appraisal of women farmers’ participation in … comfort. u..pdf · appraisal of women farmers’...
TRANSCRIPT
1
APPRAISAL OF WOMEN FARMERS’ PARTICIPATION IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (ADP)
PROGRAMMES IN ENUGU STATE.
BY
UDEH COMFORT. U. PG/MED/98/25141
DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION
(AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION UNIT) UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA
FEBRUARY 2012.
2
CERTIFICATION
UDEH COMFORT UKAMAKA, a post graduate student of the
department of vocational teacher Education with Registration
Number PG/MED/98/25141 has satisfactorily completed the
requirement for research work for the award of the degree of
masters in Agricultural Education. The work embedded in this
thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or in full for
any other diploma or degree of this or any other University.
______________________ ____________________ UDEH C.U PROF. N. J. OGBAZI CANDIDATE SUPERVISOR.
3
DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to the Glory of God Almighty, my
husband, and my beloved mother who taught me how great the
light of truth and knowledge is, that even in deep darkness, a little
candle will show the way and make the going easier.
4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researcher wishes to acknowledge the assistance and co-
operation of all those who have in one way or the other contributed
greatly to the success of this work. The researcher is indebted to
the thesis supervisor Prof. N.J. Ogbazi whose contribution,
constructive criticism, patience, commitment, guidance and
encouragement helped to the successful completion of this
research. The researcher is immensely grateful to the reader of the
work Dr. Mama, whose fatherly advice helped to make the work a
success.
The researcher is grateful to Dr. Ben Callimus for finding out time
to discuss with her at length and providing useful information
which contributed so much to the success of the work.
The researcher also appreciates her husband, Dr. P.A Udeh
for his encouragement during the period of the research.
The researcher’s gratitude also goes to Mr. Peter Ekwe, Mr.
Okey Nwobodo, Mr. Ibekwe Nnamdi, Dr. Mrs. J.A Ukonze and Dr.
Banjo for their contributions.
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPROVAL PAGE - - - - - - - -i
CERTIFICATION - - - - - - - -ii
DEDICATION - - - - - - - -iii
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS - - - - - - -iv
TABLE OF CONTENT - - - - - - -v
LIST OF TABLES - - - - - - - -viii
ABSTRACT - - - - - - - - - ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background of the study - - - - - - -1
Statement of the problem - - - - - - -6
Purpose of the study - - - - - - - -7
Significance of the study - - - - - - -8
Research questions - - - - - - - 10
Scope of the study - - - - - - - 11
Hypothesis - - - - - - - - - -11
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Agricultural Development Programmes (ADPs) - - - -12
Objectives of Agricultural Development
Programmes (ADP) - - - - - - - 18
Programmes for women farmers - - - - - -21
Roles of women in Agriculture - - - - - - -25
6
Constraints to involvement of women
in Agricultural Development - - - - - - -30
Measures for Enhancing women
participation in Agriculture - - - - - - -32
Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - -44
Theory of Appraisal - - - - - - - -45
Theory of Participation- - - - - - - - -45
Operant conditioning theory of learning - - - - -46
Review of empirical studies - - - - - - -47
Summary of Literature Review - - - - - - -50
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Research design - - - - - - - - -53
Area of the study - - - - - - - - -53
Population for the study - - - - - - - -54
Sample and sampling technique - - - - - 54
Instrument for data collection - - - - - 54
Validation of the instrument - - - - - - 56
Reliability of the instrument - - - - - - -56
Procedure for data collection - - - - - - -56
Procedure for data analysis - - - - - - -57
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
Results of Background information - - - - - 59
Results of Research Question One - - - - - 60
7
Results of Research Question Two - - - - - 61
Results of Research Question Three - - - - - 63
Results of Research Question Four - - - - - 65
Results of Research Question Five - - - - - 67
Results of Research Question Six - - - - - 69
Test of Hypothesis - - - - - - - - 70
Findings of the study - - - - - - - 79
Discussion of findings - - - - - - - 87
CHAPTER FIVE
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations - - - 111
Restatement of Problem - - - - - - - 111
Description of Procedure Used - - - - - - 113
Principal Findings - - - - - - - - 114
Conclusions - - - - - - - - 117
Implications of the study - - - - - - 118
Recommendations - - - - - - - 120
Suggestions for further Research - - - - -122
References - - - - - - - - - 123
Appendices - - - - - - - - - 128
8
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Schema showing real limit of numbers 58
2. Mean ratings on the Responses of the
women farmers on their participation
in crop production programmes of ADP
in Enugu State. 60
3. Mean ratings on the Responses of the
women farmers on their participation
in livestock production programmes of
ADP in Enugu State. 61
4. Mean ratings on the Responses of women
farmers on their participation in the storage,
processing and marketing programmes of
ADP in Enugu State. 63
5. Mean ratings on Responses of the women
farmers in their participation in pest and
disease control programmes of ADP in
Enugu State. 65
6. Mean ratings on Responses of the women
farmers on the constraints to their
participation in the programmes of ADP in
Enugu State. 67
7. Mean ratings on Responses of the women
farmers on the required measures for
improving women farmers’ participation
in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State. 69
8. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the Responses
of women farmers in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka
zones on their participation in ADP programmes. 71
9. Summary of Analysis of variance computation
for the mean differences between women
farmers’ participation in ADP programmes in
Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka zones. 78
9
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to appraise women farmers’ participation in Agricultural Development Project (ADP) Programmes in Enugu State. Six research questions and one
hypothesis were formulated to guide the study. The study adopted descriptive survey design. Structured questionnaire was developed and used for data collection, from a sample of 356 women farmers
in Enugu State. The questionnaire was face validated and tested for reliability before use. Three hundred and fifty-six copies of the instrument were administered on the respondents, out of which
three hundred and forty-two were completed and returned. The data collected were analyzed using mean, to answer the research
questions, while analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypothesis at 0.5 level of significant. The findings revealed that (i) the respondents agreed that women farmers participated actively
in the following crop production programmes of ADP in Enugu State: seed multiplication programmes, radio programmes on crop
production, among others. (ii) Also, women farmers participated actively in the following livestock production programmes of ADP in Enugu State: hybrids multiplication programmes, supplementary
feed formulation programmes among others. (iii) women farmers participated in the following storage, processing and marketing programmes of ADP in Enugu State: garri processing programmes
of ADP, Soya bean processing programmes of ADP among others. (iv) women farmers participated in the following pest and disease
control programmes of ADP in Enugu State: Multiplication and distribution of pest resistant cassava programmes of ADP, Multiplication and distribution of disease resistant yam
programmes, distribution and sales of agro-chemical programmes among others. (v) the respondents agreed, strongly on the following constraints to the women farmers’ participation in the programmes
of ADP in Enugu State: marginalization of women in socio-cultural setting, lack of education among others. (vi) Finally it was agreed
upon by the respondents that the following are the required measures for improving women farmers’ participation in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State:- stopping discrimination
against women, provision of education for women among others. Hypothesis tested also revealed that there was no significant
difference in the mean ratings of women farmers in Nsukka, Enugu and Awgu ADP Zones on the extent of their participation in ADP programmes.
10
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study.
Agricultural production is an important activity of any
country. In Nigeria, in the early sixties, agricultural exports, were
primarily responsible for the gross domestic product growth of five
percent per annum provided mainly by the employment of unused
labour of men and women. (Onwubuya, 1987).
Women’s fundamental activities in agriculture are
numerous. In Nigeria, as noted by Chole (1991), women play a
particular important role in crop production, including land
preparation, planting of crops, maintaining of crops, harvesting,
transporting, processing, storing and marketing of produce. They
are involved in animal husbandry activities. They feed and care for
farm animals such as poultry, goats, pigs and rabbits they also
process and market animal products.
Rural women provide sixty to eighty percent of agricultural
labour and they participate in all aspects of production, Ukonze
(2001). Buserup (1970) agreed that women also do transplanting
and weeding work. The author also noted that women provide
production inputs, organize labour and participate in the
processing and sales of the crops.
11
Ogbonna (1989) stated that women also grow secondary crops in
small fields near the major food and cash crops. The author went
further to say that secondary crops such as bambara nut and
groundnut are intercropped with stable cereals, roots and tubers.
They balance soil nutrients, provide ground cover which improves
water retention and erosion control and may help to reduce crop
diseases and pests. Ogbuibe (1984) added that women’s concern
with family food supplies sometimes leads them to cultivate some
fields of early maturing grains. Women have important labour roles
in animal production which vary according to type of production
system (nomadic, Semi-nomadic, settled, extensive) (Hatem, 1983).
In all types of animal production systems, women play
predominant roles in processing particular milk by-products such
as fermented milk, butter and fresh cheese. Dew (1981) pointed
out that women commonly own small animals especially chickens,
guinea fowls and goats but to a lesser extent, also sheep.
Processing of agricultural produce is traditionally women’s
responsibility. In line with this, Buserup (1970) stated that women
process secondary foods at home, providing for example,
groundnut oil, palm oil, soap and garri, green leaves and
vegetables, fruits, spices and roots are often processed into cheese
products. They also process dried milk into fresh cheese or
fermented milk. The women farmers also take care of marketing of
12
these agricultural products in rural and urban market centers
(Chole, 1991).
In order to encourage women in agricultural production, Women In
Agriculture (WIA) was created as component of Agricultural
Development Projects (ADPs). Agricultural Development projects
are projects jointly sponsored by the Federal and state
Governments in Co-operation with the world Bank, which provides
both technical and financial support to the farmers. The ADPS are
selected in the target communities. These farmers are referred to
as contact farmers. Extension workers receive training on the
specific innovations to be introduced to the farmers and after
wards are sent to the contact farmers to educate them on the new
agricultural practices. It is expected that the new practices will
eventually spread among other farmers in the community.
Enugu State Agricultural Development Programme
(ENADEP) is one of the new state ADPs that came into existence
with the creation of Enugu State in August 1991. ENADEP was
formerly established by an Edict dated 23rd December, 1991 and
became functional in January, 1992. The broad objective of Enugu
State Agricultural Development programme is to establish and
organize a disciplined and well supported performance oriented
extension service capable of motivating the small holder farmers to
13
adopt relevant technologies with a view to achieving significant
increase in food production and income of farmers.
The Women In Agriculture (WIA) is a branch of Agricultural
Development project (ADP). This WIA was established in 1989 in
order to put into efficient use, the full potentials of the land worked
by women, their capital investment, labour expenditure and other
vital agricultural activities WIA programme was established in
ADPs by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Home Economic
Division in collaboration with the world Bank (ENADEP, 1995).
This is to ensure that more female extension workers are employed
to work with the women farmers who hitherto were not sufficiently
being attended to by the male extension agents.
The emphasis is on the need to ensure that women farmers
are adequately reached with extension services (improved
technologies, labour saving equipment, inputs and credits) as
regards crop and livestock production, storage, processing and
marketing of agricultural produce.
WIA provides vital information to women farmers in relations
to crop and livestock production. The information includes better
varieties of crops, good management operations; inputs like
improved planting materials, fertilizers, chemicals and loan
procurement. The extension workers in WIA also provide the
needed information regarding the better breeds of livestock, good
14
management activities and balance ration formulation, pest and
disease control. They provide improved planting materials which
they sell to the women farmers to multiply in their different farms
(ENADEP, 1985).
The WIA programme also provides information to women
formers about new trends in agriculture, in crop, livestock
production, pests and disease control, storage, processing,
preservation and marketing of agricultural produce. They also
organize workshops on farm demonstrations and the technologies
involved in various stages of agricultural production. Specifically,
the following areas are covered by WIA programme
1. On – farm activities: Crops, livestock and forestry
production.
2. Off-farm activities: Processing, storage, preservation and
utilization and nutrition activities for the well-being of the
family.
3. Food security: access to adequate food at all times by the
majority of the people.
4. Others are: marketing, credit procurement, drudgery
reduction and income generating activities. Emphasis is
placed on production and related activities.
In a developing nation such as Nigeria, therefore, where agriculture
represents the bedrock of development especially in the areas of
15
employment generation, raw materials and food production, better
information about women’s situation and their roles as well as
their increased involvement in development planning and
monitoring are needed. This calls for the need to investigate the
women farmers’ participation in Agricultural Development project
(ADP) Programmes in Enugu State. This would help agricultural
policies, programmes and projects achieve greater agricultural
productivity greater agricultural productivity and national food
self-reliance.
Statement of the problem.
For some years now, the various governments have made
massive effort towards modernizing agriculture to transform
traditional systems into modern systems of food production.
Resources have been invested in different facets of agricultural
enterprises in an attempt to improve the necessary input,
distribution and marketing systems in order to realize increased
yields. These efforts have been inevitable for cultural and practical
reasons overwhelmingly directed at men and few women. Women
are rarely involved and their participation not sought for. In most
case, especially in rural areas, they are denied the right to full
social equality and equal economic opportunity.
The attitude stems from ignorance of female roles in
agriculture on the part of the agricultural policy planners and
16
failure to appreciate and appraise the contributions of women in
agricultural production. This lack of recognition and due incentive
inevitably results in loss of interest in farming and non acceptance
of innovations on the part of women (ENADEP, 1985).
Women In Agriculture (WIA) was established as a component
of ADP to ensure that women farmers are adequately catered for,
through the provision of extension services and farm input. The
WIA has been on for more than ten years now. However, the
women farmers are still using un-improved varieties of planting
materials, un-improved breeds of livestock, slow adoption of farm
management practices, poor processing and storage practices. The
overall result is therefore low agricultural productivity leading to
low food supply in the state.
The need therefore arises to asses the participation of women
farmers in ADP Programmes in Enugu State.
Purpose of the Study
The general purpose of the study was to appraise the women
farmer’s participation in the Agricultural Development Project
(ADP) programmes in Enugu State.
Specifically, the objectives of the study were to:
1. Determine the extent of women farmers’ participation in crop
production programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
17
2. Determine the extent of women farmers’ participation in
livestock production programmes of ADP.
3. Determine the extent of women farmers’ participation in
agricultural processing, storage, and marketing progrmames
of ADP.
4. Determine the extent of women farmers’ participation in
disease and pest control programmes.
5. Identify the constraints to participation of women farmers in
ADP programmes
6. Identify the measures for improving women farmers’
participation in the programmes of ADP.
Significance of the Study.
The findings of this study will be useful to the various levels
of governments: Federal, state and local; the ADP programmes in
zones, women farmers and the generality of the public.
The study is considered to be significant because the data
obtained from the study will be useful to Enugu State Agricultural
Development project (ENADEPs). The findings of this study will
help ENADEP to identify the capacity they have built in women
farmers’ participation in ENADEP programmes. This will enable
them to know the areas they will encourage the women farmers’
participation more, and the best ways to achieve more fruitful
results in their programmes.
18
Moreover, the findings will enable ENADEP to find out the factors
that hinder them from encouraging women farmers’ participation
in ENADEP progrmmes properly, and the strategies to use for
better results. The information provided could be used by ENADEP
to improve their future activities on the participation of women
farmers in crop production, livestock production, pest and disease
control, storage, processing and marketing programmes of Enugu
State ADP.
The data obtained from the study will be useful to Enugu
State Government as a benchmark for planning and executing her
agricultural development programmes as they relate to women
farmers in the state. It will also enable them to design other action
plan and polices that will further enhance agricultural productivity
of the women farmers. The study will be significant to women
farmers as it will enable the government to encourage the women
farmers to increase their agricultural productivity through the
provision of inputs (like loans, improved varieties of crops and
breeds, fertilizer and chemicals etc.) to these farmers.
The date obtained from the study will also be significant to
the general public. This is because, the study will not only stop at
revealing the extent of participation of women farmers in ENADEP
programmes, it will also suggest some useful measures to improve
the participation of women farmers in crop production, livestock
19
production, pest and disease control, storage and processing and
marketing programmes of Enugu State ADP. This will then lead to
high food production for the consumption of the general public
when the measures are implemented.
Research questions
The following research question will guide the study
1. What is the extent of participation of women farmers in crop
production programmes of ADP in Enugu State?
2. What is the extent of participation of women farmers in
livestock production programmes of ADP?
3. To what extent have the women farmers participated in
agricultural processing, storage and marketing programmes
of ADP?
4. What is the extent of participation of women farmers in pest
and disease control programmes of ADP?
5. What are the constraints to the participation of women
farmers in ADP programmes?
6. What are the measures for improving women farmers
participation in the programmes of ADP.
20
Scope of the Study.
The study will focus on women farmers’ participation in crop
production, livestock production, pest and disease control, storage,
processing and marketing of agricultural produce. Others include:
constraints and measures for improving women farmers’
participation in the programmes of ADP in three (3) ADP operated
zones (Nsukka, Enugu and Awgu zones) in Enugu State.
Hypothesis.
The following null hypothesis which was tested at 0.05 level of
significance guided the study.
1. There will be no significant difference in the mean ratings of
women farmers in Nsukka, Enugu and Awgu ADP zones on
the extent of their participation in ADP programmes.
21
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The related literature is reviewed under the following sub-heads:
1. The concept of Agricultural Development Programmes (ADP).
Historical trend and administrative structure of ENADEP.
Objectives of Agricultural development programmes
(ADP).
Programmes for women farmers.
2. Roles of women in Agriculture.
3. Constraints to involvement of women in Agricultural
development.
4. Measures for Enhancing women participation in agriculture.
5. Review of empirical studies.
6. Summary of literature review.
Agricultural Development Programmes.
The concept of Agricultural Development programmes (ADPs)
can probably be best understood against the background of the
emergence of the Nigerian food problem in the late 1960s and early
1970s. The objectives of the first generation of the Agricultural
Development projects were to increase the production of both local
and industrial crops to supply same to Nigeria’s rapidly increasing
22
population and industries, including intensive crop and livestock
production enterprises (Ezumah, 1988).
Derek and Oyaide (1986) claimed that Agricultural
Development Programmes were intended to boost extension work
among farmers by an expansion of field workers to improve the
extension workers to farmers’ ratio from about 1:2,500 to 1:250,
they also stated that Agricultural Development programmes have
demonstrated a capacity to facilitate rapid uptake of improved
faming techniques by the rural communities.
Ezumah (1988) held that Agricultural Development Projects
(ADPs) started with a view to mobilizing small-holder farmers for
increased food production, raise rural income and other standard
of living through an intensive extension strategy referred to as
Training and visit system to achieve high agricultural production
in the country.
The author further explained that Agricultural Development
projects (ADPs) dwell on procuring and distributing improved
varieties of seeds and seedlings, fertilizers and other agro-
chemicals to women farmers, passing proven technological
information to the farmers for the improvement of livestock and
crops in the country. The also embark on the preservation, storage
and processing of excess production, indentifying credit facilities
for women farmers. The agricultural development projects also
23
improve rural infrastructural facilities through construction of new
rural roads, dams construction and the repair and maintenance of
existing ones.
Ezumah (1988) noted that a major attraction of the state
government to the agricultural development project (ADPs) was
their consolidation of government extension services for the rapid
modernization and mechanization of small holder in agricultural
scheme programmes in Nigeria
Ukoje and Baba (1980) emphasized that Agricultural
Development projects (ADPs) now constitute a corner stone in the
country’s rural development strategies through the transformation
of the production systems, institutional reforms and the
installation of basic social and physical infrastructure needed for
development.
Accordingly, the Federal Government created a number of
institutions aimed at improving the quality of planning in the
country’s agricultural settings and optimum utilization of human
and material resources as well as to recognize existing institution
and strengthen them to execute their responsibilities more
efficiently (Ezumah, 1988).
Samayina and Mbawonku (1984) pointed out that
Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs) have played a vital role
in ensuring that the Agro-economic and social environment of
24
farmers and the day-to- day production problems, which they face
are appreciated by research.
Experience within the agricultural development projects
(ADPs) has shown that technical packages are financially and
economically attractive to farmers who are receptive to the transfer
of improved technology to their farms.
The Enugu State Agricultural Development programme
(ENADEP) is one of the ADPs in the first Multi-state Agricultural
Development projects (MSADP) that came into existence with the
creation of the state in August 1991 ENADEP, 1995). Enugu State
ADP was formerly established by the Enugu State agricultural
Development project edict 1991 dated 23rd December 1991
(ENADEP, 1995). A management team for ENADEP was formally
inaugurated after an interview moderated by the co-coordinating
body called Federal Agricultural Co-ordinating Unit (FACU).
ENADEP has operated for an eleven year period during
which it was financed by the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development (IBRD) and World Bank. The programme was co-
financed during these year by the international Bank for
Agricultural development (IFAD). The federal and State
Government provided their own contributions as counterpart fund
to finance the project. Funding from World Bank and IFAD for the
activities under the multi-state ADPs ended in 1995. These
25
activities are now in their operational phase and now funded by
the Federal and state Governments only (ENADEP, 1995).
Extension Services of ENADEP.
Agricultural extension service is a process which assists
farmers through educational procedures to improve farming
methods and techniques, increasing production efficiency and
income of rural farmers (ENADEP, 1995).
Organizational Structure
The Extension Services Branch of ENADEP is headed by an
acting director supported by a deputy. It operates three zones –
Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka Zones. The State operates Training and
Visit (T & V) System under the unified agricultural extension
services system. It has a single line of command. Extension
services as a sub-programme of ENADEP has two components
namely: Women In Agriculture (WIA) and the communication
components headed by the chief communicating officer (ENADEP,
1995).
WIA is a component in the extension sub-programme of the
Agricultural Development Project (ADP). The head of the
programme (Head WIA) occupies the position of Deputy Director of
Extension (Mijindadi, 1998).
26
He went further to explain that at the zones, subject matter
specialist (SMS) WIA, co-ordinate the programme. They form part
of the SMS teams in the zones.
The frontlines are the Block Extension Agents (BEAs). They
address women in groups. The BEAs are supported by male and
female Extension Agents (Eas) at the cell levels who deal with
contact farmers at these levels. All agents (BEAs & EAs) are
supervised by the Block Extension Supervisors (BES).
A resource person of WIA is necessary for the sourcing,
development and adaptation of gender specific technologies that
could be a staff of the co-coordinating research institute or a staff
of a collaborating university.
She should be versatile and conversant with new technologies in
agriculture and related disciplines which could be adopted to suit
the needs of women farmers.
Onwubuya (1987) observed that the Executive Committee of
ADP (ADREC) or board of the ADP is the highest executive organ
that formulates policies and administers the ADP.
The composition of the ADPEC /Board:
The State Governor –Chairman.
Commission for Agriculture-Deputy Chairman.
Federal Government Representatives (3) – Members.
Others State officials (5) – members
27
Programme Manager ADP – Member/Secretary.
There is a programme Management Unit (PMU) with the
programme manager as the chairman. The PMU is charged with
the day-to-day activities of the programme, the implementation of
agricultural development projects and the preparation of work plan
and budget for approval by ADPEC.
There are three operational zones namely: Awgu, Enugu and
Nsukka, and seven operational departments/sub-programmes.
The Federal Government co-ordinates, facilities and supervises the
operations and activities of ADPs through the federal agricultural
co-ordination unit (FACU) which has its headquarters at Abuja and
a regional office in Enugu.
There are two categories of staff in ENADEP namely the direct staff
and the seconded staff from the State Civil Service (Onwubuya,
1987).
Objective of Enugu State ADP (ENADEP).
ENADEP (1995) enumerated the broad objective of ENADEP.
This broad objective is to established and organize a disciplined
and well supported performance oriented extension services
capable of motivating the small holder farmers to adopt relevant
technologies with a view to achieving significant increase in food
production and income of the farmers.
28
The strategies used for achievement of the stated objectives,
according to ENADEP (1995) are as follows:
i. Revitalizing and re-organizing agricultural extension services
through the Training and Visit (T & V) System.
ii. Commercializing and improving farm input distribution
system.
iii. Establishing an on-farm-adaptive research as a means of
developing and disseminating new technologies.
iv. Providing all season access roads to rural farming
communities by rehabilitating maintaining and spot
improvement of rural feeder roads.
v. Providing portable water for domestic and minor irrigation
purposes to rural communities.
vi. Sponsoring and encouraging the processing, storage and
marketing of primary farm input.
ENADEP (1995) pointed out that since the inception of Enugu
State ADP, it has recorded some progress in line with the targets.
The report highlights on the activities and achievements of
ENADEP from January to June, 1994. It is presented sub-
proramme by sub-programme.
29
S/No. Activity Annual
Target
Mid-Year
Achievement
Variance Remarks
1 Agro-Chemicals Distribution and
sale of Agro-chemicals
66M tons 38 tons 28MT Stock still available
2 Seed Seed Procurement.
Seed Distribution and sales Cassava cutting
16.053MT (4.6MTs)
30,000 Bundles
1.643 1.550
Bundles
2,957 6,950
Stock still available
8,500 bundles approved
3 Cassava cuttings Distribution and
sales. Monthly reports Quarterly reports.
1,470 6
2
555 5
1
915 1
1
Distribution and still on
strike action strike
action
4
Credit and Marketing
Identification of potential loan
beneficiaries within the State. Link bona fide
farmers to financial institutions.
300
200
161
110
139
90
Co-ordination
between us and the
zonal managers. Forms sent
to CBN for approval.
Source: ENADEP Research Centre (MISPRI-ILORIN)
Onwubuya (1987) also noted the following achievement of
ENADEP:
1. There is a substantial increase in the land area under
cultivation.
2. The improved varieties of cassava have been widely adopted
(60 percent) for planting in the state. Cassava production in
the state increased from 1766, a one hundred and sixty nine
percentage (169) increase.
30
3. The cultivation of upland rice has been widely popularized in
the state. The area under rice cultivation in the state
increased from 24, 380 hectare to 72, 160 hectares. Rice
production in the state increased from 34 tonnes to 1994
tonnes between 1992 and 1994.
4. Seed yam production through yam mini-sett technology
attained an adoption rate of 41 percent in the State.
5. Livestock farmers have embraced mode husbandry methods
thus providing better feeding and reducing mortalities.
6. Gender specific technologies improved the income of rural
women; about 55 percent rural women reported increases of
between 25 and 50 percent in their income.
7. ENADEP constructed 1208km of rural roads and undertook
recurrent maintenance of 2068km. ten spring water projects
were completed; eight abandoned boreholes schemes were
rehabilitated and two new ones built.
8. A total of 1240 staff and farmers benefited from local
trainings, seminars, workshops and conferences, 22 over
seas trainings and study tours were undertaken.
Programme for Women Farmers
The Enugu State ADP is engaged in agricultural activities in
the area of crops, livestock, pest and disease control, storage,
processing and marketing of agricultural produce.
31
In order to accelerate the rate of technology transfer to farmers,
Opukeme (1998) noted that the following strategies are used:
a. Establishment of small plot adoption techniques.
b. Extension Agents involvement in conducting on-farm-
adaptive- Research trials with subject matter specialists.
c. Training of Extension Agents (Eas) in monthly trainings.
d. Training of farmers at block level. Meetings.
e. Agricultural shows and field days. He went further to explain
that various methods were used to disseminate relevant
technical messages to farmers. Under the individual
approach, there are farm and home visits and Small Plot
Adaptive Technique (SPAT) demonstrations. Under the group
method, farmers are trained at block level on selected
technologies. The Block Extension Agents (BEAs) also
conduct group meetings to form co-operative societies. The
co-operative efforts between the extension workers and the
various groups established through meetings have helped to
keep the extension workers abreast with the problems of the
local people.
ADP also channeled the following programmes for women
farmers.
a. Establishment of composite cassava processing plants.
b. Fisheries brood stock and fingerling development.
32
c. Production and sale of budded seedlings
d. Multiplication of soya beans sees for distribution to farmers.
e. Supplementary feeds and feeding of sheep/goat.
f. Rabbit production.
g. Site selection and construction and stocking of fish.
h. Storage and preservation of fishes and crops.
i. Storage of yam.
j. Production of soya bean milk and soya cake.
k. Control of major field pests and disease of swamps and
upland rice.
l. Mixed farming in rubber.
A copy of technologies and extended packages which ADP transfers
to women farmers through their programmes for women farmers is
attached.
33
The technologies transferred are described as follows:
S/N Agric sub-sector
Technology Package Extended packages Unresolved Adoption Problems
1 Crops Cassava/coco yam Plant cocoyams at the crest and cassava at the sides.
- Plant cocoyam (100cm x 100m) - Cassava: 100cm x 100cm.
Plant one cassava stem on mound.
Most farmers prefer planting more than one stem on the
mound
2 Livestock Supplementary feeding of goats and sheep
Use plant and animal by product.
3 fisheries Fish farming site selection, pond construction and
stocking of fish
Choose site with good layout – valleys, swamps and low-lying mangroves.
- For Homestead fish pond concrete
or earthened pond should be sited near a building.
- Construction in area where soil can hold water
- Construct in areas where there is adequate water supply
4 Agro-forest Mixed farming in rubber
Select animals, animals that have compatibility with mature rubber e.g snailery, pisciculture, ruminants and monogastries. Snailery should be situated in sites; which are protected from the wind. Avoid heavy clayed or very sandy or acidic soils
Complained of the long period between planting and tapping of rubber
5 Crops Control of major field pests and diseases of swamp and upland rice
Stem Borers: Control is by crop rotation. Harvest at ground level. Plough field after harvesting. Rice Blast: Plant disease free plants. Field should be weed free. Maintain good water Management. Rodents: Fence and set trap. Birds-Employ bird scarers or use scare crow.
6 WIA Preparation of soyabean into soya milk
Sort the beans to remove stones, sticks, leaves and damaged beans. Wash in water to remove dust. Drop the beans in twice its volume of boiling water and simmer for
about 10 minutes. Wash in twice its volume of cold water. Soak the beans in cold water. Soak the beans in cold water for about 2 hours. Wash and dehull the beans as is done for cowpeas. Grind into past using a local mill grinding stone or blender.
Source: Report of Extension Activities of ADPs held at Extension
workshop at NRCR 1 – Umudike
34
Roles of Women In Agriculture
Africa has been described as the region of female farming
(Boserup, 1980). This observation stems from numerous surveys
carried out on the roles of women and all confirmed of the
numerous involvement of African women in agriculture. Ogbonna
(1989) also observed that Africa is a continent where the bulk of
daily farm labor has traditionally been don by women rather than
by men, husbands, wives, or extended family groups; women do
the planting, weeding and harvesting all year round. She added
that in most West African countries essentially, agricultural labour
is performed by women because men regard it as a mark of
degradation to stop and dig ground like women. The surveys
sponsored by the United Nations Economic commission for Africa
(UNECA) have indicated that in the pre-colonial era in Africa,
women were generally involved in food farming, that women
undertook disproportionately high part of the agricultural activities
including milking cows, felling trees making furrows and mounds,
planting seeds, harvesting and processing farm produce.
With specific reference to Nigeria, women are important in
agriculture particularly in food production processing and in
distribution (Adekanye, 1988).
35
Further more, women farmers do 60 to 80 percent of all the
agricultural work plus 50 percent of all animal husbandry and 100
percent of food processing in Africa (Boserup, 1970).
In Nigeria, women are involved in almost all phases of food
production.
Ezumah (1988) observed that women have taken a recognizable
part in production of food crops, rearing of animals, storage,
processing and marketing of agricultural produce.
Women play a significant role in food production. Callear
(1983) noted that in sub-sahara Agrica, women have crucial roles
in all aspect of food production. He explained that women
specialize in transplanting, weeding and post harvesting work.
Ogbanna (1989) found out that women often gather wild food and
feed on their way home from the farm. He pointed out that the
cultivation of secondary crops such as legumes and vegetable in
gardens near their home may be more compatible with women’s
domestic and child – care duties than filed crop cultivation.
Gambian women, as noted by Hatem (1983) grow Fidi as a
famine food. Callear (1983). also held that Bete women in Ivory
Coast recently started growing small field major rice crops. In some
areas of Zimbabwe, women plant maize in their home gardens
three months before sowing the maize field crops. Essentially,
Ezumah (1988) reported that women have taken a more
36
recognizable part in the production of food crops such as yams,
cassava, maize, vegetables etc. as a major occupation whether
dealing directly or indirectly with the agricultural products.
There have been accepted evidences of the contribution of
women in animal production. Dey (1981) opined that women
commonly own small animals, like chickens, goats and guinea
fowls. They also own sheep and cattle but to a lesser extent. These
small animals apart from increasing the family’s food security,
provide the women with prestige, personal income, the means to
fulfill religious and ceremonial obligations and security in case of
divorce or widowhood. These animals could be inherited, or
received as gifts or purchase by these women. Hatem (1983)
recorded that women tend to have primary responsibility for the
husbandry of small ruminants but may also play a role in settled
large animal system, handling, provision of water, food and milking
etc. Furthermore, they collect animal drug for fuel and manure,
occasionally take part in ploughing.
Women contribute drastically in areas of food preparation,
storage, processing, preservation and marketing of agricultural
produce.
Labour roles are not necessarily related to the ownership of
animals or animals product. In Fulani tribe of Nigeria, women
process dairy products sell the surplus and purchase food for the
37
family (Ezumah 1988). Nomadic Masai women in kenya also
process and sell milk products, but give the process to their
husbands (Chole 1991). Olujuwon (1980), in his own contribution
stated that the Sudan women cultivate separate fields and also
possess their own animals. They milk, process and market milk
products of all family’s cattle.
In most cases, women may dispose of their own animals and
keep the proceeds from sales. However, some restrictions on
women’s rights to sell their animals have been reported.
Supporting the above statement, Bala (1981) and Hatem 1983)
pointed out that in Mali and upper Volta, women owning sheep
and goats needed their husbands’ permissions to sell the animals.
The men were also involved in the actual marketing.
However, Adekanye (1988) observed that once men move
from farming into such non-farm occupations as factory work,
mining and distribution of industrial goods, the women take up
food production for home consumption and for sale. He further
noted that the rural women are mainly engaged in the production
processing and distribution of such food crops as yam, maize, rice,
cassava and palm oil.
OlaJuwon (1980) stated that in Nigeria, the women folk
contribute a formidable and significant source of labour in small
38
scale and that women have been actively involved in farm product
processing, so as to develop high level of expertise in the field.
It is generally believe that women’s labour contribution in
agriculture far exceeds those of men in many African countries
(Callear, 1983). Supporting this, Ogbuibe (1984) noted that in
Africa, women contribute two thirds of all the time spent in
traditional agricultural and three fifth of time spent in marketing
agricultural products. She also observed that apart from limiting
themselves to household chores, rural women in developing
countries spend most of their working time producing, processing
food or earning cash. Nwagbara (1985) observed that women help
in planting yam as well as crops like cocoyam, cassava and various
vegetables. They do not only assist in harvesting the various crops,
but also process and preserve the crops for family consumption
and for planting that next season. Opukume (1988) noted that
women also make basic decisions concerning planting, cultivation,
labour use and sale of food crops to meet their cash needs. The
numerous research sponsored by the united Nations food and
Agricultural organization (UNFAO) showed that women produce
much of the world’s food and that they process and cook almost all
of it. Women also play leading roles in harvesting, transporting,
storing processing and marketing produce. They reported that half
the storage and processing workload in most countries surveyed,
39
they clean, thresh and dry grains and fishes. ENADEP (1995)
observed that women process cocoyam unto dried cocoyam chips,
cassava into dried cassava flakes and cassava flour, yam into yam
floor. They also store maize over fire place, preserve Okra and
vegetables through drying.
In appreciation of the extent of women’s participation in
agriculture, Adebusoye (1980) reported that there is a loss of
potential for economic growth in many agricultural policy that
neglects the role of women in food production.
Constraints to Participation of Women in Agriculture
From time immemorial the unique position of women in
socio cultural settings has always been disregarded or denied.
Derek and Oyaide (1986) observed that in almost all society, the
woman is a complementary tool, a mere catalyst in the socio-
cultural development.
Olasebikan (1988) said that some societies in the world
today will lend credence to the assertion that the women are still
regarded as an ordinary helper and not a partner of man in terms
of socio-biological manifestation of women existence. Women if
mentioned, he went on, are usually regarded merely as actors in
the social drama, usually playing minor and supporting roles.
Ritchie (1977) painstakingly compared population census
with the united nations food and Agricultural census and found
40
marked disparities in the number and percentages of women in the
agricultural labor force. Ritchie (1977) attributed this to the who
came to Africa during colonial times whom he believe brought with
them nineteenth century European concept that men were the
owners of the thereby distorting the local social patterns and roles
to comply with their preconceived ideology. Men were then exposes
to vocational training for a variety of jobs including agriculture.
Because of this change, women’s significant roles in agriculture
were frequently undermined. Derek (1986) said that new farming
and livestock techniques were usually taught only to male farmers
and the contributions of women in this regard did not receive the
consideration it deserves.
Boserup (1970) noted that new effort at rural and especially
at agricultural development by government are oriented towards
men. She pointed this out as a very serious point of omission
considering the roles women play in agricultural production. Food
and Agricultural Organization Report (1974) also showed that in
most African societies, men considered cash crop earrings as their
own property and rarely gave much to their wives. The report
further showed that women in many part of Nigeria studied,
consume lower proportion of their body food requirements. This
flow calories intake results in low work output, hence reduced
productivity. Agricultural extension services which help farmers
41
find things like fertilizers and credit as well as advice and technical
information have been overwhelmingly directed at men.
Ashby (1981) said that the various resources have been
invested to improve distribution and marketing system of
agricultural produce but much of these efforts have been directed
at men even though in many activities, it is the women who do the
work. The biggest blow Forman (1988) lamented, to women’s
struggle for access, involves the way in which land reform has
placed title in men’s names. Staudt (1987) summing up the
assertions that the additional layer of male authority represented
in the modern state re-defined women’s relationship to men such
that resources were channeled to men. Men were overwhelmingly,
provided the voice in authoritative decision – making and women
were viewed as being dependent on men.
Measures for Enhancing Women’s Participation in Agriculture
There is however, an urgent need to call for stop to this
discrimination against women so as to encourage their full
participation in agriculture addressing the United Nations
International Women’s Day, Babangida (1988) called for a stop in
discrimination against women and demanded for full integration
and recognition in all development efforts. She said “women are a
factor in life which should no longer be ignored”. They represent
not only half of the world’s wisdom but also half of its demand.
42
Women should be accepted and integrated as individuals in their
own rights, because the full development of the potentials of
women would greatly enhance the progress of the nation and the
quality of life of the people.
In order to harness the full potentiality of women for effective
agricultural development, Callear (1983) pointed out that here is
need to carefully investigate the obstacles, objectives and
subjective that stand on the way and device strategies and tactics
so as to overcome these obstacles.
Masha (1988) believed that education is the answer. Nigerian
history shows that when education was first introduced to Nigeria,
only a small minority of women went to school. Formal education,
Masha (1988) pointed out, is the primary vehicle for personal and
collective growth leading to the attainment of the fullest possible
development in social, economic and processional life.
She explained that this lack of formal education led to ignorance
and poverty among women to the extent that women in the past
strongly believe that their own share in the development of
themselves and the society was their traditional role in the kitchen
and producing and raising children. She therefore suggested the
mapping out of a definite programme to help women acquire basic
education and vocational training towards achieving self-reliance.
Alerting on the effect of women illiteracy, Aminu (1988) said that
43
countries which are today economically backward had illiterate
women forming a large percentage of their population. He
advocated a goal oriented action plan for women education to be
incorporated in the 5th National Development plan. Babangida
(1988) also agreed that education is the key to women’s
development, that if given education, women will not continue to
leave everything to chance. The improper and underutilization of
agricultural loans earmarked by the state and federal governments
to women is attributed to ignorance, poor orientation and mostly
illiteracy on the part of women groups.
Okoro (1988) said that no matter how government an
financial institutions try, in spite of the relaxation of measures for
obtaining loans for agricultural purposes, most of our women due
to ignorance and poor education tend to shy away from obtaining
these loans. Harry (1988) called on the government to step up
efforts in raising the literacy among rural women by setting up
women educational units in the Education Ministry of all states in
Nigeria. Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations
reports on its sponsored researches on women offers the best
chance of improving the position of women in the third world. It
recommended that women must be encouraged to participate in
the educational programmes at all levels – from farmer field crops
to post graduate University study.
44
Concluding a study on the African women in agriculture,
Adekanye (1981) also observed the low involvement of rural women
in agricultural development programmes in Nigeria and pointed
out the programmes in Nigeria and pointed out he urgent need to
ensure that they are specifically catered for, he recommended a
series of educational measures in this regard including the
establishment of a national bureau for women to look into their
education and training and the wider opportunities for them in
agriculture, the establishment of an arm of the national bureau as
a centre for studies on rural women in one of the Universities in
Nigeria, preferably in the department of Agricultural extension to
undertake, co-ordinate socio-economic research and training on
rural women, not just on home economics, but for generating
output increase in agricultural production, processing and
distribution; initiation of functional literacy programmes for
women in home economic nitration, child care, hygiene, home
management and consumer education, civic and civil rights and
duties about their relationship with government institutions.
Ritchie (1977) called on the government to intensify efforts
on both formal and non-formal education for the rural populace
with emphasis on what is relevant to their needs, taking into
account the special role of women in co-operative movements is
essential pointing out the need for this, Adekanye (1988) stated
45
that peasant subsistence agriculture is anachronistic and therefore
no longer helpful to our needs; in place of this should be the co-
operative means unity and it has been known that there is extra
strength in unity. Harry (1988) recommended that women should
be encouraged to form co-operative societies Opukume (1998)
urged women to organize themselves into co-operative movement
as a means of propagating ideas and views on modern farming.
Nwagbara (1985) charged women to acquire interest in agriculture
by forming farmers’ co-operatives in various communities in order
to seasonally demonstrate modern agricultural techniques as well
as exhibit the harvest derived from the farm.
Adekanye (1981) observed the low involvement of women in
agricultural co-operatives in Nigeria and called for the
establishment of women’s guild as a separate arm of the Nigerian
co-operative activities and also urged women to join the existing
ones.
To boost women’s participation in agricultural production,
an improved and an enlarged extension programme (in Scope,
function and proportion of women extension workers) is essential.
This will aid effective transmission of research findings and
propagate improved farming practices and farm inputs to women
farms in rural areas. Studies literature show that extension agents
in the developing countries are mostly males and that extension
46
service are disproportionately channeled to male farmers. (Ashby
1981) said that husbands do no often pass full information from
agricultural extension agents and other agricultural technicians to
their wives. Extension could play a much greater role in improving
women participation in agriculture (Ogbuibe, 1984), but women
are underrepresented in agricultural extension and training. F.A.O
(1984), Harry (1988) suggested the recruitment and training of
women as agricultural extension agents and their deployment to
rural villages to teach modern technique of farming to female
farmers. Staudt (1987) also supported the recruitment of female
extension offices Bond (1984) appointed that there is need for more
women rural development extension workers as the present system
favours males as heads of house holds.
Full participation of women in agricultural production is
hindered by some cultural and religious taboos inherent in our
social system. Culture according to Olasebikan (1981) is women’s
enemy number one. In some developing African Communities,
women do not have the right to land ownership. Ogbonna (1989)
supported this when she said that in some patrilineal societies,
generally, wives have only the right to use some of their husband’s
land for farming, so men are the collective owners of the land.
Babangida (1988) highlighted some of the grievances and demands
of Nigerian women to include among others that women want a
47
situation where the land tenure does not allow women to own land
rectified. Commenting on the adverse effects of tradition and
custom on effective extension service in agriculture, (Ogbuibe,
1984) pointed out that in many countries, male extension workers
are not allowed into the homes of female clients because social
customs and religious belief limit contact between the sexes
outside marriage. The restricting influence of Muslim religion is
worth acknowledge in this regard. Adekanye (1981) Harry (1988)
employed the government in general and the men folk in particular
to discard the antique customary and superstitious concepts and
attitudes about the place and role of women in the society. There is
an obvious need for calling for the discouragement and elimination
(if possible) of taboos and traditions that restrict women’s full
participation in agricultural production.
There is no doubt that rural agriculture is still identified with
crude implements, and other related inputs must be ensure.
Ogbonna (1989) stressed that male technical bias against women
as farmers has resulted in men being trained in the use of new
techniques and equipment while women have been left out with
matchets, digging forks, sticks and hoes.
Davidson (1985) noted that there is wastage of food in the home
and that this may be associated with poor storage conditions due
to inadequate storage facilities. Ashby (1981) suggested the
48
provision of improved storage facilities by the government to
enhance the storage of perishable farm produce especially at the
time when such produce are abundantly available. Harry (1988)
recommended the introduction of modern farm implements such
as those used for ploughing harrowing, harvesting and processing
in order to enhance increased productivity.
Olajuwan (1980) pointed out that with the rising shortage of
farm, labour, the need arises for farm mechanization supporting
this, Iburu (1988) said that if we must enhance increased food
production, government must teach rural farmers the use for
modern tools of farming and also evolve a method where by they
can have access to such agricultural input at reasonable cost.
Adeyokune (1981) called for a definite attempt to remove the
drudgery in the present system of agricultural production and
processing through selective mechanization of difficult processing
in agriculture (e.g. by introducing cheap and simple mechanical
graters in cassava processing, the drudgery in the present system
would be removed).
For effective mobilization of rural women for increased
agriclutrual production, the provision of adequate and necessary
infrastructural facilities is inevitable. To this, Harry (1988) in a
brief narration of the lifestyle of a typical rural women said that the
day of a typical rural woman farmer begins with tending to
49
domestic needs of the family, after which she takes her crude
farming implements often trekking long and un-tarred road filled
with pot holes to the farm. When she is thirsty, she strolls to
muddy stream nearby to quench her thirst. Most often she takes
her baby along with her, coming back home late in the evening.
When she falls sick, she cannot get immediate medical attention
because either the hospital is too far or there is shortage of drugs.
Wortmann (1987) pointed out that for farmers to participate in
intensive agriculture, there must be good and adequate
infrastructural facilities provided in rural areas. Harry (1988)
recommended the provision of day care facilities, hospitals,
transport services, electricity, pipe-borne water and good roads.
Babangida (1988) also called for the establishment of day care
centres next to government offices, private co-operations and near
farms. Women like any group of people can be motivated into
improved agricultural production through some measures of
incentives. Many researchers have documented this assertion.
Iburu (1988) said that women with incentives do contribute energy.
Autorpes (1971) argued that if women see no fruit for additional
labour, they will lack the courage to contribute their extra labour,
they retain incentives to innovate and to produce. Iburu (1983)
pointed out too that women often reject new technology when
placed under new non-traditionally male role. Staudt (1987) said
50
that women agriculturists are captivated by agricultural
bureaucracy of the state; the low prices and husband’s capture of
the fruit of their labour, may leave them unmotivated. He pointed
out that more agricultural input and credit subsidization can
motivate them Chole (1991) recommended that the state should
consider means of which women can be motivated and made to
benefit directly from their labour. Masha (1988) supported this and
argued that since women are central to alleviating the food crisis in
Africa, effort should be made to create more incentives for them.
Such an approach could begin first with the crops women work
and raise prices, facilitate research into better crop strains,
alleviate bottle necks women face and get resources into women’s
hands through private and public means so that they can motivate
and increase their production. A suitable market outlet for
agricultural produce from rural areas is considered as one
measure of incentives. Declaring open the Better Life Trade Fair,
Babangida (1988) said that the ‘fair’ (women dominated) will create
outlets for products of rural people, and will encourage women to
strive for high quality and improve their economic well being,
beside generating revenue and increasing interest towards self-
sufficiency. Masha (1988) said that the ‘Fair’ would make the food
now wasting in rural areas to be made available to the urban
markets.
51
Women’s agricultural venture like any other productive
endeavours requires a reasonable capital out lay for it
improvement. Fortman (1988) said that credit would provide
needed capital to women’s agricultural enterprises but in Africa,
Rao, (1987) pointed out that access to credit facilities is often
dependent on land titles. Banbangida (1988) called for the
establishment of rural banks for women where women interested
in agriculture can get soft loans.
The Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations
Organization also recommended that credit schemes be designed
to make credit available to women without requiring land titles as
collateral. Rasaki (1988) called on the commercial banks in Nigeria
to establish – credit schemes for rural women so that loans
provided from these sources would be used by women in the
establishment, reactivation and expansion of agriculturally viable
projects.
Under-representation of women in the agricultural policy
making areas of the government is another factor associated with
the poor participation of women in agricultural production. Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Organization
(1988), pointed out that in agriculture as in development
generally, the challenge is to make use of all the available human
and material resources that government cannot continue to ignore
52
both the existing and potential contribution of half the population
of which women constitute. The report called for allowing women
a better say in the development affecting their lives.
Adekonye (1988) frowned at the non representation of women in
most top government positions. This he pointed out, did not allow
for women input in the making and formulation of some national
policies thereby making some policies related to women’s welfare
impository.
Ogbonna (1989) added that the welfare of the world and the cause
of peace require maximum participation of women on equal terms
with men in all fields. Staudt (1987) writing on effective
mobilization of women supported that women should be involved
in all aspects of decision making. He urged the Federal
Government to take the bull by the horn in this regard by
appointing female members to the highest decision making body
of the nation.
It is almost assumed that the participation of women in
agriculture, majority of suggestions as revealed by the literature
centred on educating and recognizing the roles of women, training
of women as extension workers, elimination of taboos and
traditions that restrict women’s full participation in agricultural
production. Others are introduction of modern farm implements,
incentives, suitable market outlets for agricultural produce,
53
provision of credit facilities e.g. loan, recognition of women’s roles
by the policy makers, provision of adequate storage and
infrastructural facilities and provision of adequate Medicare for
the women.
The numerous studies and opinions in the literature
reviewed, address the general outstanding roles of women in
agricultural development. Such as their general roles in crop
cultivation, livestock production, pests and disease control,
processing, storage and marketing agricultural produce. No
attempt has been made to determine the extent of participation of
these women in the various agricultural production programmes
of ADP to enhance agricultural production. These programmes
include crop production, livestock production, pests and disease
control, processing, storage and marketing programmes of ADP.
This is evidence by the dearth of literature in this respect. Such
appraisal would have provided the basis for developing practical
measures towards the improvement of the programmes. This lapse
is however one of the motivations behind this study.
Theoretical framework
This study is based on three theories namely; theory of
Appraisal, theory of participation and operant conditioning theory
of learning.
54
Theory of Appraisal
Theory of appraisal explains that emptions result from people’s
interpretations of their circumstances even in the absence of
physiological arousal, Aronson (2005).
Appraisal theory points out that people react to things differently.
Even when presented with the same or a similar situation, all
people will react in slightly different ways based on their
perception of the situation. These perceptions elicit various
emotions that are specific to each person, Aronson, (2005).
The women farmers responded in different or slightly
different ways to elicit information for data collection for analysis
for this work. This is because of their different interpretations and
explanations of their circumstances.
Theory of Participation
The theory of participation is based on a native
understanding of power and the power relations that exist both
between central and local actors and within local groups (Hailey,
2001).
A participatory process may merely provide opportunities for the
more powerful and serve to maintain exploitation and exclusion,
(Hildyard, Nicholas, Pandurang, Wolvekamp and Reddy, 2001).
Enugu State ADP should not just allow women farmers to
participate in their programmes, they should allow a very active
55
participation of these women farmers in their programmes to
increase the women agricultural productivity.
Operant Conditioning theory of learning
This study is based on operant conditioning theory of learning.
According to Aggarwal (2008) the term operant stresses that
behaviour operate upon the environment to generate its own
consequences. An operant according to him is a set of acts which
conditions an organism in doing something. In B.F Skinners
operant conditioning experiment, the rate that was used for the
study interacted with its environment. Through trial and error it
discovered that presing the lever produces food.
This act of pressing the lever is therefore the basis for principle of
active participaiton of the learner.
Learning has been defined by Onwuka in Anyanwu, Izuagba,
Obiefuna and Afurobi (2008) as the permanent acquisition and
habitual utilization of the newly acquired knowledge or experience.
This definition stresses the process and product dimension of
acquiring new skills, knowledge or experience and the utilization of
that which has been acquired in performing new tasks.
Anyanwu, Izuagba, Obiefuna and Afurobi (2008) observed
that the learner learns best when he is actively involved in the
learning process. Learning occurs when the learner is involved
through contributions, suggestions and performance of given
56
tasks. In view of the above ascertion, the ENADEP should
stimulate and encourage active participation of the women farmers
by providing them with opportunities and relevant farm activities
that would improve their involvement in the Agricultural
Development Project Programmes. If the women farmers are highly
integrated into the programmes of ENADEP, permanent learning
will take place which will produce a desired result for the good of
the women farmers. This will go a long way in increasing
Agricultural productivity at women farmers level, state level and at
the national level.
Review of Empirical Studies.
There have been various researches on the participation of
women farmers in Agricultural Production Programmes.
Women in Agriculture (WIA) is a branch of Agricultural
Development Project (ADP). The WIA was established in 1989 to
put into efficient use, the full potentials of women farmers into
agricultural production (ENADEP, 1995).
WIA provides vital information to women farmers in relation
to crop production, livestock production, pest and disease,
processing, storage and marketing programmes of ADP. This is to
increase the agricultural production capacities of these women
farmers, hence, helping these women farmer to build better lives
57
for themselves, their families and their communities (ENADEP,
1995).
Odurukwe, Mathews and Okereke (2000) in a research study
investigated the impact of the Women In Agriculture (WIA)
extension programme on women’s live in Imo State.
The findings revealed that women farmers take part in
almost all phases of agricultural crop production, livestock
production, pest and disease control and processing, storage and
marketing activities.
Ukonze (2001) carried a research on strategies for improving
the participation of women farmers in rural production systems, A
case study of Njikoka Local Government Area of Anambra State.
Her findings showed that women farmers take part in the
production of yam, cassava, maize, vegetable, coconut and fruits.
The women farmers also practice goat and sheep production.
Feldstein and Jiggins (1994) in their case study researched
on four countries (Thailand, Trinida, Nigeria and Syria) on tools
for the field; methodologies handbook for gender analysis in
agriculture.
The findings showed that women farmers in the four
countries participate in the following crop production activities:
seed bed preparation, land clearing, land clearing, land
preparation, transplanting, planting, application of fertilizers,
58
irrigation, weeding harvesting, pest and disease control,
processing, storage and marketing activities. The women farmers
also take part in livestock production activities.
Odurukwe, Mathews and Okereke (2000) also analyzed the
impact of WIA Programme on the lives of women in Imo State
Nigeria, with the view to strengthening their subsistence
agricultural production. Data were collected from 160 women
farmers from both urban and rural areas of the state. Data
analysis was achieved using rankings, descriptive statistics and
ordinary least square regression models.
The results of the findings showed that women farmers
participate in the following WIA programme; Cassava Processing
into pancake, and cassava flour, cassava odorless fufu, garri and
tapioca. Maize processing into maize flour and malted maize
drink, maize corn meal and pap. Women farmers participate in
the processing and utilization of soya bean into flour paste, and
processing of soy-meal into soy milk.
The women farmers participate in the processing of cocoyam
into cocoyam flour and cocoyam chips.
The women farmers participate in the processing of fresh tomatoes
into tomato paste, and also in rabbit meat processing and
utilization.
59
Their findings also revealed that women farmers participate
in the processing ands storage of melon, harvesting and storage of
paddy rice and in the dry season vegetable gardening.
Summary of literature review
A rich body of research produced by various researchers
revealed that agricultural development projects started with a view
to mobilizing small-holder farmers for increased food production,
raise rural income and other standard of living, through an
intensive extension strategy referred to as Training and Visit, to
achieve high agricultural production in the country.
The Enugu State Agricultural Development Programme
(ENADEP) is one of the new ADPs in the Agricultural Development
Projects that came into existence with the creation of the state in
August 1991. A management team for ENADEP was formally
inaugurated after an interview moderated by the co-ordinating
body, called Federal Agricultural Co-ordinating Unit (FACU). The
programme was first financed by the World Bank, Federal and
State Governments. Later, the Federal and State Government took
over the financing. The Extension Services branch of ENADEP is
headed by an Acting Director and supported by a Deputy. It
operates three zones-Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka Zones.
60
The Literature indicates that the main objectives of ENADEP
is to establish and organize a disciplined and well supported
performance oriented extension service capable of motivating the
small holder farmers to adopt relevant technologies with a view to
achieving significant increase in food production and income of
the farmers.
Outstanding roles of women in agricultural development are
generally recognized. These women play major roles in crop
production, livestock production, processing, storage and
marketing of agricultural produce, pests and disease control.
The literature also reveals some observed constraints to the
participation of women in agricultural development. These include
inadequate education and gender discrimination due to some
cultural and religious taboos, system of land ownership, use of
drudgery method of cultivation, under-representation of women in
agricultural extension and training, inadequate storage facilities,
inadequate infrastructural facilitates and medication and lack of
adequate medication for the women.
Many writers and researchers have reported that women
farmers participate in Enugu State Agricultural Development
Project Programmes.
61
However, there is no empirical study or evidence from literature as
regards the extent of participation of these women farmers in the
programme of ADP in Enugu State.
It is against this background that the researcher considers it
necessary to carry out a study on the appraisal of women farmers’
participation in Agricultural Development Project (ADP)
Programmes in Enugu State.
62
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter describe the procedure which was used in this study,
it focuses on the research design, area of study, population for the
study, sample and sampling techniques, instrument for data
collection, validation of the instrument, reliability of the
instrument, method of data collection and method of data
analysis.
Research Design
This study was carried out using a descriptive survey design.
Survey design is one which involves the assessment of public
opinion using questionnaire and sampling method. Osuala (2001)
observed that survey research focuses on people, the vital facts of
people and their opinions, attitudes, motivations and behavior. As
a survey research therefore, the study examines the opinions of
women farmers regarding the extent of their participation in the
programmes of ADP in Enugu State, using questionnaire.
Area of the study
The area of the study was Enugu State, Comprising 17 Local
Government areas. These 17 local government areas are grouped
into three ENADEP, Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka. Each of the three
zones is made up of eight blocks (sub-sections). This gives a total
63
of 24 blocks. The study covered all the twenty four ENADEP
blocks.
Population for the Study
According to ENADEP, the population comprised all the
3,560 women farmers in the three ENADEP operational zones. The
break-down in zones is as follows: Nsukka Zone; 1,280 women
farmers, Enugu Zone; 1090 women farmers, Awgu Zone; 1,210
women farmers, giving a total of 3,580 women farmers (ENADEP,
1995).
Sample and Sampling Technique
Stratified random sampling was used in the study. This is
due to the fact that the population comprised of three zones. Ten
percent (10%) of the subjects were randomly sampled from each of
the three ENADEP operational zones. Based on the 10%, the
following were selected from each of the zones; 108 from Enugu,
128 from Nsukka, and 120 from Awgu, totaling 356 respondents.
Instrument for Data collection
The researcher prepared a questionnaire containing 57 items for
the women farmers. These questionnaire items were based on the
research questions and hypothesis. The questionnaire was divided
into two parts; 1 and 2, part 1 was used to obtain personal data
about the respondents, while part 2 was used to elicit information
64
aimed at providing answers to the six research questions raised in
the study.
Part 2 was further sub-divided into six sections; A,B,C,D,E
and F.
Section A dealt with the extent of participation of women farmers
in the crop production programmes of ADP.
Items in section B dealt with the extent of participation of
women farmers in livestock production programmes.
Items in section C dealt with the extent of participation of
women farmers in the storage, processing and marketing
programmes.
Items in section D dealt with the extent of participation of
women farmers in the pest and disease control programmes.
Items in sections E and F dealt with the constraints to the
participation of women farmers in the programmes of ADP and
measures for improving women farmers participation in the
agricultural programmes of ADP in Enugu State respectively.
A 4-point scale instrument made up of strongly Agree/very Great
Extent –4, Agree/Great Extent – 3, Disagree/Low Extent -2, and
strongly Disagree to very low extent – 1, was provided for the
items. The respondents were required to respond to each
statement item according to their agreement or disagreement.
65
Validation of the Instrument.
The preliminary list of the questionnaire items was subjected
to face validation by three lecturers from Vocational Teacher
Education Department, University of Nigeria Nsukka. Based on
their recommendations, necessary corrections were effected and a
final list of questionnaire items was constituted and used in the
study.
Reliability of the instrument.
The questionnaire was tried using 10 women farmers in WIA
in Njikoka Local Government Area of Anambra State. The
reliability test was carried out to estimate the internal consistency
based on the method developed by Cronbach (1970).
The result of the analysis showed a Cronbach Alpha
reliability co-efficient of .86, .79, .81, .82, .79, and .83 for sections
A,B,C,D,E and F respectively. The grand Cronbach Alpha
reliability co-efficient determined was .87.
Procedure for Data Collection
The instrument was administered to 356 women farmers of
ADP in Enugu State. The researcher employed the services of 2
research assistants who travelled personally to administer the
questionnaire copies to the women farmers.
The completed questionnaire copies were collected from the
respondents by the researcher and the research assistants.
66
However, 342 copies of the questionnaire were returned out
of 356 copies distributed this represented 81% return rate.
Procedure for Data Analysis.
In analyzing the data collected, the researcher made use of
means in answering research questions.
ANOVA (Analysis of variance) was used for testing the hypothesis.
The hypothesis was tested at 0.05 confidence level.
Based on calculated mean, the following guidelines were
used to interpret and take decisions on the findings of the study.
Where the mean was used to analyze the data, which opinion
involves two main decisions: High extent/Low extent and
Agreement/Disagreement. An item with a mean score of 2.5 and
above was accepted as high extent and agreement as the case may
be. While those less than 2.5 should be regarded as negative. The
value 2.5 was fixed as a cut-off point because, based on the
background limit of numbers, it was the upper real limit of the
code immediately below high extent/agree.
Using the formular;
X = ∑x
Where = mean
X = Nominal values
∑ = Sum of
N = Number of items
N
67
The cut – off point therefore = 4 + 3 + 2 + 1
4
= 10/4 = 2.5
Table 1:
Schema showing real limit of numbers
Nominal value Scaling statement Real limit of
numbers
4 Strongly Agree/Very
High Extent
3.50 – 4.00
3 Agree/High Extent 2.50 – 3.49
2 Disagree/Low Extent 1.50 – 2.49
1 Strongly Disagree/Very
Low Extent
1.00 – 1.49
68
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
In this chapter, data collected for answering research
questions and testing of the hypothesis posed for the study are
presented and analyzed.
The findings are presented according to background information
on the respondents, research questions and hypothesis tested in a
related sequence.
Research Question 1
What is the extent of participation of women farmers in crop
production programmes of ADP in Enugu State?
Data for answering the above research question are derived
from section A of the instrument and table 2 below:
69
Table 2: Mean ratings on the Responses of the women farmers on
their participation in crop production programmes of ADP in
Enugu State.
Item
No
Item Statement
X1
X2
X3
X
Remark
1. Seed multiplication progrmmes
of ADP
3.39 3.86 3.86 3.72 High
extent
2. Radio programmes of ADP on
crop production activities
3.08 3.59 2.14 2.93 High
extent
3. Television programmes of ADP
on crop production activities
2.51 3.59 2.10 2.72 High
extent
4. Small adoption techniques of
ADP on crop production activities
3.83 3.59 3.54 3.65 High
extent
5. Setting up of crop production demonstration of ADP.
3.67 3.41 3.80 3.63 High extent
6. ADP loan procurement and
distribution
3.30 3.71 2.61 3.21 High
extent
7. Crop breeding programmes of
ADP
2.05 2.37 2.20 2.17 Low
extent
8. Organizing lectures on crop
production programmes of ADP
2.63 3.55 3.76 3.38 High
extent
9. Workshop programmes on crop
production activities of ADP
3.16 3.70 3.85 3.52 High
extent
10. Seminar programmes on crop
production activities of ADP
3.08 3.78 3.85 3.59 High
extent
(where, X1 = Enugu zone, X2 = Awgu zone, X3 = Nsukka, X = mean)
The data presented in table two revealed that nine out of ten
items had their mean values ranged from 2.72 to 3.72. This
showed that the means were above the cut off point of 2.50,
indicating that the respondents agreed to the items as crop
production programmes of ADP in Enugu State, where women
farmers participate.
_
N = 356
_
70
However, table 2 also showed that the respondent disagree
with item 7, indicating that women farmers do not participate in
crop breeding programmes of ADP.
Research Question 2
What is the extent of participation of women farmers in
livestock production programmes of ADP?
Data for answering the above research question are derived
from section B of the instrument and table 3 below.
Table 3: Mean ratings on the Responses of the women famers on
their participation in livestock production programmes of ADP in
Enugu State.
Item
No
Item Statement
X1
X2
X3
X
Remark
1. Hybrids multiplication
programmes of ADP
3.00
3.49
3.83
3.45
High
extent
2. Supplementary feed
formulation programmes of ADP for livestock programmes
3.47
3.21
3.76
3.49
High
extent
3. Radio programmes of ADP on
livestock production activities
3.00 3.32 3.08 3.13 High
extent
4. Television programmes of ADP
on livestock production activities.
2.55 3.28 2.94 2.94 High
extent
5. Livestock breeding programmes of ADP
2.00 2.34 1.65 2.00 Low extent
6. Organizing lectures on livestock production programmes of ADP
2.73 3.47 3.83 3.37 High extent
7. Workshop programmes on livestock production activities of ADP
3.13 3.61 3.85 3.55 High extent
8. Seminar programmes on livestock production activities
of ADP
2.14 3.63 3.85 3.21 High extent
9. Distribution of handbills on
livestock production programmes of ADP.
2.42 3.28 3.28 3.02 High
extent
(where, X1 = Enugu zone, X2 = Awgu zone, X3 = Nsukka, X = mean)
_
_
N = 356
71
The data presented in table 3 showed that eight out of nine
items had their mean values ranged from 2.94 to 3.55. This
showed that the means were above the cut off point of 2.50,
indicating that the respondents agreed to the items as livestock
production programmes of ADP in Enugu State where women
farmers participate.
However, table 3 also indicated that the respondents
disagreed with item 5, showing that women farmers do not
participate in livestock breeding programme of ADP.
Research Question 3
What is the extent of participation of women farmers in the
storage, processing and marketing programmes of ADP in Enugu
State?
Data for answering the above research question are derived
from section C of the instrument and table 4 below.
72
Table 4. Mean Ratings on the Responses of women farmers on
their participation in the storage, processing and marketing
programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
Item
No.
Storage, Processing and
Marketing Participation of women farmers of ADP in Enugu State.
X1
X2
X3
X
Remark
1. Garri processing programmes of ADP
3.08 3.78 3.85 3.59 High extent
2. Soya bean processing programmes of ADP
3.00 3.49 3.83 3.45 High extent
3. Yam processing programmes of ADP
3.47 3.21 3.76 3.49 High extent
4. Yam storage programmes of ADP
3.00 3.32 3.08 3.13 High extent
5. Cocoyam processing programmes of ADP
2.55 3.28 2.94 2.94 High extent
6. Vegetable processing programmes of ADP
3.00 3.34 3.65 3.35 High extent
7. Storage of seed programmes of ADP
2.73 3.47 3.83 3.37 High extent
8. Marketing of cassava cutting
programmes of ADP
3.13 3.61 3.85 3.55 High
extent
9. Teaching programmes of ADP 2.99 3.63 3.85 3.51 High
extent
10. Storage technologies of Kolanut 2.52 3.28 3.28 3.02 High
extent
(where, X1 = Enugu zone, X2 = Awgu zone, X3 = Nsukka, X = mean).
The data presented on table 4 indicated that all the ten items
presented had their mean values ranged from 2.94 to 3.59. This
indicated that the means were above the cut off point of 2.50,
showing that the respondents agreed to the items as storage,
_
N = 356
_
73
processing and marketing programmes of ADP in Enugu State
where women farmers participate.
Research Question 4
What is the extent of participation of women farmers in pest
and disease control programmes of ADP in Enugu State?
Data for answering the above research question are derived
from section D of the instrument and table 5 below.
74
Table 5: Mean Ratings on Responses of the women farmers in their
participation in pest and disease control programmes of ADP in
Enugu State.
Item
No
Item Statement
X1
X2
X3
X
Remark
1. Multiplication and distribution
of pest resistance cassava
programmes of ADP
3.74 3.90 3.97 3.87 High
extent
2. Multiplication and distribution
of disease resistant yam
programmes of ADP.
3.66 3.39 3.75 3.60 High
extent
3. Distribution and sales of agro-
chemical programmes of ADP
2.88 3.38 2.90 3.05 High
extent
4. Control of disease of
leguminous crop programmes
of ADP
2.91 3.47 2.72 3.03 High
extent
5. Adoption of disease resistant
plant varieties
3.45 3.57 3.94 3. 67 High
extent
6. Control of field diseases
programmes of ADP
3.08 3.66 3.99 3.60 High
extent
7. Control of field pests
programmes of ADP
3.21 3.57 3.87 3.56 High
extent
8. Control of store pests
progammes of ADP
3.66 3.79 3.77 3.74 High
extent
9. Control of diseases of store
products programmes of ADP
3.09 3.58 3.33 3.34 High
extent
(where, X1 = Enugu zone, X2 = Awgu zone, X3 = Nsukka X = mean).
-
_
N = 356
_
75
The data presented on table 5 showed that all the nine items
presented had their mean values ranged from 3.03 to 3.87. This
indicated that the means where above the cut off point of 2.50
revealing that the respondents agreed to the items as pest and
disease control programs of ADP in Enugu State where women
farmers participate.
Research Question 5
What are the constraints to the participation of women
farmers in ADP programmes.
Data for answering the above research question were
obtained from section E of the instrument used and table 6 below.
76
Table 6: Mean Ratings on Responses of the women farmers on the
constraints to their participation in the programmes of ADP in
Enugu State.
Item
No
Item Statement
X1
X2
X3
X
Remark
1. Marginalization of women
in socio cultural setting
2.65 3.23 2.98 2.96 Agree
2. Lack of education 3.29 3.32 3.82 3.49 Agree
3. The perception roles of
women in domestic affairs
and child bearing
2.81 3.28 3.77 3.31 Agree
4. Cultural and religious
taboos
2.52 3.91 3.67 3.13 Agreed
5. Unfavourable land tenure
system
2.53 3.33 3.17 3.01 Agree
6. Inadequate storage
facilities
3.05 3.39 3.83 3.44 Agree
7. Inadequate infrastructural
facilities
3.10 3.38 3.18 3.22 Agree
8. Inadequate medical care 3.38 3.10 3.18 3.22 Agree
9. Under-representation of
women in agricultural
extension and training
2.00 2.10 2.00 2.03 Disagree
10. Use of un-improved
working implements
3.37 3.48 3.80 3.56 Agree
Where, X1 = Enugu zone, X2 = Awgu zone, X3 = Nsukka Zone, X =
mean
_
N = 356
77
Data in table 6, shows that the respondents disagree
on only one item out of the ten items, as it recorded mean score
ratings of below the cut off point of 2.50.
The item that is not a constraint to women farmers participation to
ADP programmes is under-representation of women in agricultural
extension and training, which is item number 9.
Research Question 6
What are the measures for improving women farmers
participation in the programme of ADP.
Data for answering the above research question are derived
from section F of the instrument and table 7 below
78
Table 7: Mean Ratings on Responses of the women farmers on the
required measures for improving women farmers’ participation in
the programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
Item
No
Item Statement
X1
X2
X3
X
Remark
1. Stopping discrimination
against women
2.89 3.54 3.49 3.32 Agree
2. Provision of education for
women
2.99 3.29 3.79 3.38 Agree
3. Provision of improved working
implements.
3.04 3.47 3.42 3.32 Agree
4. Integration of women in
Agricultural Development
programmes
2.75 3.49 3.39 3.23 Agreed
5. Favourable land tenure
system
3.10 3.73 3.87 3. 59 Agreed
6. Adequate storage facilities 3.52 3.82 3.97 3.78 Agreed
7. Adequate infrastructural
facilities
3.66 3.87 3.92 3.83 Agree
8. Adequate medical care 3.42 3.82 3.92 3.74 Agree
9. Provision of loan and other
incentives to the women
farmers.
3.01 3.80 3.32 3.39 Agree
Where, X1 = Enugu zone, X2 = Awgu, X3, X = mean
The data presented on table 7 revealed that all the nine
items presented had their mean values ranged from 3.23 to 3.83.
_
N = 356
79
This indicated that the means were above the cut off point of 2.50
showing that the respondent agreed to the items as the required
measures for improving women farmers’ participation in the
programmes of ADP in Enugu State, where women farmers
participate.
Hypothesis Testing
One hypothesis was formulated for the purpose of this study.
To test the hypothesis, Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the
responses of the three groups of respondents were computed, and
the summary of the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the responses
of the three groups were also computed.
Hypothesis
There will be no significant difference in the mean ratings of
women farmers in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka ADP zones, on the
extent of their participation in ADP programmes.
The data are presented in table 8 below.
80
Table 8: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the Responses of women
farmers in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka zones on their participation
in ADP programmes.
Sum of
square
df Mean
square
F-cal F-
tab
Deci
sion
Remark
IT1 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
9.875E-02
303.239
303.338
2
550
552
4.937E-02
.661
.090
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT2 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
1.705
334.212
335.917
2
550
552
.852
.608
1.403
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT3 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
2.000
324.347
326.347
2
550
552
1.000
.590
1.695
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT4 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.323
286.049
286.373
2
550
552
.162
.520
.311
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT5 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
1.527
244.878
246.405
2
550
552
.764
.445
1.715
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT6 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.316
397.609
397.924
2
550
552
.158
.723
2.124
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT7 Between Groups
Within Group
20.983
356.257
2
550
10.492
.648
16.197
3.02
Sig.
Rejected
81
Total 377.241 552
IT8 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.815
380.143
380.958
2
550
552
.408
.691
.590
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT9 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
1.886
358.106
359.993
2
550
552
.943
.651
1.449
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT10 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
2.117
273.533
275.650
2
550
552
1.058
.498
2.124
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT11 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.402
495.783
496.195
2
550
552
.201
.901
.223
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT12 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
1.761
362.958
364.720
2
550
552
.881
.660
1.335
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT13 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
9.875E-02
303.239
303.338
2
550
552
4.937E -02
.661
.090
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT14 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
1.705
334.212
335.917
2
550
552
.852
.608
1.403
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT15 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
7.403
389.949
397.353
2
550
552
3.702
.709
5.221
3.02
Sig
Rejected
IT16 Between Groups
Within Group
1.705
334.212
2
550
.852
.608
1.403
3.02
N.S
Accepted
82
Total 335.917 552
IT17 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
2.000
324.347
326.347
2
550
552
1.000
.590
1.695
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT18 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.323
286.049
286.373
2
550
552
.162
.520
.311
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT19 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
1.527
244.878
246.405
2
550
552
.764
.445
1.715
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT20 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.797
1155.702
1156.499
2
550
552
.399
2.101
.190
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT21 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
6.746E-02
432.710
432.778
2
550
552
3.373E-20
.787
.043
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT22 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.316
397.600
397.924
2
550
552
.158
.723
2.124
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT23 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
2.117
273.533
275.650
2
550
552
1.058
.499
2.124
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT24 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.185
380.143
380.958
2
550
552
.408
.691
.590
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT25 Between Groups
Within Group
1.886
358.106
2
550
.943
.651
1.449
3.02
N.S
Accepted
83
Total 359.993 552
IT26 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.402
495.783
496.195
2
550
552
.201
.901
.223
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT27 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
1.761
362.958
364.720
2
550
552
.881
.660
1.335
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT28 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
2.464
277.159
279.623
2
550
552
1.232
.505
2.441
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT29 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
2.079
329.963
332.042
2
550
552
1.039
.601
1.729
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT30 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
3.047
312.647
315.694
2
550
552
1.523
.569
2.675
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT31 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.111
366.468
366.580
2
550
552
5.568E-02
.668
.083
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT32 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
3.047
312.647
315.694
2
550
552
1.523
.569
2.675
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT33 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
3.583
728.362
731.946
2
550
552
1.792
1.329
1.348
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT34 Between Groups
Within Group
3.583
728.362
2
550
1.792
1.329
1.348
3.02
N.S
Accepted
84
Total 731.946 552
IT35 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.111
366.468
366.580
2
550
552
5.568E-02
.668
.083
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT36 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.219
431.069
431.288
2
550
552
.110
.785
.139
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT37 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
3.047
312.647
315.694
2
550
552
1.523
.569
2.675
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT38 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.219
431.069
431.288
2
550
552
.110
.785
.139
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT39 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
3.047
312.647
315.694
2
550
552
1.523
.569
2.675
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT40 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.797
155.702
1155.702
2
550
552
.399
2.101
.190
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT41 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.316
397.609
397.924
2
550
552
.158
.723
2.124
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT42 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
6.746E-02
432.710
432.778
2
550
552
3.373E-20
.787
.043
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT43 Between Groups
Within Group
.316
397.609
2
550
.158
.723
2.124
3.02
N.S
Accepted
85
Total 397.924 552
IT44 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.815
380.143
380.958
2
550
552
.408
.691
.590
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT45 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
1.886
358.106
359.993
2
550
552
.943
.651
1.449
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT46 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
1.761
362.950
364.720
2
550
552
.881
.660
1.335
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT47 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
8.796
473.284
482.080
2
550
552
1.232
.505
5.101
3.02
Sig.
Rejected
IT48 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
2.117
273.533
275.650
2
550
552
1.058
499
2.124
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT49 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
2.079
329.968
332.042
2
550
552
1.039
.601
1.720
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT50 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.219
431.069
431.288
2
550
552
.110
.785
.139
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT51 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.111
366.468
366.580
2
550
552
5.568E-02
.668
.083
0.32
N.S
Accepted
IT52 Between Groups
Within Group
.797
1155.702
2
550
.399
2.101
.190
3.02
N.S
Accepted
86
Total 1156.499 552
IT53 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.316
397.609
397.924
2
550
552
.158
.723
2.124
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT54 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
2.117
273.533
275.650
2
550
552
1.058
.499
.124
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT55 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
.815
380.143
380.958
2
550
552
.408
.691
.590
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT56 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
3.047
312.647
315.694
2
550
552
1.523
.569
2.675
3.02
N.S
Accepted
IT57 Between Groups
Within Group
Total
3.047
312.647
315.694
2
550
552
1.523
.569
2.675
3.02
N.S
Accepted
Table 8 revealed that 54 items out of 57 had their F-calculated
values less than F-table values. This indicated that they was no
significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the
three groups of respondents on women farmers’ participation in
ADP programmes in Enugu, Awgu, and Nsukka Zones in Enugu
State. The null hypothesis of no significant difference was therefore
accepted.
87
However, table 8 also indicated that only 3 items had their F-
calculated values more than F-table values. This indicated that
there was a significant difference in the mean ratings of the
Responses of the three groups of respondents on women farmers’
participation in ADP Programmes in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka
zones in Enugu State. The null hypothesis of no significant
difference was therefore rejected.
Table 9
Summary of Analysis of variance computation for the mean
differences between women farmers’ participation in ADP
programmes in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka zones.
Source of
variance
Sum of
square
df Mean
square
P F-
cal
F-
tab
Decision Remark
Between
Groups
.681 2 .340
Within
Groups
99.073 550 .180 a.05 1.890 3.02 NS Accepted
Total 99.753 552
Table nine presented the summary of analysis of variance
(ANOVA) of the mean ratings of women farmers’ participation in
ADP programmes in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka zones. The data
88
shows that the cal.F- value of 1.89 is less than the table F-value of
3.02 at 2 and 550 df and probability level of P = a.05.
This indicated that there was no significant difference in the mean
ratings of the three groups of respondents. The null hypothesis of
no significant difference in the mean ratings of the women farmers’
participation in the 3 zones was therefore upheld.
In other words, the women farmers in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka
zones held the same strength of opinion on the extent of their
participation in the programmes of Enugu State ADP.
Findings:
Based on the analysis of data, the following findings were made:
The extent of participation of women farmers’ in crop
production programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
The woman farmers’ in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka zones
perceived with agreement that the women farmers in the 3 zones
participate to a high extent in the under listed crop production
programmes of Enugu State ADP with their mean ranging from
2.72 to 3.72.
1. Seed multiplication programmes of ADP.
2. Radio programmes of ADP on crop production
activities.
3. Television programmes of ADP on crop production
activities.
89
4. Small adoption techniques of ADP on crop production
activities.
5. Setting up of crop production demonstration
programmes of ADP.
6. ADP loan procurement and distribution.
7. Organizing lectures on crop production programmes of
ADP.
8. Workshop programmes on crop production activities.
9. Seminar programmes on crop production activities of
ADP.
The result of the study also reveals that the women farmer’s in
Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka do not participate in the following crop
production programmes with mean rating < 2.50:
1. Crop breeding programmes of ADP.
Findings on corresponding hypothesis in this aspect of the
study revealed that there was no significant difference in the mean
ratings of the opinions of the women farmers in the 3-zones. The
null hypothesis of no significant difference was therefore upheld. In
other words, the women farmers in the 3-ENADEP operated zones
held the same strength of opinion on the extent of their
participation in crop production pogrammes of Enugu State ADP.
90
2. The extent of participation of women farmers in
livestock production programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
The finding of the study revealed that the women farmers in
Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka zones highly agree that they
participate in the following livestock production programmes of
ADP in Enugu State:
1. Hybrids multiplication programmes of ADP.
2. Supplementary feed formulation programmes of ADP.
3. Radio programmes of ADP on livestock production
activities.
4. Television programmes of ADP on livestock production
activities.
5. Organizing lectures on livestock production
programmes of ADP.
6. Workshop programmes on livestock.
7. Production programmes of ADP.
8. Seminar programmes on livestock production
programmes of ADP.
9. Distribution of handbills on livestock production
programmes of ADP.
The result of the study reveals that the women farmers do
not participate significantly in the livestock breeding
programmes of ADP.
91
Findings on corresponding hypothesis in this aspect of the
study revealed that there was a significant difference in the
mean ratings of the three groups of respondents on livestock
breeding programmes of ADP. The null hypothesis of no
significant difference on the extent of women farmers’
participation in the three zones of ADP was therefore
rejected. In other words, the women farmers in the 3-
ENADEP operational zones (Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka
zones) do not hold the same strength of opinion on the
extent of their participation on livestock breeding
programmes of ADP.
3. The extent of participation of women farmers in the
storage, processing and marketing programmes of ADP in
Enugu State.
The findings shows that the women farmers in Enugu, Awgu
and Nsukka zones agree that they participate to a high extent
on the following storage, processing and marketing programmes
of ADP in Enugu State, with their mean ranging from 2.94 to
3.59.
1. Garri processing programmes of ADP
2. Soya bean processing programmes of ADP
3. Yam processing programmes of ADP
92
4. Yam storage programmes of ADP
5. Cocoyam processing programmes of ADP
6. Vegetable processing programmes of ADP
7. Storage of seed programmes of ADP.
8. Marketing of cassava cutting programmes of ADP.
9. Teaching programmes of ADP
10. Storage technologies of kola nut.
The findings of the study vindicated that there was no
significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the
three groups of respondents on the extent of their participation on
storage, processing and marketing programmes of Enugu State
ADP. The related hypothesis was therefore accepted in these
respects.
4. The extent of participation of women farmers in pest and
disease control programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
The findings of the study revealed that the women farmers in
Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka zones of ADP agree to a high extent
that they participate on the following pest and disease control
programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
1. Multiplication and distribution of pest resistant
cassava programmes of ADP.
2. Multiplication and distribution of disease resistant
yam programmes of ADP.
93
3. Distribution and sales of agro-chemical programmes of
ADP.
4. Control of disease of leguminous crop programmes of
ADP.
5. Adoption of disease resistant plant varieties.
6. Control of field diseases programmes of ADP
7. Control of field pests programmes of ADP
8. Control of store pests programmes of ADP.
9. Control of diseases of store products programmes of
ADP.
The result of the study on the corresponding hypothesis in
this aspect of the study also revealed that there was no
significant difference in the mean ratings of the opinions of the
three groups of respondents on the pest and disease control
programmes of ADP in Enugu State. The null hypothesis of no
significant difference on the extent of participation of women
farmers in the 3-zones, on the pest and disease control
programmes of Enugu ADP was therefore upheld. In other
words, the women farmers in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka of
Enugu State ADP hold the same strength of opinion on the
extent of their participation on pest and disease control
programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
94
5. Constraints to the participation of women farmers in
ADP programmes.
The findings of the study also stipulated the followings as
constraints to the participation of women farmers in ADP
programmes of Enugu State:
1. Marginalization of women in socio-cultural setting.
2. Lack of education.
3. The perception roles of women in domestic affairs and
child bearing.
4. Cultural and religious taboos.
5. Unfavourable land tenure system.
6. Inadequate storage facilities.
7. Inadequate infrastructural facilities.
8. Inadequate medical care.
9. Use o unimproved working implements.
The result of the study also revealed that the women farmers
strongly disagree on only under-representation of women in
agricultural extension and training as a constraint to their
participation in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
Essentially the result of the study on the corresponding
hypothesis in this aspect of the study also revealed that there was
no significant difference in the mean ratings of the opinion of the
95
three group of respondents on the constraints to the participation
of women farmers in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State. The
null hypothesis of no significant difference in the opinions of the
three groups of respondents on the constraints to the participation
of women farmers in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State was
therefore accepted.
6. The required measures for improving women farmer
participation in the programmes of ADP in Enugu, Awgu
and Nsukka Zones.
The following required measures for improving women
farmers participation in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State
are agreed upon by the women farmers in Enugu State:
1. Stopping discrimination against women.
2. Provision of education for women.
3. Provision of improved working implements.
4. Integrations of women in Agricultural Development
programmes.
5. Favourable land tenure system.
6. Adequate storage facilities.
7. Adequate infrastructural facilities.
8. Adequate medical care.
9. Provision of loan and other incentives to the women
farmers.
96
The result of the study on the corresponding hypothesis in
this aspect of the study also indicated that there was no significant
difference in the mean ratings of the opinions of the three groups
of respondents (the women farmers in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka
ADP zones) on the required measures for improving women
farmers’ participation in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
The related null hypothesis of no significant difference in the
opinions of the three groups of respondents on the required
measures for improving women farmers’ participation in the
programmes of ADP in Enugu State was therefore upheld. In other
words, the women farmers in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka ADP zones
held the same strength of opinion on the required measures for
improving women farmers participation in the programmes of ADP
in Enugu State.
Discussion of findings.
The discussion is presented under the following headings
which represent the major themes that were investigated:
1. Crop production participation of women farmers in
Enugu State ADP.
2. Livestock production participation of women farmers
in Enugu State ADP.
3. Storage, processing and marketing participation of
women farmers of ADP in Enugu State.
97
4. Pest and disease control participation programmes of
Enugu State ADP.
5. The constraints to the participation of women farmers
in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
6. The required measures for improving women farmers’
participation in the programmes of ADP in Enugu
State.
1. Crop production activities of Women farmers’
participation in Enugu State ADP.
It was discovered from the study that women farmers
in the three ADP zones in Enugu State (Enugu, Awgu and
Nsukka zones) participate in seed multiplication
programmes of ADP, Radio programmes of ADP on crop
production activities, television programmes of ADP on crop
production activities, small adoption techniques of ADP on
crop production activities, setting up of crop production
demonstration programmes of ADP, ADP loan procurement
and distribution.
The study also revealed that these women farmers in Enugu
State ADP also participate in organizing lectures on crop
production programmes of ADP, workshop programmes on
98
crop production activities of ADP and seminar programmes
on crop production activities of ADP.
ENADEP (1995) in agreement with the finding,
stipulated that Enugu State ADP channeled the following
programmes, among others, for women farmers,
establishment of small plot adoption techniques,
establishment of composite cassava plants, production and
sale of budded seedlings, multiplication of soya beans seeds
and mixed farming in rubber.
The findings of the study also reveals that the women
farmers of Enugu State ADP participate to a high extent in
radio and television programmes of ADP on crop production
activities. This fact is also vindicated by ENDEP (1995) which
pointed out an extent of participation of these women in
radio and television programmes of ADP on crop production
activities. This fact is also vindicated by table 1.
The findings of the study again, showed that the
women farmers participate in setting up of crop production
demonstration programmes of ADP. The findings are
confirmed by ENADEP, (1985) which stipulated that ADP
women farmers take part in the setting up of crop
production demonstration programmes of ADP. This fact is
also vindicated by table I which showed that the women
99
farmers participate to a high extent in the setting up of crop
production demonstration programmes of ADP.
The result of the study also showed that ADP women
farmers take part in ADP loan procurement and distribution.
This finding is in line with ENADEP (1995) which pointed out
that in 1994, out of 300 farmers targeted as loan
beneficiaries in Enugu State, 161 farmers (both men and
women) benefited. Also, out of 200 farmers’ loan forms
linked to CBN by ENADEP,110 bona fide farmers including
women benefited as their forms were approved for the loan.
The findings of the study, however, showed that ADP
women farmers do not take part to a high extent in crop
breeding programmes.
The result of the study also showed that the women farmers
in the 3-ENADEP operated zones (namely Enugu, Awgu and
Nsukka zones), participate in organizing lectures on crop
production programmes of ADP, workshop programmes on
crop production of ADP and seminar programmes on crop
production of ADP. In line with this finding, FAO (1998)
pointed out the need to train female extension agents to help
in disseminating information to female farmers. This
dissemination of information can be achieved through
lectures, workshops, conferences and seminars. In
100
agreement with this, ENADEP (1998) pointed out that WIA (a
branch of ENADEP) has been involved in the organization of
workshops, lectures, symposia, conferences and seminars
for women farmers in their efforts towards the dissemination
of useful information on farmer education pogramme in the
state. In support of this, Ukonze (2004), agreed that
seminars, and conferences and workshops are important
tools that posses the potentials for creating consciousness
on farmers. The author also pointed out that, apart from
creating awareness on farmers, they have an important role
of persuasion and developing ethical values and social
responsibility in farmers.
In essence, the findings stipulated the crop production
participation of women farmers in Enugu state ADP as
discussed under the following; seed multiplication
programmes of ADP, Radio programmes of ADP on crop
production activities, television programmes of ADP on crop
production activities, small adoption techniques of ADP on
crop production activities, setting up of crop production
demonstration programmes of ADP, ADP loan procurement
and distribution, crop breeding programmes of ADP,
organizing lectures on crop production programmes of ADP,
workshop programmes of ADP on crop production activities
101
and seminar programmes on crop production activities of
ADP. The study revealed high agreement to nine items out of
ten items presented. The only item the women farmers
disagreed on, or had a low extent of agreement was crop
breeding programmes of ADP. Apart from crop breeding
programmes of ADP, the study revealed high agreement to
the other nine items that the women farmers participate
properly in Enugu State ADP programmes.
Table 1 and table 7 vindicated this fact and also stipulated
by the corresponding null hypothesis (HO) which found no
significant difference in the opinions of the women farmers
in the 3-ENADEP operated zones (Enugu, AWgu and
Nsukka) on the extent of participation of women farmers in
crop production programmes of ADP in Enugu State. The
null hypothesis of no significant difference on the extent of
participation of women farmers in crop production
programmes of ADP in Enugu State was therefore upheld. In
other words, the women farmers in the 3-ENADEP operated
zones hold the same strength of opinion on the extent to
which women farmers in Enugu State ADP participate in the
crop production programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
102
2. Women farmers’ participation in livestock production
activities of Enugu State ADP.
The findings of this aspect of the study indicated that the
respondents have high agreement to livestock production
participation of women farmers in Enugu State ADP.
The study revealed a number of livestock programmes which
the women farmers participate in, in Enugu State ADP. These
livestock programmes are hybrids multiplication programmes of
ADP, supplementary feed formulation programmes of ADP for
livestock programmes, Radio programmes of ADP on livestock
production activities, television programmes of ADP on livestock
production activities, organizing lectures on livestock production
programmes of ADP, workshop programmes on livestock
production programmes of ADP, seminar programmes on livestock
production programmes of ADP and distribution of handbills on
livestock production programmes of ADP. The findings are in line
with Dunn (1995) which revealed that women are responsible for
three quarters of the tasks related to livestock mostly sheep, goat
and poultry. The findings are also in line with the findings of
Feldstein (1994) which stated that women farmers participate in
livestock production activities, such as poultry and goat. Ukonze
(2001) supporting the findings, stated that women farmers practice
goat and sheep production. The findings are also in line with the
103
findings of Odurukwe, Mathews and Okereke (2000) who
supported that women farmers participate in livestock production
activities, especially rabbit.
The findings are also in line with ENADEP (1998) which
pointed out that women farmers have embraced hybrid
multiplication programmes for livestock and mode husbandry
method for livestock feeding, thus providing better feeding and
reducing mortalities. Opukeme (1988) supporting the findings
stated that ADP has channeled the following livestock programmes
for women farmers: fisheries brood stock and fingerling
development, supplementary feeds and feeding of sheep and goats,
rabbit production and site selection and construction and stocking
of fishes. ENADEP (1995) in support of the findings, pointed out
that media such as television and radio are necessary to
disseminate information about animal and crop production to
women farmers, especially outside their farm activities periods.
Opukeme (1988) explained that various methods were used to
disseminate relevant technical messages to women farmers. These
include training of extention agents, involving extension agents to
teach the women farmers in groups, organizing meetings, lectures,
workshops, seminars, Agricultural shows and distribution of
handbills on livestock production activities. The author went
further to state that the co-operative efforts between the extension
104
workers and their various groups of women farmers established
through meetings have helped to keep the extension workers
abreast with the problems of these women farmers as it affects
their Agricultural productivity.
The study revealed high agreement to eight items out of nine
items presented. The only item the women farmers disagreed on or
had a low extent of agreement was livestock breeding programmes
of ADP. Table 2 and 7 vindicated this fact. Apart from livestock
breeding programmes of ADP, the study revealed a high agreement
to the other eight items that the women farmers participate in
Enugu State ADP programmes properly.
Table 2 and Table 7 vindicated this fact and also stipulated
by the corresponding null hypothesis (Ho) which found no
significant difference in the opinions of the women farmers in the
3-ENADEP operated zones (Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka) on the
extent of participation of women farmers in livestock production
programmes of ADP in Enugu State. The null hypothesis of no
significant difference on the extent of participation programmes of
ADP in Enugu State was therefore upheld. In other words, the
women farmers in the 3-ENADEP operated zones hold the same
strength of opinion on the extent to which women farmers in
Enugu State ADP participate in the livestock production
programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
105
3. Women farmers’ participation in storage, processing and
marketing activities of Enugu State ADP.
The findings of this aspect of the study revealed that the
respondents have high agreement to storage, processing and
marketing participation of women farmers of ADP in Enugu state.
The study pointed out a number of storage, processing and
marketing programmes which the women farmers of Enugu state
ADP participate in. These storage, processing and marketing
programmes are: garri processing programmes of ADP, soya bean
processing programmes of ADP, yam processing programmes of
ADP, yam storage programmes of ADP, cocoyam processing
programmes of ADP, storage of seed programmes of ADP,
marketing of cassava cutting programmes of ADP, teaching
programmes of ADP and storage technologies of kola nut. The
findings are in line with ENADEP (1995) which stated that women
process cocoyam into dried cocoyam chips, cassava into dried
cassava flakes and cassava flour, yam into yam flour. They also
store maize over fire places, preserve okra and vegetables through
drying.
In line with the findings, Ukonze (2001) and Feldstein (1994)
agree that women farmers participate to a high extent in
processing, storage and marketing of agricultural products.
106
Supporting the findings, Odurukwe, Matthews and Okereke (2000)
observed that women farmers participate in the following WIA
programmes (i) cassava processing into pancake, and cassava
flour, cassava odorless fufu, garri and tapioca. (ii) maize processing
into maize corn meal and pap (iii) processing and utilization of soy
bean into flour paste, and soy-meal into soy milk (iv) cocoyam
processing into cocoyam flour and cocoyam chips (V) processing of
fresh tomatoes into tomato paste (vi) Rabbit meat processing and
utilization (vii) processing and storage of melon (Viii) Dry season
vegetable gardening (ix) Harvesting and storage of paddy rice.
The findings of the study revealed that ADP women farmers
in Enugu State take part to a high extent in storage, processing
and marketing programmes of ADP in all the ten items presented.
Tables 3 & 8 vindicated this fact. This is also in line with the null
hypothesis which indicated that there was no significant difference
in the mean ratings of the three groups of respondents. The null
hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of the
women farmers participation in the storage, processing and
marketing programmes in the 3-zones of ADP (Enugu, Awgu and
Nsukka) in Enugu state was therefore accepted. In other words,
the women farmers in the 3-ENADEP operated zones hold the
same strength of opinion on the extent to which women farmers in
107
Enugu state ADP participate in the storage, processing and
marketing programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
4. Women Farmers’ participation in Pest and Disease control
activities of Enugu State ADP.
The findings of this aspect of the study revealed that the
respondents have high agreement to pest and disease control
participation of women farmers of ADP in Enugu State.
The study noted a number of pest and disease control
programmes of ADP in Enugu State which the women farmers
participate in. these pest and disease control programmes are as
follows: multiplication and distribution of pest resistant cassava
programmes of ADP, multiplication and distribution of disease
resistant yam programmes of ADP, distribution and sales of agro-
chemical programmes of ADP, control of disease of leguminous
crop programmes of ADP, adoption of disease resistant plant
varieties, control of field disease programmes of ADP, control of
field pest programmes of ADP, control of store pests programmes of
ADP, control of diseases of store products programmes of ADP. The
findings are in line with Ukonze (2001) and Feldstein (1994) who
agree that women farmers participate to a high extent in pest and
disease control activities of agricultural products.
108
Onwubuya (1987) noted that ENADEP had an annual target of 66
tons of agro-chemical to be distributed to women farmers. The
middle of the year, 38 tons were distributed to these women
farmers while stock was still available for distribution. ENADEP
(1995) pointed out that WIA, a branch of ENADEP, handed down
the following pest and disease control technological packages to
the women farmers. The packages are as follows: control of major
field pests and disease of swamp and upland rice. Stem Borers:
control is by crop rotation, harvest at ground level, plough field
after harvesting. Rice Blast: plant disease free plants, fields should
be weed free, maintain good water management. Rodents: Fence
and set trap. Birds: Employ bird scarers or use scare-crow.
ENADEP (1998) also agreed that women farmers also participate in
pests and diseases control activities of other agricultural produce
like maize, cassava, yam, soya bean, cowpea, millet, cocoyam,
pepper, vegetable, tomatoes and tree-crops like cola, cotton,
rubber, cocoa etc.
The findings of the study revealed that ADP women farmers
in Enugu State take part to a high extent in pest and disease
control programmes in all the nine items presented table 4 & 8
vindicated this fact. This fact is also in line with the null
hypothesis which indicated that there was no significant difference
in the mean ratings of the women farmers’ participation in the pest
109
and disease control programmes in all the nine items in the 3-
zones of ADP (Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka), in Enugu State was
therefore accepted. In other words, the women farmers in the 3-
ENADEP operated zones hold the same strength of opinion on the
extent to which women farmers in Enugu State ADP participate in
the pest and disease control programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
5. The constraints to the participation of women farmers in
the programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
The result of this aspect of the study indicated that women
farmers of ADP in Enugu State face many obstacles which either
discourage or completely impede their efforts in their participation
in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State. Such constraints
include marginalization of women in socio-cultural setting, lack of
education, the perception roles of women in domestic affairs and
child bearing, cultural and religious taboos, unfavourable land
tenure system, inadequate storage facilities, inadequate
infrastructural facilities, inadequate medical care, under-
representation of women in agricultural extension and training and
use of un-improved working implements. This finding correlates
with what Masha (1988) believed that when education was first
introduced to Nigeria, according to Nigerian history, only a small
minority of women went to school.
110
Masha (1988) pointed out that education is the primary vehicle for
personal and collective growth leading to the attainment of the
fullest possible development in social, economic and professional
life. The author explained that this lack of formal education led to
ignorance and poverty among women to the extent that women in
the past strongly believed that their own share in the development
of themselves and the society was their traditional role in the
kitchen and producing and raising children.
The findings are also in line with Aminu (1988) who observed that
countries which are today economically backward had illiterate
women forming a large percentage of their population. Babangida
(1988) also said that the improper and under utilization of
agricultural loans ear marked by the state and federal
governments to women is attributed to ignorance, poor orientation
and mostly illiteracy on the part of women groups. Okoro (1988)
indicated that no matter how government and financial institution
try, in spite of the relaxation of measures for obtaining loans for
agricultural purposes, most of our women due to ignorance and
poor education tend to shy away from obtaining these loans.
The findings of the study are also in consonance with the
work of Derek and Oyaide (1986) who observed that in almost all
society, the women is a complementary tool, a mere catalyst in the
socio-cultural development. Olasebikan (1988) agreed that some
111
societies in the world today will lend credence to the assertion that
the women are still regarded as an ordinary helper and not a
partner of man in terms of socio-biological manifestation of women
existence. Women if mentioned, he went on, are usually regarded
merely as actors in the social drama, usually playing minor and
supporting roles.
The findings of the study agree with the work of Ritchie
(1977) which compared population census with the United Nations
Food and Agricultural Census and found marked disparities in the
number and percentages of women in the agricultural labour force.
Ritchie (1977) attributed this to the early missionaries and
administrators who came to Africa during colonial times whom he
believed brought with them nineteenth century European concept
that men were the owners of the land thereby distorting the local
social patterns and roles to comply with their preconceived
ideology. Men were then exposed to vocational training for a variety
of jobs including agriculture. Because of this change, women’s
significant roles in agriculture were frequently undermined. This
agrees with the studies of Derek and Oyaide (1986) which said that
new farming and livestock techniques were usually taught only to
male farmers and the contributions of women in this regard did
not receive the consideration it deserves.
112
In consonance with the studies, Boserup (1970) noted that
new efforts at rural and especially at agricultural development by
government are oriented towards men.
The findings also agree with Food and Agricultural
Organization report (1974) which showed that in most African
societies, men considered cash crop earnings as their own property
and rarely gave much to their wives.
The report further showed that women in many part of Nigeria
studied, consume lower proportion of their body food
requirements.
This flow calories intake results in low work output, hence reduced
productivity.
The report also stated that Agricultural extension services which
help farmers find things like fertilizers and credit as well as advice
and technical information have been overwhelming directed at
men.
The findings are also in line with Ashby (1981) who observed
that the various resources have been invested to improve
distribution and marketing system of agricultural produce but
much of these efforts have been directed at men even though in
many activities, it is the women who do the work. These findings
are in consonance with Forman (1988) and Staudt (1987) who
pointed out that women’s struggle for access is as a result of the
113
way in which land tenure reform has placed title in men’s names.
Staudt (1987) stated that the additional layer of male authority
represented in the modern state re-defined women’s relationship to
men such that resources were channeled to men. Men were
overwhelmingly provided the voice in authoritative decision-making
and women were viewed as being dependent on men.
The result of the findings reveal that the respondents
disagree on only one item out of the ten items as it recorded mean
score rating of below the cut off point of 2.5. The item that is not a
constraint to women farmers participation to ADP programmes is
under-representation of women in agricultural extension and
training.
The women farmers now agree on the following as constraints to
the participation of women farmers in ADP programme;
Marginalization of women in socio-cultural settings, lack of
education, the perception roles of women as in domestic affairs
and child bearing, cultural and religious taboos, unfavourable land
tenure system, inadequate storage facilities, inadequate
infrastructural facilities, inadequate medical care and use of un-
improved working implements. The related null hypothesis was
therefore accepted in these respects, since there was no significant
difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the women
farmers in the 3-ENADEP operated zones in these respects. In
114
other words the respondents (women farmers in three ENADEP
zones) reacted in the same way to these items.
The findings also indicated that the respondents disagree on
only one item. The item that is not a constraint to women farmers’
participation to ADP programmes is under-representation of
women in agricultural extension and training.
The findings revealed that there was a significant difference in the
way the women farmers in the 3-ENADEP zones reacted to one
item which is under-representation of women in agricultural
extension and training. The related null hypothesis was therefore
rejected in these respect. In other words the women farmers
reacted differently to that item.
The Measures for Improving Women Farmers’ Participation in
the Programmes of ADP.
All the items presented to the respondents on table 7 were
agreed upon as required measures for improving women farmers’
participation in the programmes of ADP. The women farmers in
Nsukka, Enugu and Awgu zones of ADP therefore agree on the
following items as measures to be carried out to improve women
farmers’ participation in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State;
stopping discrimination against women, provision of education for
women, provision of improved working implements, integration of
women in agricultural development programmes, favourable land
115
tenure system, adequate storage facilities, adequate infrastructural
facilities, adequate medical care and provision of loans and other
incentives to the women farmers. This agrees with evidence from
literature and also in line with studies by Masha (1988) who
believed that education is the answer. Ritchie (1977) also calls for
both formal and non formal education for women farmers.
In line with the above, Masha (1988) pointed out that formal
education is the primary vehicle for personal and collective growth
leading to the attainment of the fullest possible development in
social, economic and professional life. Masha (1988) suggested the
mapping out of a definite programme to help women acquire basic
education and vocational training towards achieving self-reliance.
In agreement with the above Aminu (1988) advocated a goal
oriented action plan for women education to be incorporated in the
5th National development plan. Babangida (1988) also agreed that
education is the key to women’s development; that if given
education, women will not continue to leave everything to chance.
The findings of the study are also in consonance with the
work of Babangida (1988) who called for a stop in discrimination
against women and demanded for full integration and recognition
in all development efforts. According to her “women are a factor in
life which should no longer be ignored”. Women should be
accepted and integrated as individuals in their own rights, because
116
the full development of the potentials of women would greatly
enhance the progress of the nation and the quality of life of the
people.
In line with the findings of the study, Harry (1988)
recommended the introduction of modern farm implements such
as those used for ploughing, harrowing, harvesting and processing
in order to enhance increased productivity. In agreement with the
above, Adeyokune (1981) called for a definite attempt to remove
drudgery in the present system of the agricultural production and
processing through selective mechanization of difficult processing
in agriculture.
The findings of the study are also in line with the works of Ashby
(1981) who suggested the provision of improved storage facilities by
the government to enhance the storage of perishable farm produce
especially at the time when such produce are abundantly available.
The findings of the study are also in consonance with the
works of Harry (1988) and the report of F.A.O (1984) which
suggested the recruitment and training of women as agricultural
extension agents and their deployment to rural villages to teach
modern techniques of farming to female farmers. In line with the
above, Staudt (1987) supported the recruitment of female
extension officers. Bond (1984) also pointed out that there is need
117
for more women rural development extension workers as the
present system favours males as heads of households.
The findings of the study are in line with the works of
Babangida (1988) who highlighted some of the grievances and
demands of Nigerian women to include among others that women
want a situation where the land tenure does not allow women to
own land rectified. Harry (1988) employed the government in
general and the men folk in particular to discard the antique
customary and superstitious concepts and attitudes about the
place and role of women in the society.
In line with the findings of the study, Harry (1988)
recommended the provision of day care facilities, hospitals,
transport services and good roads. Babangida (1988) also called for
the establishment of day care centres next to government offices,
private co-operations and near farms.
In agreement with the findings of the study, Fortman (1988)
said that credit would provide needed capital to women’s
agricultural enterprises. Babangida (1988) called for the
establishment of rural banks for women where women interested is
agriculture can get soft loans. The Food and Agricultural
Organization of United Nations Organization also recommended
that credit schemes be designed to make credit available to women
without requiring land titles as collateral. Rasaki (1988) called on
118
the commercial banks in Nigeria to establish credit schemes for
rural women so that loans provided from these sources would be
used by women in the establishment, reactivation and expansion
of agriculturally viable projects.
In consonance with the findings, Masha (1988) move
incentives for the women farmers. Such an approach includes
facilitating research into better crop strains, alleviating bottle
necks women face and getting resources into women’s hands
through private and public means so that they can motivate and
increase their production. In line with the study also, Babangida
(1988) said that ‘The Better life Trade Fair’ (women dominated) will
create outlets for products of rural people, and will encourage
women to strive for higher quality and improve their economic well
being, beside generating revenue and increasing interest towards
self-sufficiency. Masha (1988) pointed out that the ‘fair’ would
make the food now wasting in rural areas to be made available to
the urban markets.
If all the measures for improving women farmers’
participation in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State stipulated
are adhered to, the researcher believes that women farmers’
participation in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State will be
greatly improved. This will also increase the productivity of these
women farmers in general.
119
Also there is no significant difference between the opinions of
the women farmers in the 3-ENADEP operated zones (Enugu,
Awgu and Nsukka) on the measures for improving women farmers’
participation in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State. The null
hypothesis of no significant difference on the measures for
improving women farmers’ participation in the programmes of ADP
in Enugu State was therefore upheld. In other words, the women
farmers in the 3-ENADEP operated zones hold the same strength of
opinion on the measures for improving women farmers’
participation in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
120
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter presents a summary of the statements of
problem, the procedure used in the study and the major findings of
the study. It also present the conclusion based on the findings and
implications of the study, recommendations and suggestions for
further study.
Restatement of problem.
Women farmers of ADP in Enugu State face many obstacle
which either discourage or completely impede their efforts in their
participation in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
Women In Agricultural (WIA) as a branch of ENADEP came
up with the aim of improving the participation of women farmers in
the programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
However, there is inadequate information on the extent of
participation of these women farmers in the programmes of ADP in
Enugu State. There exist inadequate information on the extent of
participation of these women farmers in crop production, livestock
production, storage, processing and marketing, pest and disease
control programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
121
Further more, it is also observed that there are some
conditions which constraint women farmers effective participation
in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
It is necessary therefore, to analyze those constraints in order to
determine the level of influences on the effective participation of
women farmers in Enugu State ADP programmes. It is also very
important to ascertain the required measures for improving women
farmers’ participation in the programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
The over all purpose of this study was to appraise the women
farmers’ participation in the Agricultural Development Project
(ADP) programmes in Enugu State.
Specifically, the study was aimed at:
i. Determining the extent of women farmers’ participation
in crop production programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
ii. Determining the extent of women farmers’ participation
in livestock production programmes of ADP in Enugu
State.
iii. Determining the extent of women farmers’ participation
in agricultural processing, storage and marketing
programmes of ADP.
iv. Determining the extent of women farmers’ participation
of ADP in Enugu State.
122
v. Ascertaining the constraints to participation of women
farmers in ADP programmes. Ascertaining the
measures for improving women participation in the
programmes of ADP.
Summary of Procedure Used.
Fifty-seven research questions and one hypothesis based on
the specific objectives of the study were formulated to guide the
study. The hypothesis was tested at 0.5 confidence level.
The study concentrated on 3-ENADEP operated zones which
comprises Enugu zone, Nsukka zone and Awgu zone. The targeted
population for the study was 3,560 women farmers.
This consisted of 1,280 women farmers from Enugu zone, 1080
women farmers from Nsukka zone, 1,200 women farmers from
Awgu zone. Ten percent (10%) of the subjects were randomly
sampled from each of the three ENADEP operational zones. Based
on the 10%, the following was used from each of the zones; 108
from Enugu, 128 from Nsukka and 120 from Awgu, totaling 356
respondents.
A structured questionnaire with total of 57 items was used to
elicit information and generate data from the study. The
instrument was validated by three lecturers from Vocational
Teacher Education Department, University of Nigeria Nsukka.
123
Based on their recommendations, necessary corrections were
effected and a final list of questionnaire items was constituted. The
questionnaire was administered on the 356 respondents that
constituted the sample of the study, by personal contact through
the help of experienced and professional agricultural extension
agents and research assistants. Their responses were analyzed to
answer the research questions and to test the hypothesis.
The analysis was carried out using mean, t-test and Analysis
of variance (ANOVA) as statistical tools. The mean was used to
answer the research questions, while the ANOVA and t-test were
used to test the hypothesis.
Principal Findings of the Study.
The following were the major findings of this study:
1. The women farmers in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka zones
show high agreement that the women farmers in the
3-zones participate to a high extent in the under listed
crop production programmes of ADP in Enugu state:
seed multiplication programmes of ADP, radio
programmes of ADP on crop production activities,
television programmes of ADP on crop production
activities, small adoption techniques of ADP on crop
production activities, setting up of crop production
demonstration programmes of ADP, ADP loan
124
procurement and distribution, organizing lectures on
crop production programmes of ADP, workshop
programmes on crop production activities and seminar
programmes on crop production activities of ADP.
2. The women farmers in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka zones
highly agree that they participate in the following
livestock production progrmmes of ADP in Enugu
state: hybrids multiplication programmes of ADP,
supplementary feed formulation programmes of ADP,
radio programmes of ADP, on livestock production
activities, television programmes of ADP on livestock
production activities, organizing lectures on livestock
production programmes of ADP, workshop programmes
on livestock production programmes of ADP, seminar
programmes on livestock production programmes
of ADP, distribution of handbills on livestock
production programmes of ADP.
3. The women farmers in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka zones
agree that they participate to a high extent on the
following storage, processing and marketing
programmes of ADP in Enugu State: Garri processing
programmes of ADP, soya bean processing programmes
125
of ADP, yam processing programmes of ADP, yam
storage programmes of ADP, cocoyam processing
programmes of ADP,vegetable processing
programmes of ADP, storage of seed programmes of
ADP, marketing of cassava cutting programmes of ADP,
teaching programmes of ADP, storage technologies of
kola nut.
4. The women farmers in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka zones
of ADP agree to a high extent that they participate in
the following pest and disease control programmes of
ADP in Enugu State: multiplication and distribution of
disease resistant yam programmes of ADP, distribution
and sales of agro-chemical programmes of ADP, control
of disease of leguminous crop programmes of ADP,
adoption of disease resistant plant varieties, control of
field diseases programmes of ADP, control of field pests
programmes of ADP, control of store pests
programmes of ADP, control of diseases of store
products programmes of ADP.
5. It was agreed upon by the women farmers in Enugu,
Awgu and Nsukka zones, that the following are the
constraints to the participation of women farmers in
126
ADP programmes of Enugu State: marginalization of
women in socio-cultural setting, lack of education,
the perception roles of women in domestic affairs and
child bearing, cultural and religious taboos,
unfavourable land tenure system, inadequate storage
facilities, inadequate infrastructural facilities,
inadequate medical care, use of un-improved working
implements.
6. The women farmers in Enugu, Awgu and Nsukka
agreed strongly to the following required measures for
improving women farmers’ participation in the
programmes of ADP in Enugu State: stopping
discrimination against women, provision of education
for women, provision of improved working
implements, integration of women in Agricultural
Development Programmes, favourable land tenure
system, adequate storage facilities, adequate
infrastructural facilities, adequate medical care,
provision of loan and other incentives to the women
farmers.
Conclusions.
127
The study established that women farmers in Enugu, Awgu
and Nsukka zones of Enugu State ADP participated to a high
extent in the programmes of Enugu State ADP. Such pogrammes
are; crop production programmes, livestock production
programmes, storage, processing and marketing programmes, pest
and disease control programmes of Enugu State ADP.
Furthermore, the study revealed that marginalization of women in
socio-cultural setting, lack of education, the perception roles of
women in domestic affairs and child bearing, cultural and religious
taboos, unfavourable land tenure system, inadequate
infrastructural facilities, inadequate medical care, and use of un-
improved working implements pose barriers to women farmers
participation in the programmes of Enugu State ADP.
Finally, the study evolved required measures which if adopted will
enhance women farmers participation in the programmes of Enugu
state ADP as the women farmers will be positioned properly for
greater performance and participation in the programmes of ADP
in Enugu State.
Implications of the Study.
The results of the study have serious educational
implications to women farmers, women in Agriculture (WIA), and
Enugu State Agricultural Development (ENADEP) programmes and
Enugu State government at large. The 3-ENADEP operational
128
zones (i.e. Enugu zone, Awgu zone and Nsukka zone), studied are
involved in farmer education through WIA programmes. As a result
of that, it tends to curb out farmers negative attitude towards
agriculture, through their training and extension education
services.
The study also revealed that the 3-ENADEP zones under
consideration have been involved in crop production, livestock
production, pest and disease control, storage and processing and
marketing programmes of Enugu State ADP.
Also Enugu State ADP through the 3-ENADEP operated zones has
encouraged the women farmers to participate in the above
programmes to an appreciable extent through the WIA
programmes.
The study also revealed that ENADEP through WIA
programmes, has been involved in the organization of workshops,
symposia, conferences and seminars in their efforts towards the
dissemination of useful information on farmer education
progrmmes in the state.
Finally, the study has also provided a clue to how to revert
the situation with special reference to the formation of required
measures for improving women farmers’ participation in the
programs of ADP in Enugu State.
129
The implications of this is that if all those measures are channeled
or focused, the women farmers participation in the programmes of
ADP in Enugu State will be positioned properly and they will
participate to a high point.
Again if adequate credit facilities is made available to Enugu state
ADP, it will also go a long way encouraging the women farmers
participation in the programmes of Enugu State ADP.
This would increase the agricultural production of the women
farmers which would invariably boost out food production in the
state in particular and at the national level as a whole.
Recommendations.
On the basis of the findings of the study, the discussions and
conclusions therefore, the following recommendations were made.
1. Enugu State government should give more financial support
to ENADEP so as to have more financial background which
will enable them, through WIA, to organize more workshops,
lectures, seminars, conferences among others for women
farmers. These will improve the participation of these women
farmers in ADP programmes for greater productivity.
2. Since majority of the women are illiterate, adult education
programmes should be mounted for them in their various
communities and prize awarded for good work. This will help
130
them to understand how to use new agricultural techniques
and understand instruction on agricultural handouts. As
much as possible audio-visuals aids should be used to teach
women farmers.
3. Aspects of agricultural production that are largely the
responsibility of women farmers must be given adequate
attention. Such areas include, for example, food crop
production, livestock production, processing, storage and
marketing of agricultural produce, pest and disease control.
4. There is need to ensure that extension training activities
enable extension staff to identify and subsequently handle
effectively the extension needs of women farmers. It should
aim not only at making staff aware of the need to take
account of the need of women farmers and serve them
effectively, but should also guide staff to identify those areas
where women farmers need extension support.
5. The state government should help women farmers to obtain
land, capital, credit, loan and other incentives, improved
crop varieties, pesticides and fertilizer, farm machines
among others. These will enhance productivity.
6. To help facilitate extension support for women farmers is for
more women to be employed in the extension service. This
will make more women farmers to participate more in
131
extension programmes and in acceptance of innovation
devices and methods.
7. Specialized support should be provided to focus the attention
of women farmers. The prime responsibility of women
farmers would be to ensure that the extension service
through research, develops and promotes feasible
appropriate production recommendations to meet the needs
of women farmers.
Suggestions For Further Research.
Further researches should be carried out on:
1. Women in Agriculture and Rural Development in Udi Local
Government Area.
2. The role of women in National Development. A case study in
Enugu State.
3. How Agriculture can be expanded by women farmers. A case
study in Enugu State.
4. “Women In Agriculture Programmes” and food production in
Enugu State.
132
References
Adebusoye, (1980) “women participation in agriculture” National
light on Sunday September 11, 1994.
Adekanye, T.O. (1981). African women in Agriculture problems and
policy for Development. Preserve African (France) 141 (1), PP 7-14.
Adekanye, T.O. (ed) (1988). African Notes: Women in Agriculture
special No.3 (1). Ibadan: WORDOC.
Adeyokune, T. (1981). Women and Agriculture in Nigeria, Addis
Ababa: UNECA, African Training and Research Centre for
Women.
Aggarwal, J.C. (2008). Essentials of Educational Psychology. VIKAS
Publishers. New Delhi.
Aminu, J. (1988). Educational imbalance hinders growths. Nigeria Tide Sept.3, pp 4-5.
Anyanwu S.U., Izuagba, A.C. Obiefuna, C.A, and Afurobi, A.O. (2008). Issues in curriculum and implementation. Joe Mankpa
Publishers Owerri. Aronson, E., Wilson, T.D., & Akert, R.M. (2005). Social psychology,
7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Ashby, J. (1981). Women and crisis in Agriculture. Washington D.C. Agency for International Development.
Authorpes, R. (1971). Some evaluation problems for co-operative
studies with special Reference to primary Co-operatives in
Highlands Kenya. England: Manchester University Press.
Babangida, M. (1988). Women speak on their welfare. Sunday times Pp 6-7.
Bala, A. (1981). Preliminary survey of Avenue for constraints on
Rural Involvement in the Developmental Process. London Mac
Gibson and Kee.
Bates, B. (1981). Workers and State in Tropical Africa. Berkeley:
University of California.
133
Bond, C.A. (1984). Women Involvement in Agriculture, Botswana,
Overseas Development ministry advisory Team Report, Botswana.
Boserup, E. (1970). Women’s role in Development, London. George Allen and Unwin.
Boserup, E. (1980). Women’s role in Economic development, New York: St. Martins Press.
Callear, D. (1983). “Women’s coarse grain production in Africa” FAO Experimental Consultation on women in Food
production, Rome.
Chole, F.U. (1991). “Women in Agriculture component of
project NIK/S7/014: strengthening Agricultural
Extension in Nigeria’s improvement Extension outreach
to Rural women: Paper presented at the post study
workshop on strengthening Agricultural Extension in
Nigeria, Ibadan: 23rd – 24th January.
Davidson, S. (1985). Human Nutrition and Dietetics, Edinburgh,
Living Stone.
Derek, R. and Oyaide. (1986). Impact of Agricultural Development Project (ADPs). Journal of Federal Development 1 (2), p 16.
Dey, J. (1981). Women in Food Production and Food Scarcity in Africa, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nation.
Dunn, V. (1995). FAO Ceres. No 27(3) P 153 IBSN 0009- 0379.
Enugu State Agricultural Development Programmes, (ENADEP)
(1985). Research Centre, Ilorin NISPRI Pp. 1-33 Enugu State Agricultural Development Programmes, (ENADEP) (1995). A briefly presentation to the Enugu State Agricultural Development Programme Executives Committee ADPEC.
Ezumah, N. (1988). The Role of women in Food Production, Processing and Presentation in Nigeria, African Notes Women
in Agriculture special No.3 Ibadan: WORDOC: Pp 9-15.
134
Feldstein H.S. and Jiggins (1994). Tools for the field; Methodologies handbook for gender analysis in agriculture. I.T. Publications.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Research, (1974),
Role of women in Agriculture. Daily Times, Pp. 5-7.
FAO, (1984) State of Food and Agriculture. Worldview. The situation in sub- Saharan Africa (16) Rome: FAO.
Food and Agriculture Organization (1998) “Rural women and food security current situation and prospective”. Rome. Information Division FAO.
Fortman, N. (1988). Educational Dimension in Agricultural
Development, Education and Development, 1(1) 27-45.
Hatem, M. (1983). Women and work in the Middle East: the Regional Impact of Migration to oil producing States. Paper presented at the conference on women and work in the Third World University of California, Berkely 10-14th April.
Hailey, John (2001). Beyond the Formulaic: Process and Practice in South Asian NGOs. In B. Cooke and U.Kothari (Eds.) Participation. The New Tyranny? London: Zed Books.
Harry, E. (1988). Towards Effective Mobilization of rural
women. Nigerian Tide Sept. 3, Pp.13-14. Hartely D.S., III and Helmbold, R.L. (1995). Validating lancester’s
square law and other attrition models. Pp. 467-492
Hildyard, Nicholas, Pandurang Hedge, Paul Wolvekamp and Somasekhare Reddy (2001). Pluralism, Participation and
Power: Joint Forest Management in India. In B. Cooke and U. Kothari (Eds.) Participation. The New tyranny? London: Zed
Books, Pp 56-71
Iburu, M. (1988) “Food Production and Consumption Patterns in Nigeria: Cultural versus Economic Considerations”. Paper
presented at the Nigerian Food Culture Seminar, Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan: 25th – 26th November.
Masha, T. (1988). Education is the answer. Sunday Times, March 13, Pp.11-14.
135
Mijindadi, N.B. (1998). Field Manual: Guideline for Women In Agriculture Programme in Nigeria 2 (1) Pp 1-2.
Nwagbara, C. (1985). The role of women in food
production and presentation. Sunday statesman, June 20
Pp.24-25. Odurukwe S.N., Mathews E.C. and Okereke N. (2000). “Impacts of
the Women- In-Agriculture (WIA) extension programme on
women’s lives; implications for subsistence agricultural production of women in Imo State, Nigeria”. Masters Degree thesis, M.Sc. thesis, Department of Agriculture Extension, Federal University of Technology Owerri Imo State Nigeria.
Ogbonna, K.I. (1989). “Factors Affecting the Productivity of Rural women in Agriculture in Imo State”. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Agricultural Extension, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Ogbuibe, (1984). Women are farmers too. Daily Times
Oct. 5, Pp.10-13.
Okoro, J. (1988). Loan them to feed us. The statesmen Sept. 30, Pp. 8-9.
Olajuwon, S. (1980). Problems and prospects in integrated Rural Development. Nigeria Small Farmers 1(3), Pp 14-16.
Olasebikan, B. (1988). Culture in women’s every
number one. Sunday Times March 13, Pp. 14-15.
Onwubuya, E.A. (1987). “The Role of Rural women as Farmers in selected Agricultural Communities of Anambra State”. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Agricultural Extension, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Opukeme, K.F. (1988). Report on Extension Activities of Bayelsa State, Agricultural Development Programme. A paper represented at the 13th Annual South East Zonal Farming System Research and Extension Workshop Held at NRCCRI, Umudike 3rd – 10th November.
Rasaki, B. (1988, Sept.3). Better Life Committee Inauguration. Nigerian Tide Sept. 3, pp. 2-3.
136
Ritchie, J.A.S. (1977). The Impact of Changing Food Production,
Processing and Marketing Scheme. IOWA: United Press.
Rao, A.N. (ed) (1987). Food, Agriculture and Education. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Samayina, G.N. and Mabawonku, A.P. (1984). Welfare indicators for farmers in Lafia. Agricultural Research Management and Training Institute (ARMTI) Ilorin.
Staudt, K (1987). Uncaptured and unmodified women and food
crisis in African. Rural Sociology, 52(1), 14-27.
Ukoje, J.A. and Baba, J.M. (1980). The Impact of Ayamgba ADP on the Quality of Rural Life: A Publication of Agricultural Research
Ilorin.
Ukonze, J.A. (2001). “Strategies for improving the participation of
Women Farmers in Rural Production Systems, A case study of Njikoka Local Government Area of Anambra State”. M.Sc.
Thesis, Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka.
Ukonze, J. A. (2004). “Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO)
Intervention Capacity – Building and Constraints in Farmer Education Programmes in South Eastern Nigeria”. PG/Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka.
Wright, M. (1983). “Technology, Marriage and Women’s work in the History of Maize growers in Mazabuke, Zambia: “A
Recognizance”. Journal of South African Studies, Op.
137
APPENDICES
A. Letter to Respondents
Department of Vocational Teacher
Education,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
19/3/2001
Dear Respondent,
This is a questionnaire designed to obtain information from you for
the purpose of conducting a research aimed at identifying the
extent of participation of women farmers in the agricultural
development programmes of ADP in Enugu State. There are no
‘wrong’ or ‘right’ answers to the questions. Please read the
questions and supply the answers to the best of your knowledge.
Be assured that all the information required are for research
purpose only and will be kept absolutely confidential.
Thanks for anticipated co-operation.
Yours faithfully,
Udeh C.U.
138
B. Questionnaire
Part 1: Personal Data
Instruction: Carefully supply the following information by
checking ( ) as appropriate.
State Your:
Local Govt. Area of Origin: …………………………………………………
Agricultural Zone of Operation: ……………………………………………
Enugu: …………………………….
Awgu: ………………………………
Nsukka: ……………………………
Part 2:
Instruction: Check ( ) against the response that indicates
your opinion about each item
Note: SA = Strongly Agree/ Very High Extent (VHE)
A = Agree/ High Extent (HE)
UD = Undecided/ Low Extent (LE)
D = Disagree/ Very Low Extent (VLE)
SD = Strongly Disagree
139
Section A: The extent of participation of women farmers in the
crop production programmes of Enugu state ADP.
S/N SA/VHE A/HE D/LE SD/VLE
1. Seed multiplication programmes
of ADP.
2. Radio programmes of ADP on crop
production activities.
3. Television programmes of ADP on
crop production activities
4. Small adoption techniques of ADP
on crop production activities.
5. Setting up of crop production
demonstration programmes of
ADP.
6. ADP loan procurement and
distribution.
7. Crop breeding programmes of
ADP.
8. Organizing lectures on crop
production programmes of ADP.
9. Workshop programmes on crop
production of ADP.
10. Seminar programmes on crop
140
production activities of ADP.
Section B: The extent of participation of women farmers in the
livestock programmes of Enugu State ADP. Women farmers are
involved in:
S/N SA/VHE A/HE D/LE SD/VLE
11. Hybrids multiplication
programmes of ADP.
12. Supplementary feed formulation
programmes of ADP for livestock
programmes of ADP.
13. Radio programmes of ADP on
livestock production activities.
14. Television programmes of ADP
on livestock production
activities.
15. Livestock breeding programmes
of ADP.
16. Organizing lectures on livestock
production programmes of ADP.
17. Workshop programmes on
livestock production
programmes of ADP.
18. Seminar programmes on
livestock production
programmes of ADP
19. Distribution of handbills on
livestock production
programmes of ADP.
141
Section C: The extent of participation of women farmers in the
storage, processing and marketing programmes of ADP in Enugu
State.
S/N Women farmers participate in SA/VHE A/HE D/LE SD/VLE
20. Garri processing programmes of ADP.
21. Soya beans processing programmes of ADP.
22. Yam processing programmes of ADP.
23. Yam storage programmes of ADP.
24. Cocoyam processing programmes of ADP.
25. Vegetable processing programmes of ADP.
26. Storage of seed programmes of ADP.
27. Marketing of cassava cutting programmes of
ADP.
28. Teaching programmes of ADP.
29. Storage technologies of kola nut.
142
Section D: The extent of participation of women farmers in the
pests and disease control programmes of Enugu State ADP
S/N SA/VHE A/HE D/LE SD/VLE
Women farmers participate in
30. Multiplication and distribution of pests
resistant cassava programmes of ADP.
31. Multiplication and distribution of
disease resistant yam programmes of
ADP
32. Distribution and sales of agro-chemical
programmes of ADP.
33. Control of disease of leguminous crops
programmes of ADP.
34. Adoption of disease resistant plant
varieties.
35. Control of field diseases programmes of
ADP.
36. Control of field pests programmes of
ADP.
37. Control of store pests programmes of
ADP.
38. Control of disease of store product
programmes of ADP.
143
Section E: Constraints to participation of Women farmers in the
programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
S/N SA A D SD
The following are some of the constraints
to participation of women farmers in the
programmes of ADP in Enugu State.
39. Marginalization of women in socio-cultural
settings.
40. Lack of education
41. The perception roles of women as in
domestic affairs and child bearing.
42. Cultural and religious taboos.
43. Unfavourable land tenure system.
44. Inadequate storage facilities.
45. Inadequate infrastructural facilities.
46. Inadequate medical care.
47. Under-representation of women in
agricultural extension and training.
48. Use of un-improved working
implements.
144
Section F: Measures for improving women farmers’ participation
in the programmes of ADP
S/N SA A D SD
The following measures could improve
women farmers’ participation in the
programmes of ADP.
49. Stopping discrimination against women.
50. Provision of education for women.
51. Provision of improved working
implements.
52. Integration of women in agricultural
development programmes.
53. Favourable land tenure system.
54. Adequate storage facilities.
55. Adequate infrastructural facilities.
56. Adequate medical care.
57. Provision of loans and other incentives to
the women farmers.