear elliptical or circular lumen, and were

sometimes pitted. Hoheria populnea (houhere): The inner bark had a

characteristic lace-like appearance. Fibre bundles were

quadrilateral or elliptical in shape (~30-50 x 150-200

), typically containing 30?50 convex polygonal fibres

(occasionally pitted) with small circular or elliptical lumen (Figure lb).

Hierochloe redolens (k?retu): The transverse section

had a lace-like appearance (Figure lc).The elliptical or

convex polygonal fibres had large lumens, thin walls and

some were pitted.

Freycinetia banksii (kiekie): The fibre bundles in the upper part of the leaf were irregular in shape (5?40

fibres), while in the lower part they were round (10?20

fibres) (Figure Id) [19]. Small (lighter stained) fibre bundles were observed close to the upper and lower

epithelium with a cap over the top of the vascular

bundle. The convex polygonal fibres were large with

large lumens and comparatively sharp edges.

Dracophyllum traversii {mountain neinei) and

D. elegantissimum (neinei): Fibre bundles were not

observed in either Dracophyllum species, rather the fibres

were found throughout the structure (Figures le and

If). The convex polygonal fibres had large lumens, and

were smaller in D. eleganitissimum (which has the longer, narrower leaves) than in D. traversii.

Desmoschoenus spir?lis (ptngao): Triangular/half-oval

shaped fibre bundles (~50 x 50-100 ) were observed,

while larger elliptical/irregularly shaped fibre bundles were observed in the centre of the leaf (Figure lg).The convex polygonal fibres had relatively thick cell walls

with small lumens.

Cordyline australis (t? k?uka): More fibre was observed in the upper portion of the leaf than the lower

portion (Figure lh).The fibre bundles (100 x 300 ) repeated in a pattern of: molar tooth; small truncated

oval or molar tooth; truncated hourglass or long molar





(f) Figure 1 Transverse sections (light microscopy, scale bar = 50 m): (a) Phormium tenax Opiki'; (b) Hoheria populnea; (c) Hierochloe redplens; (d) Freycinetia banksii; (e) Dracophyllum traversii; (f) Dracophyllum elegantissimum; (g) Desmoschoenus spir?lis; (h) Cordyline australis; (i) Cordyline indivisa; Celmisia semicordata





Figure 1 Continued.

tooth; small truncated oval or molar tooth; and molar

tooth.The rounded thick walled convex polygonal fibres

in C. australis had large elliptical lumens and pits. Thick

distinct layers of wax were observed on the upper and

lower cuticles.

Cordyline indivisa (??f):The fibre bundles (~ 300 x 350 ) were molar-tooth shaped, the repeat pattern was large bundle, very small, small, very small, then large

(Figure li). Fibres were convex polygonal with large lumen.

Celmisia semicordata (tikumu): The fibrous surface

appeared as flattened ribbons. In transverse section, a

thick upper epidermis and distinct vascular tissue capped

by small fibre bundles were noted (Figure lj).

Ultimate fibre dimensions

Ultimate fibre dimensions were obtained for most

of the plants in the study (Table 2). Mean transverse

widths of ultimate fibres from P. tenax varied from

11 (Campbell Island) to 15 ('Taeore' cultivar) and mean lengths varied from 1.79 mm (Ten Mile

Creek) to 4.27 mm (Auckland Island) (Table 2). The cookianum examined tended to have larger transverse

widths compared to P. tenax and the ultimate fibre

lengths tended to be longer (Limestone Stream, width

13 , length 3.95 mm; Punakaiki, width 14 , length 3.86 mm;Wharariki '#62', width 14 , length 3.05

mm; Okiwi Bay, width 15 , length not collected)





(Table 2). Cultivars from the Rene Orchiston weaving collection were represented throughout the range of

ultimate fibre transverse widths and lengths (Table 2) [12]. The ultimate fibre widths and lengths of cultivars

prized for the length, strength and ease of extraction of

fibre ('Taumataua'/Tapamangu'and'Taeore') also varied

across the range measured. The range of values obtained

for P. tenax ultimate fibre dimensions is similar to those

previously reported [18]. Fibres from Cordyline spp. were similar in width to

P. tenax fibres, but were shorter, and this may assist in

distinguishing between the use of these two plants. Ultimate fibres from C. austr?te were 13 wide and

1.39 mm long (Table 2). C. indivisa ultimate fibres were

15 wide and 1.45 mm long (Table 2).That C. indivisa has coarser fibres than C. austr?te has been previously noted, although no dimensions were given [17, 24].

For other plants, mean ultimate fibre dimensions

ranged in width from 8 (Dracophyllum elegantissimum) to 23 (Hierocliloe redolens) and in length from 0.68

mm (Freycinetia banksii) to 1.92 mm (Desmoschoenus

spirate) (Table 2).

Crystals

Calcium Oxalate raphide crystals were observed in three

Cordyline species: C. austr?te, C. banksii and C. indivisa

(Figures 2a?c). Raphides have been previously reported in Cordyline (species not stated) [20,25] and in specimens of root from C. austr?te [26]. Druse crystals were observed

in Hoheria (Figures 3a and 3b) and styloid crystals were observed in both Dracophyllum species studied (Figures 4a and 4b). The presence of these crystals in Hoheria and

Dracophyllum does not appear to have been previously

reported. Calcium was detected using EDX in two

selections of Phormium (Karikari beach, 'Waihirere'), but

crystals were not observed in the specimens examined,

although they were detected when transverse sections

were examined with polarized light. Styloids have

been reported as being present in Phormium, although no further details of the plant(s) examined were given

[20, 27]. Parkin reported raphides in Phormum tenax var.

atropurp?rea [28], a bronze variety more commonly known as 'Monrovia Red' [29]. Raphides have also been

reported in the roots o? Phormium cookianum [26].

Database

Reference data obtained during the research have

been incorporated into a free-to-use on-line database

aimed at assisting workers in cultural institutions to

OTAGO SEI 3.0kV X4,000 l^m WD 7.6mm

(c) Figure 2 Raphide crystals in Cordyline spp. (FESEM):%(a) Cordyline australis; (b) Cordyline banksii; (c) Cordyline indivisa.





Table 2 Dimensions of ultimate fibre: an average of ten (n = 10) unless otherwise stated

Specimen Width mean s.d.

(pm) (Mm)

Length Coefficient of

Variation

(%)

mean

(mm)

s.d.

(mm)

Coefficient of Variation

(%)

Phormium tenax^ cultivars/provenance:

H?hiroa2

Ngutunui2

Opiki2

Paoa2

Paretaniwha2

Potaka2

Taeore, Taiore2

Taumataua2

Tapamangu2

Tupurupuru2

Waihirere2

Wharanui2

Whareongaonga2

Auckland Island

Campbell Island

Chatham Islands

Karikari Beach

Norfolk Island

Port Hills

Raoul Island

Taramea Bay

Ten Mile Creek

Three Kings Island

P. cookianum' cultivars/provenance:

Limestone Stream

Okiwi Bay

Punakaiki

Wharariki #622

Cordyline australis

C. indivisa

Desmoschoenus spir?lis

fibre surrounding vascular bundle

close to epithelium

Dracophyllum elegantissimum

D. traversa

Freycinetia banksii

fibre under vascular bundle

fibres in other locations

Hierochloe redolens

Hoheria populnea

Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani

11

12

15

12

15

14

15

12

15

12

12

13

14

12

11

13

12

12

12

15

12

13

15

13

15

14

14

13

15

12

9

8

16

13

18

23

16

nc

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

1

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

1

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

3

7

4

nc

19.0

16.3

13.0

14.9

12.1

16.2

14.2

8.3

16.7

9.5

10.8

12.8

8.0

18.2

13.7

14.4

17.6

12.5

14.8

11.2

10.8

12.7

14.4

10.5

12.5

17.1

12.6

14.2

14.8

13.7

21.9

20.5

13.4

21.2

16.1

33.1

24.7

nc

3.68 (n = 2)

nc

3.66

2.52 (n = 5)

nc

3.86

nc

3.09 (n = 4)

nc

nc

2.25

nc

2.67 (n = 5)

4.27

2.77 (n = 5)

nc

nc

nc

4.25 (n = 8)

3.14

nc

1.79

3.14 (n = 4)

3.95 (n = 6)

nc

3.86

3.05

1.39

1.45

1.92

nc

nc

0.75

0.82 (n = 8)

0.68

nc

nc

0.96

1.63

0.77 (n = 5)

0.19

nc

0.62

0.27

nc

0.61

nc

0.59

nc

nc

0.33

nc

0.97

0.73

1.66

nc

nc

nc

0.36

0.37

nc

0.30

0.35

0.51

nc

0.70

0.49

0.52

0.31

0.36

nc

nc

0.15

0.13

0.16

nc

nc

0.20

0.27

0.18

5.2

nc

16.9

10.9

nc

15.9

nc

17.3

nc

nc

14.7

nc

36.3

17.1

59.9

nc

nc

nc

8.5

11.8

nc

16.8

11.2

12.8

nc

18.13

16.2

37.5

21.5

18.8

nc

nc

20.0

16.3

23.5

nc

nc

20.3

16.6

23.1

' Growing at Lincoln, South Island, New Zealand;2 from the Rene Orchiston weaving collection; nc = data not collected




260 D. CARR, N. CRUTHERS, E. GIRVAN AND S. SCHEELE

(b)

Figure 3 Druses crystals in Hoheria populnea (FESEM): (a) magnification 750; (b) magnification 2500.

take steps towards the identification of plant material in

artefacts. Consultation with New Zealand conservators

suggested the use of minimal text in the database and the

inclusion of images of leaf surfaces; transverse sections;

photographs of the plants (to give an idea of the general appearance rather than as an identification tool); Maori, common and botanical names; some traditional uses;

and useful links. The microscopy images provided in

the database are at magnifications well within the range of simple optical microscopes commonly available

in conservation laboratories. The leaf surface images

(b)

Figure 4 Styloid crystals in Dracophyllum spp. (FESEM): (a) D.

elegantissimum; (b) D. traversii.

were obtained using scanning electron microscopy to

ensure good depth of field, but the magnifications used

(X100?200) were chosen with optical microscopes in

mind. The database He mrangi whakaaturanga o ng? taonga r?kau (data /identification /exhibition list of treasured plants) is available at www.otago.ac.nz/textiles/plantfibres/ index.html (accessed 10 November 2008). The authors

are in the process of adding images of historical

specimens to the database and encourage submission

of images for inclusion. The images used in the

database are not reproduced in this article, but higher





magnification images have been provided to illustrate

the discussion.

CONCLUSIONS

A database of observed features has been developed and

made accessible to assist workers in cultural institutions

to characterize plant material that has been used in

objects originating from New Zealand. These include

transverse sections, fibre bundle shape and repeat pattern, ultimate fibre dimensions and the observation of crystals for contemporary plant material. Distinct differences

have been identified between the two most commonly

used, and commonly confused, plants, i.e. Phormium tenax

and Cordyline australis. Of particular use are:

the comparison of the transverse sections of Phormium

and Cordyline; the observation of raphide crystals in C australis;

the ultimate fibres in tenax and C. australis are

similar in width, but those from C. australis are

shorter; and

the transverse sections of Freycinetia banksii {kiekie) and Desmoschoenus spir?lis (p?ngao); because the leaves

from some P. tenax that have been processed into

narrow strips and woven into fine articles dry to

shades of white and yellow similar to those shown by kiekie and pxngao.

However, it must be emphasized that the database

contains information collected on semi-processed, dried

contemporary material. It is recognized that for historic

specimens some of the features described in this paper

may be degraded or the processing may be at such a

level that the diagnostic features described are no longer visible. Further work is required to address these issues.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Maori ownership, traditional knowledge and the

status under Article II of The Treaty of Waitangi of the

plants investigated in this work are acknowledged and

recognized by the authors. Heike Winkelbauer, an objects

conservator, first suggested the development of an atlas

of plant material from New Zealand. New Zealand

Lottery Grants (Lottery Environment and Heritage

Committee) funded this work.The authors acknowledge the assistance of K. Columb (Human Nutrition), A.

McNaughton (Otago Centre for Confocal Microscopy) and D. Potter (Histology), and comments made by C.

Smith (Clothing and Textile Sciences), Professor R.M.

Laing (Clothing and Textile Sciences) and Dr J. Lord

(Department of Botany), all of the University of Otago. We also acknowledge comments made by the referees.

Rua McCallum (Ng?i Tahu wh?nui) provided guidance throughout the project

? kia ora, Rua.

REFERENCES

1 Goodway, M., 'Fiber identification in practice', Journal of the

American Institute for Conservation 26 (1987) 27-44.

2 Florian, M.-L.E., Kronkright, D.P., and Norton, R.E., The

Conservation of Artifacts made from Plant Materials, The Getty Conservation Institute, Marina del Rey (1992).

3 Bal?zsy, A., and Eastop, D., Chemical Principles of Textile Con

servation, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford (1999). 4 Colenso, W., On the geographic and economic botany of the

North Island of New Zealand', Transactions of the New Zealand

Institute 1 (1869) 1-58.

5 Best, E., 'The art of the whare pora: Notes on the clothing of

the ancient Maori, their knowledge of the preparing, dyeing, and weaving various fibres, together with some account of dress

and ornaments and ancient ceremonies and superstitions of the

whare pora', Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand 31 (1898) 625-658.

6 BeattieJ.H., Traditional Lifeways of the Southern Maori:The Otago

University Museum Ethnological Project, 1920, Otago University

Press/Otago Museum, Dunedin, New Zealand (1994). 7 Buck, R, (Te Rangi Hiroa), 'The Maori craft of netting',

Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute 56 (1926) 597-646.

8 Best, E., Forest lore of the Maori, Polynesian Society in collabora

tion with Dominion Museum, Wellington, New Zealand 14

(1942). 9 Beattie, J.H., Our Southernmost Maoris, Otago Daily Times and

Witness Newspapers Co. Ltd., Dunedin, New Zealand (1954). 10 Mead, S.M., Traditional Maori Clothing: A Study of Technological

and Functional Change, Reed, Wellington, New Zealand (1969). 11 Pendergrast, M., TeAho Tapu:The Sacred Thread, Reed Methuen,

Auckland, New Zealand (1987). 12 Scheele, S., and Walls, G., HarakekeiThe Rene Orchiston Collection,

Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, New Zealand (1994). 13 Puketapu-Hetet, E., Maori Weaving, Longman, Auckland, New

Zealand (1999). 14 Catling, D., and Grayson, }., Identification of Long Vegetable Fibres,

Chapman and Hall, London (1982). 15 Esau, K., Plant Anatomy, John Wiley and Sons, New York

(1965). 16 Luniak, B., The Identification of Plant Fibres, Pitman and Sons,

London (1953). 17 Goulding, J.H., 'Identification of archaeological and ethnological

specimens of fibre-plant material used by the Maori', Records of the Auckland Institute and Museum 8 (1971) 57-101.





18 Cruthers, N.M., Carr, DJ., Laing, R.M., and Niven, B.E., 'Structural differences among fibers from six cultivars of

harakeke (Phormium tenax, New Zealand flax)', Textile Research

Journal 76 (2006) 601-606.

19 Franceschi,V.R., and Horner, H.T.,'Calcium Oxalate crystals in

plants', The Botanical Review 46 (1980) 361-427.

20 Prychid, C.J., and Rudall, P.J., 'Calcium Oxalate crystals in

monocotyledons: A review of their structure and systematics', Annals of Botany 84 (1999) 725-739.

21 Nakata, P.A., 'Calcium Oxalate crystal morphology', Trends in

Plant Science 1 (2002) 324.

22 Amato, I., 'The secret life of plant crystals', Chemical &

Engineering News 84 (2006) 26-27'.

23 Cruthers, N.M., Carr, DJ., Niven, B.E., Girvan, E., and Laing, R.M., 'Methods for characterizing plant fibers', Microscopy Research and Technique 67 (2005) 260-264.

24 Simpson, P., Dancing Leaves: The Story of New Zealand's Cabbage Tree, TT K?uka, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch

(2000). 25 Rudall, P.J., Cribb, P.J., Cutler, D.E, and Humphries, C.J.,

Monocotyledons Systematics and Evolution, Royal Botanic Gardens

Kew, London (1995). 26 Kauff, E, Rudall, PJ., and ConranJ.G., 'Systematic root anatomy

of Asparagales and other monocotyledons', Plant Systematics and

Evolution 223 (2000) 139-154.

27 Dahlgren, R.M.T., and Clifford, H.T., The Monocotyledons: A

Comparative Study, Academic Press, London (1982). 28 Parkin, J.,'On some points in the histology of monocotyledons',

Annals of Botany XII (1898) 147-155.

29 Heenan, P.B., Checklist of Phormium Cultivars, Royal New

Zealand Institute of Horticulture, Lincoln (1991).

AUTHORS

Debra Carr is a materials engineer whose research

interests include the structure, properties and use of

fibres. She is an Affiliate Member of the New Zealand

Conservators of Cultural Materials (NZCCM). Address:

Clothing and Textile Sciences, University of Otago, PO Box

56, Dunedin, New Zealand. Email: [email protected]

Natasha Cruthers is a PhD student whose research

interests include properties of natural fibres. Address: as

Carr. Email: [email protected]

Elizabeth Girvan is a scanning electron microscopist who works with staff from a wide range of departments at the University of Otago, New Zealand. Address: Otago Centre for Electron Microscopy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. Email: [email protected]

Sue Scheele is an ethnobotanist, with particular research

interests in weaving plants used by Maori. Address:

Tandeare Research, PO Box 40, Lincoln 7640, New Zealand.

Email: ScheeleS@landcareresearch. co. nz

R?sum? ? Le but de cette ?tude est de fournir une s?rie d'outils pouvant aider ? identifier de fa?on pr?liminaire les mat?riaux

textiles v?g?taux originaires de la Nouvelle-Z?lande. Les v?g?taux ?tudi?s sont indig?nes de Nouvelle-Z?lande et ?taient

(ou sont) utilis?s par les Maoris pour la fabrication de paniers, nattes, filets, cordages, pi?ges, et v?tements vari?s. On a ?tudi?

la morphologie de la surface des feuilles, la forme des faisceaux de fibres et les motifs r?p?titifs observables dans les sections

transversales des feuilles, la dimension des fibres et la pr?sence de cristaux. Certains r?sultats de cette recherche ont ?t? utilis?s pour ?tablir une base de donn?es libre d'acc?s qui peut aider ? identifier les mat?riaux v?g?taux utilis?s dans Vartisanat maori, mais qui ne doit pas ?tre consid?r?e comme un substitut pour une identification fait par un scientifique sp?cialiste des plantes.

Zusammenfassung ? Ziel der vorliegenden Studie ist es, mit einer Reihe von hilfreichen Werkzeugen bei der Identifizierung

von historischem textilem Pflanzenmaterial aus Neuseeland zu assistieren. Die untersuchten indigenen Pflanzen Neuseelands

wurden/werden von den M?ori f?r die Herstellung von K?rben, Matten, Netzen, Seilen, Stricken und verschiedenen

Kleidungsst?cken verwendet. Die Oberfl?chenmorphologie der Bl?tter, die Form der Faserb?ndel und sich wiederholende Muster

im Querschnitt von Bl?ttern, Faserdimensionen sowie die Anwesenheit kristalliner Strukturen wurde zur Analyse genutzt.

Einige Ergebnisse der Forschung wurden zur Etablierung einer freien Onlinedatenbank genutzt, die dazu beitragen kann, das

Pflanzenmaterial von durch die M?ori hergestellten Objekten zu bestimmen, was allerdings nicht als Ersatz f?r eine sichere

Bestimmung durch einen Botaniker gelten kann.

Resumen ? La intenci?n de este estudio es aportar una gama de herramientas v?lidas para ayudar en la identificaci?n

preliminar de materiales hist?ricos textiles de naturaleza vegetal originarios de Nueva Zelanda. Las plantas investigadas son

ind?genas de Nueva Zelanda fueron, o son, usadas por los Ma?ori para la manufactura de cestos, esteras, redes, cuerdas, trampas

y diversas vestimentas. Se evaluaron la morfolog?a superficial de las hojas, la morfolog?a de los haces de fibras, la repetici?n de





estructuras en cortes transversales de hojas, las dimensiones de las fibras la presencia de cristales. Algunos resultados de esta

investigaci?n han sido utilizados para establecer bases de datos en l?nea de libre acceso que puedan ayudar a identificar materiales

de origen vegetal empleados en la manufactura de objetos de los Ma?or?, aunque no deber?an ser utilizados para sustituir las

identificaciones precisas del cient?fico de materiales vegetales.




approaches for conservators to the identification of plant material used in maori artefacts

Documents

plant scientist

new zealand

conservation of historic

maori artefacts debra

local plant resources

plaited artefacts

utcyour use

jstor terms