applied research methods new

7/24/2019 Applied Research Methods New

1/175

Applied Research MethodsCourse code: MGT-808

by

Prof. Dr. Zahid Hussain

Depart ent of Mana!e ent"ciences.Preston #ni$ersit%& 'sla a(ad.


2/175

Research Concepts)Meanin! ofResearch

Meanin!: Research is an art of scienti*cin$esti!ation +hich refers to a search of,no+led!e. Research is also s%ste ati ed e ortto !ain ne+ ,no+led!e. Research is an acade ic

acti$it% and is actuall% a /ourne% of disco$er%. "o& Research is an ori!inal contri(ution to thee istin! stoc, of ,no+led!e 1in $arious*elds)spheres of acti$ities2 for its ad$ance ent.

The ter Research also refers to the s%ste atic

ethod 1s2 consistin! of identif%in! the pro(le &for ulatin! h%pothesis& collectin! the facts ordata& anal%sin! the data 3 reachin! to certainconclusion1s2.


3/175

Signifcance o research: 4ollo+in! are thesi!ni*cance of conductin! a research:

1i2 Research pro$ides the (asis for nearl% all!o$t. policies in our econo ic)5usiness)trades%ste . Throu!h research& one can ad$isealternati$e policies and can as +ell e a ine theconse6uencies of each of these alternati$es.

Research has its special si!ni*cance in sol$in!$arious operational 3 plannin! pro(le s of(usiness 3 industr%. 7perational research refersto the application of athe atical& lo!ical 3

anal%tical techni6ues to the solution of (usinesspro(le s of cost ini i ation or of pro*ta i i ation or +hat can (e ter ed as

opti i ation pro(le s.


4/175

Research is e6uall% i portant for socialscientists in stud%in! social relationship and insee,in! ans+ers to $arious special pro(le s. 'naddition to these& the si!ni*cance of researchcan also (e understood ,eepin! in $ie+ thefollo+in! points

To those students +ho are to +rite a Master sor Ph.D thesis& research a% ean a careerisor a +a% to attain hi!h position in the socialstructure

To professionals& research a% ean a source

of li$elihood. To anal%st and intellectuals& research a%ean the !enerali ation of ne+ theories.


5/175

Thus, research is the foundation ofknowledge for the sake of knowledge andimportant source of providing guidelines forsolving di erent business, governmental andsocial problems. It is a sort of formal trainingwhich enables to understand the newdevelopment in ones eld in a better way.

M7T'9AT'7 ' R;";ARCH: 't is often as,ed that +h% the people conduct

Research< This 6uestion is of funda entali portance and so e of the possi(le oti$esof research a% (e one or ore of the

follo+in!: 1i2 Desire to !et a research de!ree)certi*cate

alon! +ith its conse6uential (ene*ts.


6/175

Desire to !et intellectual /o%. Desire to (e of ser$ice to societ%. Desire to !et respecta(ilit%. Ho+e$er& this is not a co plete list of

factors oti$atin! people to underta,eresearch studies.

Major Types o Research 1i2 Applied $s 4unda ental research.1ii2=uantitati$e $s =ualitati$e research.

1iii2 5usiness $s "ocial research. These are de*ned as (elo+:

1i2 Research can either (e applied 1oraction2 research or funda ental 1(asicor pure2 research.


7/175

Applied research ai s at sol$in! an i ediate1current2 pro(le facin! a societ% or a(usiness) industrial or!anisation. >hereas

funda ental research is concerned +ith!enerali ation and for ulation of a theor%.

'n si ple +ords& !atherin! ,no+led!e for,no+led!e s sa,e is called ?pure or ?(asic

research@ +hile research concernin! so e(asic pheno enon or relatin! to pureMathe atics are e a ples of funda entalresearch.

"i ilarl%& research studies concernin! hu an(eha$ior carried out +ith a $ie+ to a,e!enerali ations a(out hu an (eha$ior are also


8/175

e a ples of funda ental research& (utresearch ai ed at certain conclusions

1sa%& a solution2 facin! a concrete socialor (usiness pro(le is an e a ple ofapplied research.

5oth (asic 3 applied research ha$e to (ecarried out in a scienti*c anner so thatthe *ndin!s or results !enerated (% thecan (e relied upon to e ecti$el% sol$e thepro(le in$esti!ated. 't is& ho+e$er&possi(le that so e applied research a%ha$e so e shorter ti e fra e than so e(asic research.


9/175

1ii2 =uantitati$e $s =ualitati$e Research:=uantitati$e research is (ased on

easure ent of 6uantit% or a ount. 't is

applied to pheno ena that can (ee pressed in ter s of 6uantit%. =uantitati$eresearch atte pts precise easure ent ofso ethin!.

'n (usiness research& 6uantitati$eethodolo!ies usuall% easure consu er(eha$ior& ,no+led!e& opinions& or attitudes."uch ethodolo!ies ans+er 6uestions

related to ho+ uch& ho+ an%& ho+ often&+hen and +ho. ote sur$e% is considered ado inant ethodolo!% of 6uantitati$eresearch.


10/175

7n the other hand& =ualitati$e research isconcerned +ith 6ualitati$e pheno enon&i.e. a pheno enon relatin! or in$ol$in!

6ualit% or ,ind. =ualitati$e researchincludes& perception of people to+ards li,e3 disli,e of an% (rand& +ord associationtests and si ilar other pro/ecti$e

techni6ues. 1iii2 5usiness and "ocial Research:

5usiness research can (e descri(ed as as%ste atic and or!anised e ort to

in$esti!ate a speci*c pro(leencountered in the +or, settin!& +hichneeds a solution. 't co prises a series ofsteps that are desi!ned 3 e ecuted +ith

the !oal of *ndin!


11/175

Ans+ers to the issues that are of concernto the Mana!er in the +or, en$iron ent."peci*call%& (usiness research can (ede*ned as an or!anised& s%ste atic& data-(ased& o(/ecti$e scienti*c in6uir%& orin$esti!ation into a speci*c pro(le &underta,en +ith the purpose of *ndin!ans+ers or solutions to it.

'n essence& research pro$ides thenecessar% infor ation that !uideMana!ers to a,e infor ed decisions tosuccessfull% deal +ith pro(le s. Theinfor ation pro$ided could (e the result ofa careful anal%sis of data !athered *rst-hand or of data that are alread% a$aila(le1in't a% (e noted that data can (e6uantitati$e or 6ualitati$e


12/175

1in the co pan%& industr%& archi$es& etc.2. 'ta% (e noted that data can (e 6uantitati$e

or 6ualitati$e.

Generally business research can beundertaken or two purposes:

. To sol$e a current pro(le faced (% theMana!er in the +or, settin! that is called

applied research. B. To !enerate a (od% of ,no+led!e a(out

ho+ to sol$e pro(le s that could (e occurredin or!anisations. This is called (asic research

or funda ental research. 't is also ,no+n aspure research. ; a ple of h%pothesis: ; perience is

positi$el% related to /o( perfor ance.


13/175

02/16/16 13

Definition of Various Concepts used in Research

Variable

QualitativeVariable

Quantitative Variable

DiscreteVariable

ContinuousVariable


14/175

Variable:

Any characteristic of interest which takes on different values is called variable. Forexample: production, cost, temperature, sale of a market, consumption, price of a

commodity at different locations etc.Variable is broadly divided into qualitative

and quantitative variables.

Qualitative and Quantitative Variables

A variable is defined to be qualitative which is not capable of numerical measurement

but one can feel the presence or absence of a particular phenomena. For

example, honesty, beauty, race, like and dislike, pass or fail, gender

classification etc.

A variable is defined to be quantitative which is capable of numerical measurement.

For example, cost of production, price of a commodity, monthly consumption of

households etc.

02/16/16 14



15/175

Discrete and Continuous Variables

A variable is said to be discrete if it takes isolated integral values or a

variable which take the values on umps is called a discrete

variable. For example, number of rooms in a house, number of

students in the class, number of !anks in different cities, si"e of a

household, number of shops in a market etc.

A type of variable which takes all possible values with in a giveninterval#range $a, b%. For example, consumption, production,

temperature, monthly sale of a market, height, weight and age etc.

02/16/16 15



16/175

Classif% the $aria(les as discrete orcontinuous 1i2 The a ount of il, produced (% a co+.

1ii2The nu (er of heads in the toss of coins. 1iii2The life ti es of tele$ision tu(es produced (%

"on%. 1i$2The nu (er of petals on a o+er.

1$2Hourl% te perature of 'sla a(ad recorded (% Met.7Ece. 1$i2Total e!!s laid (% a hen in a onth. 1$ii2 A ount of C G)petrol *lled in cars at a pu p. 1$iii2 The %earl% inco e of a uni$ersit% professor. 1i 2Ti e ta,en to score the *rst !oal in a foot(all

atch 1 2 o. of !oals scored in each of F0 foot(all atches.


17/175

&. 'ependent Variable

(. )ndependent Variable

*. +oderating Variable

. +ediating or )ntervening Variable

02/16/16 17

Other Variables in Research


18/175

Dependent and Independent Variables

A type of variable which is influenced by other variable#variables is called

dependent variable. )t is also called random or stochastic variable. -

A variable which depends on one or more other variables is called dependent

variable. -

A variable of primary interest that lends itself for investigation as a function of

other cause variables is known as dependent variable.

02/16/16 18



19/175

For example, in economics, consumption of a commodity $say apple%

depends upon the income, household si"e, and price etc of the

commodity.

)n this example, consumption of apple is a dependent variable whichwill vary from one family to other family/ while the other variables

like income, household si"e and price are independent variables.

A variable which influence a dependent variable in either direction

$positive or negative% is called independent variable.

02/16/16 19



20/175

Moderating Variable:

A variable which modify the original relationship is called moderating variable.-r

A variable that has a strong contingent or contributory effect on the relationship

between dependent and independent variables, is called moderating

variable.For example, Amount of study in terms of study hours affect the grades, however,

those student consulting quality information for the purpose may even

perform much better as compared to others students. )n this example, it is

evident that quality information is a moderating variable which is notconsidered in the research study but have contributory effect on the final

grades, so called moderating variable.

02/16/16 20



21/175

Moderating Variable:A variable which modify the original relationship is called moderating variable.

-r

A variable that has a strong contingent or contributory effect on the relationship

between dependent and independent variables, is called moderatingvariable.

For example, Amount of study in terms of study hours affect the grades,

however, those student consulting quality information for the purpose may

even perform much better as compared to others students. )n this example,it is evident that quality information is a moderating variable which is not

considered in the research study but have contributory effect on the final

grades, so called moderating variable.

02/16/16 Dr. Yousaf Hayat 21

Other Variables in Business Research

Amount of Study hours

(Independent var !

"inal #rade$est score

(Dependent var !

Quality Information

(%oderatin# var !


22/175

Intervening Variable:A variable that surfaces between the time the independent variable starts

operating to influence the dependent variable and its impact is felt on it, is

called intervening variable.

02/16/16 22

Amount of Study hours

(Independent var !

"inal #rade&$est score

(Dependent var !

Input 'no led#e In %emory

(Intervenin# var !



23/175

Research Process Research process consists of series of actions

or steps necessar% to e ecti$el% carr% outresearch and the desired se6uencin! of thesesteps. 't a% (e noted that the nu (er of stepsdescri(ed (% di erent authors)researchers$aries (et+een to 0. Ho+e$er& researchprocess in$ol$es a se6uence of hi!hl% inter-related acti$ities& therefore& research oftenfollo+s a !eneral pattern. The follo+in!steps)sta!es +ell descri(e a research process.

. De*ne research pro(le )Research o(/ecti$es. B.Re$ie+ the literature or iterature sur$e%.


24/175

. 4or ulate h%potheses. I. Research Desi!n 1includin! sa ple desi!n2. F. Collectin! the data 1e ecution2. . Anal%sin! the data 1Test h%potheses if an%2. J. 'nterpret and report.

1. Research roble!: 'n research process& the *rst 3 fore ost step

happens to (e that of selectin! 3 properl%de*nin! a research pro(le . i,e a edical

doctor& a researcher ust e a ine all thes% pto s 1presented to hi or o(ser$ed (%hi 2 concernin! a pro(le (efore he candia!nose correctl%.


25/175

't is pertinent to ention that scienti*c research!enerall% starts +ith a (road area pro(le area+ith a de*nite ai or purpose. 'n (usiness& theresearch process in$ol$es translatin! the(usiness decision situation into speci*cresearch o(/ecti$es.

The (road pro(le area is identi*ed throu!h theprocess of o(ser$in! 3 focusin! on the speci*c

situation. A pro(le does not necessaril% i pl%that so ethin! is seriousl% +ron! +ith a currentsituation that needs to (e recti*ed. "o ee a ples of (road area pro(le are: 4re6uentproduction interruptions& lac, of interest ofe plo%ees in their +or,& trainin! pro!ra areperhaps not as e ecti$e as anticipated or thesales $olu e of a product is droppin! and so on.


26/175

To *nd solutions for identi*ed pro(le s& a pro(lestate ent that states the !eneral o(/ecti$e of theresearch should (e de$eloped. 't eans once +e

ha$e identi*ed the (road area pro(le area& itneeds to (e narro+ed do+n to a speci*c pro(lestate ent after so e preli inar% infor ation is!athered (% researcher.

4or e a ple& if it is o(ser$ed that a co pan% islosin! custo ers& the preli inar% infor ation!atherin! in$ol$es the see,in! of infor ation indepth& of +hat is o(ser$ed. This could (e done (% aliterature re$ie+ 1literature on custo er s+itchin!2

or (% tal,in! to se$eral people in the +or, settin!&to clients 1+h% do the% s+itch2& or to other rele$antsources& there(% !atherin! infor ation on +hat ishappenin! and +h%.


27/175

Thus +e !et an idea of the situation andconse6uentl% this allo+s us to de$elop a speci*cpro(le state ent.

The research pro(le underta,en for stud% ust(e carefull% selected. Help a% (e ta,en fro aresearch !uide in this connection. e$ertheless&e$er% researcher ust *nd his o+n sal$ation forresearch pro(le cannot (e (orro+ed. A researchpro(le ust sprin! fro the researcher s indli,e a plant sprin!in! fro its o+n seed. 'f our e%esneed !lasses& it is not the optician alone +hodecides a(out the nu (er of lens +e re6uire. >e

ha$e to see oursel$es 3 ena(le hi to prescri(efor us the ri!ht nu (er (% cooperatin! +ith hi . Thus& a research !uide can at the ost onl% help aresearcher choose a su(/ect.


28/175

't is desira(le to a,e a !ood pro(le state ent(ecause pro(le state ent introduces the ,e%pro(le that is addressed in the researchpro/ect. A pro(le state ent is clear& precise 3to the point state ent of the speci*c issue that aresearcher +ishes to in$esti!ate. There are three,e% criteria to assess the 6ualit% of the pro(lestate ent: it should (e rele$ant& feasi(le 3interestin!. A fe+ e a ples of +ell-de*nedpro(le state ent are:

Has the social edia ad$ertisin! essa!eresulted in enhanced recallhat are the e ects of do+nsi in! on the lon!-ran!e !ro+th patterns of co paniesednesda%& there

a% (e no one a(sent. Ran!e fro ?0 to ?all(ein! .. 1iii2 Moti$ation: The le$els of oti$ation of e (ers

in the class or in a +or, tea i!ht ta,e on $ar%in!$alues ran!in! fro L$er% lo+ to L$er% hi!h . Thus

oti$ation is a $aria(le. ; ercises: A researcher +ants to increase the

perfor ance of (an, e plo%ees in a particular


36/175

5ranch. >hat is the dep. 9ar. in this caseor,in! h%pothesis is atentati$e assu ption ade in order to dra+out 3 test its lo!ical or e piricalconse6uences. As such the anner in +hichresearch h%potheses are de$eloped isparticularl% i portant since the% pro$ide thefocal point for research. The de$elop ent of+or,in! h%pothesis pla%s an i portant role.

H%pothesis should (e $er% speci*c 3 li ited topiece of research in hand (ecause it has to (etested.


43/175

Directional and nondirectionalh%potheses

>hile descri(in! the relationship (et+een t+o $ari-

a(les or co parin! t+o !roups& ter s such aspositi$e& ne!ati$e& ore than& less than& 3 the li,eare used& then these are directional h%potheses ()cthe direction of the relationship ()+ the $aria(les1O positi$e)-ne!ati$e2 is indicated. 4or e a ple& seethe follo+in! state ent:

LThe !reater the stress e perienced in the /o(&the lo+er the /o( satisfaction of e plo%ees .

"i iarl%& the nature of the di erence ()+ t+o !roups

on a $aria(le 1 ore than)less than2 is postulated as:L>o en are ore oti$ated than en .


44/175

7n the other hand& nondirectional h%potheses arethose that do postulate a relationship ordi erence& (ut o er no indication of direction ofthese relationship s or di erences. 'n other+ords& thou!h it a% (e speculated that there is asi!ni*cant relationship ()+ t+o $aria(les& +e a%not (e a(le to sa% +hether the relationship is

positi$e or ne!ati$e. 4or e a ple& see thefollo+in! state ent)h%pothesis: LThere is arelationship ()+ /o( and satisfaction

i,e+ise& e$en if +e can assu e that there +ill (e

di erences ()+ t+o !roups on a particular$aria(le& +e a% not (e a(le to sa% +hich !roup+ill (e ore 3 +hich less on that $aria(le. 4ore a ple& see the


45/175

follo+in! h%pothesis:LThere is a di erence ()+ the +or, ethic

$alues of ;uropean and Asian e plo%ees . ondirectional h%potheses are for ulated either

()c the relationships or di erences ha$e ne$er(een e plored 3 hence there is no (asis forindicatin! the direction& or ()c there ha$e (een

con ictin! *ndin!s in pre$ious research studies onthe $aria(le. 'n so e studies a positi$erelationship i!ht ha$e (een found& +hile inothers a ne!ati$e relationship i!ht ha$e (eentraced. Hence& the current researcher i!htonl% (e a(le to h%pothesi e that there is a si!-ni*cant relationship & (ut the direction a% not (eclear. 'n such cases& the h%potheses can (e stated


46/175

ondirectionall%. >hene$er the direction of the relationship is ,no+n&

it is (etter to de$elop directional h%potheses. &hat 's ( )ypothesis* 7rdinaril%& +hen one tal,s

a(out h%pothesis& one si pl% eans a ereassu ption or so e supposition to (e pro$ed ordispro$ed. 5ut for a researcher h%pothesis is afor al 6uestion that he intends to resol$e. Ah%pothesis can (e de*ned as a tentati$e& %ettesta(le& state ent& +hich predicts +hat %oue pect to *nd in %our e pirical data. H%potheses

are deri$ed fro theor% on +hich %our conceptualodel is (ased 3 are often relational in nature."e$eral testa(le state ents or h%potheses can (edra+n fro theoretic. fra e+or,.


47/175

)ypothesis+ ,ull and (lternate)ypotheses : 'tis pertinent to note that a h%pothesis can (ede*ned as a testa(le state ent of therelationship a on! $aria(les. A h%pothesis canalso test +hether there are di erences ()+ t+o!roups 1or a on! se$eral !roups2 +ith respect to

an% $aria(le or $aria(les. To e a ine +hether or notthe assu ed relationship s or di erences e ist&these h%potheses can (e set as propositions asunder:

; plo%ees +ho are ore health% +ill ta,e sic, lea$eless fre6uentl%.

'f e plo%ees are ore health%& then the% +ill ta,esic, lea$e less fre6uentl%.


48/175

"tudents +ho recei$e counsellin! +ill sho+ a!reater increase in creati$it% than students notrecei$in! counsellin!.

The auto o(ile A is perfor in! as +ell asauto o(ile 5.

ull and Alternate H%potheses: 'f +e are toco pare ethod A +ith 5 a(out its superiorit% 3

if +e proceed on the assu ption that (othethods are e6uall% !ood& then this assu ption

is ter ed as the null h%pothesis. As a!ainst this&+e a% thin, that the ethod A is superior or the

ethod 5 is inferior& it is ter ed as alternate oralternati$e h%pothesis. A null h%pothesis 1H 02 is ah%pothesis set up to (e re/ected in order tosupport an alternate h%pothesis&


49/175

la(eled H A. >hen used& the null h%pothesis ispresu ed true until statistical e$idence& inthe for of a h%pothesis test& indicatesother+ise. A null h%pothesis shouldal+a%s (e precise such as La dru! isine ecti$e in curin! a particular

disease or Lthe di erence ()+ the t+o teachin!

ethods is null or ero

Lad$ertisin! does not a ect sales L en 3 +o en (u% e6ual a ounts of

shoes


50/175

Moderator 3 ediator $aria(les 'n !eneral ter s& a oderator is a 6ualitati$e 1e.!.

se & race& class2 or 6uantitati$e 1e.!.& le$el of re+ard2$aria(le that a ects the direction and)or stren!th ofrelation ()+ an independent 3 a dependent $aria(le.

Mediator $aria(le: 'n !eneral& a !i$en $aria(le a%(e said to function as a ediator to the e tent that itaccounts for the relation ()+ the predictor 3 depen-dent $aria(le. >hereas oderator $aria(les specif%+hen certain e ects +ill hold& ediators spea, toho+ or +h% such e ects occur.

Another +a% to thin, a(out this issue is that a ode-rator $aria(le is one that in uences the stren!th of a


51/175

relationship ()+ t+o other $aria(les& and aediator $aria(le is one that e plains the

relationship ()+ the t+o other $aria(les.


52/175

02/16/16 52

RESEARC DESI!"


53/175

After the researcher has for ulated theresearch pro(le & he or she ust de$elop

the research desi!n as part of the researchdesi!n sta!e. A research desi!n is aaster plan that speci*es the ethods 3

procedures for collectin! 3 anal%sin! the

needed infor ation.


54/175

02/16/16 54

'ecisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning

an inquiry or a research study constitutes a research design. #R

esearch design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of

data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose

with economy in procedure. )n fact, the research design is the conceptual

structure within which research is conducted. )t constitutes the blueprint

for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. +ore explicitly, the

design decisions happen to be in respect of:

%eanin# of Research Desi#n

% i # f R h D i#


55/175

02/16/16 55

$i%. what is the study about0

$ii%. why is the study being made0

$iii%. where will the study be carried out0

$iv%. what type of data is required0

$v%. where can the required data be found0

$vi%. what periods of time will the study include0

$vii%. what will be the sample design0

$viii%. what techniques of data collection will be used0

$ix%. how will the data be analy"ed0

$x%. in what style will the report be prepared0


% i # f R h D i#


56/175

02/16/16 56

1eeping in view the above $i% to $x%, one may split the overall research design into the

following parts:

$a%&2he sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed

for the given study/

$b%&2he observational design which relates to the conditions under which the

observations are to be made/

$c%.2he statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be

observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analy"ed/ and

$d%&2he operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures

specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.


I t t " t f R h D i#


57/175

02/16/16 57

I'portant features of a research design are:

&. )t is a plan that specifies the sources and types of informationrelevant to the research problem.

(. )t is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering

and analy"ing the data.

*. )t also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done

under these two constraints.

In su' up , a research design must at least contain a clear statement of the

research problem, procedures and techniques used for gatheringinformation#data, the population to be studied, and the methods to be

used in processing and analy"ing the data.

Important "eatures of Research Desi#n


58/175

02/16/16 58

!efore going to conduct a research, a research design is needed because it

facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations,

thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal

information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.

For example, to construct an economical and attractive construction of ahouse, one should consult an architect or an expert for making a map

so that all the necessary things for its construction are highlighted.

3imilarly, we need a research design or a plan in advance of data collectionand analysis methods for research pro ect keeping in view the

ob ectives, time and labours required.

)eed for Research Desi#n

f


59/175

02/16/16 59

2herefore, 4 esearch design stands for advance planning of the

methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the

techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the

ob ective of the research and the availability of staff, time and

money5. 2he research design helps the researcher to organi"e his

ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him#her to look for

flaws and inadequacies. 6ithout proper and accurate research

design, it will be difficult to provide a comprehensive review ofthe proposed study $research%.

)eed for Research Desi#n

"eatures of a *ood Desi#n


60/175

02/16/16 60

Following are the features of a good research design:

&. Flexible (. Appropriate *. 7fficient . 7conomical and so on

8enerally, the design which minimi"es bias and maximi"es the reliability of the

collected data and analy"ed is considered a good design. 2he design which

gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design inmany investigations.

3imilarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity

for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most

appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems.

eatures of a *ood Desi#n

" f * d D i#


61/175

02/16/16 61

An appropriate research design for a particular research problem

usually involves the consideration of the following factors:

the means of obtaining information

the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any

the ob ectives of the problem to be studied

the nature of the problem to be studied

the availability of time and money for conducting a research

"eatures of a *ood Desi#n

D l i # R h l


62/175

02/16/16 62

Arrange'ent of ideas in the for' of an e(peri'ental plan is called a research plan& Research plan

contains the following prere)uisites:

esearch ob ectives should be clearly stated in line.

3tated the problem explicitly so that one may know what information is to be obtained for

solving the problem.

7ach ma or concept which a researcher wants to measure should be defined in operational terms

in context of the research problem.

2he plan should contain the methods to be used in solving the problem.

2he plan must contain the details of the techniques to be adopted. For example, if interview

method is used for data collection it should be written as such. 9rocedure for quantifying the data

must also be given.

niverse of the population, sampling plan, selection of appropriate sample si"e etc should be

selected in such a way that all these are feasible.

9rocessing of data should also be a part of the sampling plan.

esults of the pilot test, if any, should be reported. 2ime and cost budgets for the research pro ect

should also be prepared and laid down in the plan.

Developin# a Research +lan

Important Concepts Relatin# $o Research Desi#n


63/175

02/16/16 63

!efore starting the research design, it would be appropriate to explain various concepts

for easy understanding relating to design. )t includes the following: 'ependent and independent variables:

7xtraneous variable:

esearch hypothesis:

7xperimental and non;experimental testing of hypothesis: 7xperimental and


64/175

Research H%pothesis >hen a prediction or h%pothesised relationship is

to (e tested (% scienti*c ethods& it is ter ed asresea-rch h%pothesis. The research h%pothesis is apredicti$e state ent that relates a dependent$aria(le to a dependent $aria(le. #suall% a

research h%pothesis ust contain& at least& oneindependent 3 one dependent $aria(le. Predicti$estate ent +hich are not to (e o(/ecti$el% $eri*edor the relationships that are assu ed (ut not to(e tested& are not ter ed research h%pothesis.

- peri!ental / control group: 'n ane peri ental h%pothesis-testin! research +hen a!roup is e posed


65/175

To usual conditions& it is ter ed a ?control!roup & (ut +hen a !roup is e posed to so e

no$el or special condition& it is ter ed an?e peri ental !roup . 4or e a ple& suppose aresearcher rando l% selects F0 students fro a!roup of students +ho are to ta,e a course instatistics 3 then di$ides the into B !roups (%rando l% assi!nin! BF to !roup A& the usualstudies pro!ra & 3 BF to !roup 5& the specialstudies pro!ra . Here& the !roup A can (ecalled a control !roup 3 the !roup 5 ane peri ental !roup. 'f (oth !roups A 3 5 aree posed to special studies pro!ra & then (oth!roups +ould (e ter ed ?e peri ental !roups .

R h h d 3 h


66/175

Research ethods 3 researchethodolo!%

't is i portant to e plain the di erence ()+ research

ethods 3 research ethodolo!%.Research ethoda% (e understood as all those ethods)techni6ues

that are used for conduction of research. Researchethods or techni6ues& thus& refer to the ethods

the researchers use in perfor in! research operatio-ns. 'n other +ords& all those ethods +hich are used(% the researcher durin! the course of stud%in! hisresearch pro(le are ter ed as research ethods.

R;";ARCH M;TH7D7 7GN: Research ethodolo!% is

a +a% to s%ste aticall% sol$e the research pro(le .'t a% (e understood as a science of stud%in! ho+

research is done scienti*call% 'n it +e stud% the


67/175

research is done scienti*call%. n it +e stud% the$arious steps that are !enerall% adopted (% aresear-cher in stud%in! his research pro(le

alon! +ith the lo!ic (ehind the . 't is necessar%for the researcher to ,no+ not onl% the researchethods)techni6ues (ut also the ethodolo!%.

>e can sa% that research ethodolo!% has

an% di ensions 3 research ethods doconstitute a part of the research ethodolo!%. The scope of research ethodolo!% is +iderthan that of research ethods. Thus& +hen +e

tal, of research ethodolo!% +e not onl% tal, ofresearch ethods (ut also consider the lo!ic(ehind the ethods +e use in the conte t of ourstud%.


68/175

=uantitati$e 3 =ualitati$e desi!ns The 6uantitati$e-6ualitati$e classi*cation is

dependent on criteria: 1i2 the purpose of stud%& 1ii2Ho+ the $aria(les are

easured@ 3 1iii2 ho+ the infor ation is anal%sed. The stud% is classi*ed as 6ualitati$e if: the purpose

of the stud% is pri aril% to descri(e a situation&pheno- enon& pro(le or e$ent@ the infor ation is!athered throu!h the use of $aria(les easuredon no inal or ordinal scales 16ualitati$e

easure ent scales2@ 3 if anal%sis is done toesta(lish the $ariation in the situation&pheno enon or pro(le +ithout 6uantif%in! it.

The description of an o(ser$ed


69/175

situation& the historical enu eration of e$ents& anaccount of the di erent opinions people ha$ea(out an issue& 3 a description of li$in! conditionsof a co unit%& are e a ples of 6ualitati$eresearch.

7n the other hand& if +e +ant to 6uantif% the$ariat-ion in a pheno enon& situation& pro(le orissue& if infor ation is !athered usin!predo inantl% 6uantit-ati$e $aria(les& 3 if theanal%sis is !eared to ascertain the a!nitude ofthe $ariation & the stud% is classi*ed as

6uantitati$e stud%. ; a ples of 6uantitati$easpects of a research stud% are: Ho+ an% peopleha$e a particular pro(le < Ho+ an% people holda particular attitudehere the o(ser$er has a predeter ined set ofcate!ories of acti$ities or pheno enon to (estudied& it is a structured o(ser$ational stud%.

7n the other hand& at the (e!innin! of a stud%& itis possi(le that the o(ser$er has no de*nite ideas

re!ardin! the particular aspects that need focus.7(ser$in! e$ents as the% occur a% also (e a partof the plan& as in an% 6ualitati$e studies. 'n suchcases & the o(ser$er +ill record practicall%e$er%thin! that is o(ser$ed. "uch a stud% is anunstructured o(ser$a-tional stud%. #nstructuredo(ser$ational studies are clai ed to (e thehall ar, of 6ualitati$e research.

" th th d f i % d t


82/175

"o e other ethods of pri ar% datacollection include & consu er panels@ usin!

echanical de$ices@ throu!h pro/ecti$etechni6ues@ and depth inter$ie+s etc.

'nter$ie+ Method


83/175

nter$ie+ Method The inter$ie+ ethod of collectin! data in$ol$es

presentation of oral-$er(al sti uli 3 repl% in ter sof oral-$er(al responses. This ethod can (e usedthrou!h personal inter$ie+s and& if possi(le&throu!h telephone inter$ie+s.

1a2 Personal interviews : Personal inter$ie+ ethod

re6uires a person ,no+n as the inter$ie+er as,in!6uestions !enerall% in a face-to-face contact to theother person or persons. At ti es the inter$ie+ee

a% also as, certain 6uestions 3 the inter$ie+erre-sponds to these& (ut usuall% the inter$ie+erinitiates the inter$ie+ 3 collects the infor ation.

This sort of inter$ie+ a% (e in the for of directpersonal

in$esti!ation or it a% (e direct oral in$esti!ation.


84/175

( Structured !nstructured Interviews : The ethod of collectin! infor ation throu!h

perso-nal inter$ie+s is usuall% carried out in astructured +a%. As such +e call the inter$ie+s asstructured interviews. "uch inter$ie+s in$ol$e theuse of a set of predeter ined 6uestions 3 of hi!hl%standardised techni6ues of recordin!. As a!ainst it&the unstructur" ed interviews are characterised (%a e i(ilit% of app-roach to 6uestionnin!.#nstructured inter$ie+s do not follo+ a s%ste ofpre-deter ined 6uestions 3 standardisedtechni6ues of recordin! infor ation.

1(2 Telephone interviews# This ethod of collectin!infor ation consists in contactin! respondents on

telephone itself. 't is not a $er% +idel% used


85/175

pethod& (ut pla%s i portant part in industrial

sur$e%s & partic-ularl% in de$eloped re!ions.

"ollection o 0ata through 2uestionnaires : This ethod of data collection is 6uite popular&

parti-cularl% in case of (i! en6uires. 't is (ein!adopted (% pri$ate indi$iduals& research

+or,ers& pri$ate 3 pu(lic or!anisations 3 e$en(% !o$ern ents. 'n this ethod a 6uestionnaireis sent 1usuall% (% post2 to the person concerned+ith a re6uest to ans+er the 6uestions 3 return

the 6uestionnaire. A 6uestionna-ire consists of anu (er of 6uestions printed or t%ped in ade*nite order on a for or set of for s.

The ethod of collectin! data (% ailin! the


86/175

The ethod of collectin! data (% ailin! the6uestio-naires to respondents in ost e tensi$el%e plo%ed in $arious econo ic 3 (usiness sur$e%s.

Main Aspects of a Questionnaire : =uite often a 6uestionnaire is considered as a heart

of a sur$e% operation. Hence it should (e $er%caref-ull% constructed. 'f it is not properl% set up&

then the sur$e% is (ound to fail. This fact re6uiresus to stud% the ain aspects of a 6uestionnaire $i .&the $eneral form, %uestion se&uence %uestionformulation wording.

'. $eneral form# "o for as the !eneral for of a6ues-tionnaire is concerned& it can either (estructured or

unstructured 6uestionnaire. "tructured


87/175

unstructured 6uestionnaire. tructured6uestionaires are those 6uestionnaires in +hichthere are de*nite& concrete 3 pre-deter ined

6uestions. >hen these characteristics are notpresent in a 6uestionnaire& it can (e ter ed asunstructured or non-structured 6uestionnaire.

B. %uestion se&uence# 'n order to a,e the

6uestion-naire e ecti$e 3 to ensure 6ualit% to thereplies rec-ei$ed& a researcher should pa%attention to the 6uestion-se6uence in preparin!the 6uestionnaire. The openin! 6uestions should(e such as to arouse hu an interest. =uestions ofa personal character or related to personal +ealthshould !enerall% (e a$oid-ed as openin! 6uestionsin a 6uestionnaire.

%uestion formulation wording :


88/175

. %uestion formulation wording : >ith re!ard to this aspect of

6uestionnaire& the rese-archer should notethat each 6uestion ust (e $er% clear foran% sort of isunderstandin! can doirrepar-a(le har to a sur$e%. =uestions

should also (e i partial in order not to!i$e a (iased picture of the true state ofa airs.

Collection of "econdar% data


89/175

Collection of econdar% data "econdar% data eans data that are alread% a$aila(le

i.e. the% refer to the data +hich ha$e alread% (eencollected 3 anal%sed (% so eone else. "econdar% dataare indispensa(le for ost or!anisational resea-rch

There are se$eral sources of secondar% data. "o ei portant sources are discussed (elo+:

1i3 Go$ern!ent / Se!i4go$ern!ent publications: There are an% !o$t. 3 se i-!o$t. or!anisations that

collect data on a re!ular (asis in a $ariet% of areas 3pu(lish it for use (% e (ers of the pu(lic 3 intere-st!roups. "o e co on e a ples are: the census& $ital

statistics re!istration& la(our force sur$e%s& healthreports& econo ic forecasts& de o!raphic

'nfor ation& Pu(lications of the "tatistics di$ision&


90/175

( $M)o 4inance&4ood 3 A!riculture& 'ndustr%& la(our&the 4edural 3 pro$incial 5ureaus of "tatistics& "tate

5an, of Pa,istan& Central cotton co ittee& stoc,e chan-!e& Rail+a% 5oard 3 District councils etc. 1ii2 Research rganisations: Man% or!anisations collect 3 store a $ariet% of data

to support their operations: for e a ple& pa%rolldet-ails&copies of letters& inutes of eetin!s 3accounts of sales of !oods or ser$ices. Consu erresearch or!anisations collect data that are usedsu(se6uentl% (% di erent clients. Tradeor!anisations collect data fro their e (ers ontopics such as sales that are


91/175

su(se6uentl% a!!re!ated 3 pu(lished. 1iii2 ;arlier research: 4or so e topics& an enor ous nu (er of research

studies that ha$e alread% (een done (% others canpro$ide %ou +ith the re6uired infor ation.

1i$2 Personal records: "o e people +rite historical 3 personal records

that a% pro$ide the infor ation %ou need. 1$2 Mass edia: Reports pu(lished in ne+spapers& a!a ines&

(oo,s etc. a% (e another source of data. 4ore a ple& 6ua lit% dail% ne+spapers contain a+ealth of data& inclu-din! reports a(out ta,e o$er(ids 3 co panies share

prices.


92/175

p 1$i2 #ni$ersities 3 other 'nstitutions: Reports prepared (% research scholars 3 econo ists

etc. in uni$ersities 3 other such institutions indi erent *elds of acti$ities.

Pro(le s +ith usin! data fro "econdar% sources: >hen usin! data fro secondar% sources& the resea-

rcher ust (e careful as there a% (e certainpro(le- s +ith the a$aila(ilit%& for at 3 6ualit% ofdata. The e tent of these pro(le s $aries frosource to source. >hile usin! such data& so eissues %ou should ,eep in ind are:

1i2 9alidit% 3 relia(ilit% of data: The $alidit% ofinfor -tion a% $ar% ar,edl% fro source tosource.

The relia(ilit% can (e tested (% *ndin! out such


93/175

The relia(ilit% can (e tested (% *ndin! out suchthin!s a(out the said data: 1a2 >ho collected thedata< 1(2 >hat are the sources of data< 1c2 >erethe% collected (% usin! proper ethods< 1d2 At+hat ti es +ere the% collected< 1e2 >as there an%(ias of the co plier< ote that the use ofinfor ation fro personal diaries& ne+spapers 3

a!a ines a% ha$e the pro(le of personal(ias. 1ii2 "uita(ilit% of data: The data that are suita(le for one en6uir% a% not

necessaril% (e suita(le in another en6uir%. Hence&if the a$aila(le data are found to (e unsuita(le&the% should not (e used (% the researcher.

1iii2 Ad 6 % f d


94/175

1iii2 Ade6uac% of data: 'f the le$el of accurac% achie$ed in data is

found ina-de6uate for the purpose of presenten6uir%& the% +ill (e considered as inade6uate3 should not (e used (% the researcher.

1i$2 4or at:

5efore decidin! to use data fro secondar%sources it is e6uall% i portant to ascertainthat the data are a$aila(le in the re6uiredfor at. 4or e a ple& %ou i!ht need toanal% e a!e in the cate!ories B - & I-I8etc.& (ut in %our source the a!e a% (ecate!ori ed di erentl%& e.!.& B -BI& BF-B & etc.


95/175

4ro all this +e can sa% that thealread% a$aila(le data should (e used(% the researcher onl% +hen he *ndsthe relia(le& suita(le and ade6uate.

l % " di R h


96/175

; plorator% "tudies or Research; plorator% research is research conducted

for a pro(le that has not (een clearl%de*ned. 't i plies that not uch is ,no+na(out the situation at hand& or no infor ationis a$aila(le on ho+ si ilar pro(le s orresearch issues ha$e (een sol$ed in the past.'n such cases& e tensi$e preli inar% +or,needs to (e done to !ain fa iliarit% +ith thepheno ena in the situation and understand+hat is occurrin!& (efore +e de$elop a odel.; plorator% research is also

Qno+n as for ulati$e research ; plorator%


97/175

Qno+n as for ulati$e research. ; plorator%research often relies on secondar% research

such as re$ie+in! literature and)or data& or6ualitati$e approaches such as infor aldecisions +ith consu ers& e plo%ees&

ana!e ent or co petitors& and ore

for al approaches throu!h in-depthinter$ie+s& focus !roups& pro/ecti$e ethod&case studies or pilot studies. ; tensi$einter$ie+s +ith an% people i!ht ha$e to(e underta,en to !et a handle on thesituation and understand the pheno enon.

"o e 6ualitati$e studies 1as opposed to


98/175

o e 6ualitati$e studies 1as opposed to6uantitati$e data !athered throu!h

6uestionnaire& etc.2 +here data are collectedthrou!h o(ser$ation or inter$ie+s& aree plorator% in nature. >hen the data re$ealsso e pattern re!ardin! the pheno enon of

interest& theories are de$eloped andh%pothesis for ulated for su(se6uent testin!e.!.& a co pan% inter$ie+ed ana!ers toe plore the nature of ana!erial +or,.

5ased on the anal%sis of their inter$ie+eddata& the% for ulated theories of

ana!erial roles& the nature and

t%pes of ana!erial acti$ities and so on


99/175

t%pes of ana!erial acti$ities and so on.; plorator% studies are also necessar% +hen

so e facts are ,no+n& (ut ore infor ationis needed for de$elopin! a $ia(le theoreticalfra e +or,. 4or instance +hen +e +ant to!et at the i portant factors that in uence

the de$elop ent of +o en in or!ani ations&pre$ious studies i!ht indicate that +o enare increasin!l% ta,in! on 6ualities such asasserti$eness& co petiti$eness 3independence. The results of e plorator%research are not usuall%

useful for decision a in! (% the sel$es&


100/175

useful for decision a,in! (% the sel$es&(ut the% can pro$ide si!ni*cant insi!ht into a

!i$en situation. Althou!h the results of6ualitati$e research can !i$e so e indicationas to the L+h% & Lho+ and L+henso ethin! occurs& it cannot tell us Lho+

often or Lho+ an% . ; plorator% researchis not t%picall% !enerali a-(le to thepopulation at lar!e. 'nsu & e plorator% studies are i portant for

o(tainin! a !ood !rasp of the pheno enonof interest and ad$ancin! ,no+led!e throu!h


101/175

su(se6uent theor% (uildin! andh%pothesis testin!. 'n si ple +ords&the o(/ecti$e of e plorator% research isto !ather preli inar% infor ation that+ill help de*ne pro(le s 3 su!!esth%potheses.

; planator% "tudies and Research


102/175

; planator% tudies and Research

"tudies that esta(lish causal relationships()+ $aria(les a% (e ter ed as e planator%research. ; planator% research is also ,no+nas casual research 1cause and e ect2.

; planator% research atte pts to classif%+h% and ho+ there is a relationship ()+ t+oaspects of a situation or pheno enon. Thist%pe of research atte pts to e plain& for

e a ple& +h% stressful li$in! results in heart-attac,s@ +h% a decline in ortalit% isfollo+ed (% a fertilit% decline@ or

ho+ the ho e en$iron ent a ects children s


103/175

ho+ the ho e en$iron ent a ects children sle$el of acade ic achie$e ent. et us considerone other e a ple& +here %ou a% *nd that acursor% anal%sis of 6uantitati$e data on

anufacturin! scrap rates sho+s a relationship()+ scrap rates and the a!e of achine (ein!operated. %ou could !o ahead and su(/ect thedata to statistical tests such as correlation inorder to !et clearer $ie+ of relationship.Alternati$el%& or in addition& collect 6ualitati$edata to e plain the reasons +h% custo er of%our co pan% rarel% pa% their (ills accordin! tothe prescri(ed pa% ent ter s.

Cross-sectional $ersus lon!itudinal


104/175

studies Cross-sectional studies: A stud% can (e underta,en

in +hich data are collected /ust once& perhaps o$era period of da%s& +ee,s or onths& in order toans+er a research 6uestion. "uch studies are calledone-shot or cross sectional studies. 4or e a ple& a

dru! co pan% desirous of in$estin! in research fora ne+ o(esit% pill & conducted a sur$e% a on!o(ese people to see ho+ an% of the +ould (einterest-ed in tr%in! the ne+ pill. This is a one-shotor cross-sectional stud% to assess the li,el% de andfor the ne+ product. The purpose of the stud% hereis to collect data that +ould (e pertinent to *ndin!the

ans+er to a research 6uestion. Data collection at


105/175

ans er to a research 6uestion. Data collection atone point in ti e is suEcient.

on!itudinal studies: 'n so e cases& the researcher i!ht +ant to stud%

people or pheno enon at ore than one point inti e in order to ans+er the research 6uestion. 4orinstance& the researcher i!ht +ant to stud%

e plo-%ees (eha$ior (efore 3 after a chan!e inthe top ana!e ent& so as to ,no+ +hat e ectsthe chan!e acco plished. Here& ()c data are!athered at t+o di erent points in ti e& the stud% isnot cross sectional& (ut is carried lon!itudinalacross a period of ti e. "uch studies& as +hen thedata on depende-nt $aria(le are !athered at t+o or

ore points in

i h h 6 i &


106/175

ti e to ans+er the research 6uestion& arecalled lon!itudinal studies.

A cross sectional stud% is e tre el% si plein desi!n. Nou decide +hat %ou +ant to

*nd out& identif% the stud% population&select a sa ple 1if %ou need to2& 3 contact%our respondents to *nd out the re6uiredinfor ation.

The incidence of H'9 positi$e cases in acountr%.

Collect data +hich ha$e not (eenor!ani ed nu ericall% are called raw data .4 l & h i!h f B0 d l%


107/175

4or e a ple& the +ei!ht of B0 rando l%selected students 1recorded to the nearest

,.! 2 fro a uni$ersit% is !i$en as (elo+.

Main di$ision of statistics


108/175

Main di$ision of statistics

1i2 Descripti$e "tatistics 1ii2 'nferential"tatistics

1i2 Descripti$e statistics is that (ranch ofstatistics +hich deals +ith concepts 3 ethodsconcerned +ith su ari ation 3 description ofthe i portant aspects of nu erical data. 'tconsists of condensation of data, their!raphical displa%s& co putation of nu erical6uantities such as speciali ed a$era!es& ratios&pro/ections 3 other easures +hich aid in

a,in! decisions.

1ii2 'nferential statistics or statistical


109/175

1ii2 nferential statistics or statisticalinference co prisin! those ethods

concerned +ith the anal%sis of a su(set1sa ple2 of data leadin! to predictions orinferences a(out the entire set of data1population2.

't in$ol$es the esti ation of populationpara eters and testin! of statisticalh%pothesis. This area of statistics is (asedon pro(a(ilit% theor%& and lies in the heartof statistics. ote that lar!er !roup of data1or the +hole2 is called population and onl%a part of data is ,no+n as sa ple. Theseare de*ned (elo+.

Population and "a ples


110/175

p p

A population or statistical population is acollection or set of all possi(leo(ser$ations +hether *nite or in*nite&ani ate or inani ate& rele$ant to so echaracteristic of interest. 'n e$er% da%

lan!ua!e& the +ord population eans allthe people in a speci*c area. Ho+e$er& the+ord population has a (roader eanin! instatistics. 4or e a ple& population of (an,accounts& all the houses in a cit%& all thestudents in a uni$ersit%& all the (oo,s in ali(rar%& all the patients in a hospital etc.

;ach indi$idual ite in a population is calledan ele!ent of the correspondin! population


111/175

an ele!ent of the correspondin! population. "tatistical population a% (e real such as the

hei!ht of colle!e students or h%potheticalsuch as all the possi(le outco es fro thetoss of a coin or thro+ of a dice.

A sa ple is a part or su(set of a population.

o. of o(ser$ations in a *nite population iscalled the si e of the population-denoted (%.

't consists of so e o(ser$ations or +hole ofthe population. The no. of o(ser$ations in asa ple is called the si e of the sa ple isdenoted (% n.

The infor ation deri$ed fro sa ple


112/175

data is used to dra+ conclusions a(outthe population for e a ple ..

PARAM;T;R 3 "TAT'"T'C A nu erical 6uantit% co puted fro a popn.

1i.e. data o(tained fro a popn.2 is called a

para eter& and is denoted (% Gree, letter 9alues of para eters are !enerall% un,no+n

(ut a% (e esti ated (% usin! certainesti ation ethod. 4or e a ple

A nu erical 6uantit% co puted fro asa ple& is called a statistic---- represented (%ordinar% atin letter.

The infor ation deri$ed fro sa ple


113/175

data to dra+ conclusions a(outthe popn. 4or e a ple

9AR'A5 ; 3 C7 "TA T A characteristics that $aries fro indi$idual

to indi$idual in a popn. 4or e a ple& a!e isa $aria(le as it $aries fro person toperson. "i ilarl%& other e a ple are .

Gi$en set of all possi(le $alues fro +hichthe $aria(le ta,es on $alue . do ain

Constant: 'f the do ain of a $aria(lecontains onl% one $alue then the $aria(le isreferred . Constant or * ed $alue

RA D7M 9AR'A5 ;


114/175

A $aria(le +hose $alue is o(tained (%chance---- or its $alue cannot (e e actl%

deter ined. 4or e a ple& suppose +e toss acoin t+ice and call heads on a toss a success10& &B2.

Here& the occurrence of a particular $alue is a

atter of chance& so the nu (er of heads is arando $aria(le. "i ilarl%& the su of dotso(tained +ith a pair of die ..e a ple of r.$.

=#A T'TA'9; A D =#A 'TAT'9; 9AR'A5 ; 9aria(les a% (e classi*ed into 6uantitati$e

and 6ualitati$e accordin! to the for ofcharacteristics of interest.

=uantitati$e $aria(le--------- nu erical $alue.


115/175

uantitati$e $aria(le nu erical $alue.4or e a ple .

=ualitati$e $aria(le------not capa(le of ta,in!nu erical easure ents. 4or e a ple&education& intelli!ence ..A 6ualitati$echaracteristic is also called an Attri(ute.

Another de*nition: A characteristic +hich$aries onl% in a!nitude fro one indi$idualto another is called a 6uantitati$e $aria(le.

A characteristic +hich $aries onl% in 6ualit%

fro one indi$idual to another is called a6ualitati$e $aria(le or an attri(ute.

o. of outco es +hen a pair of die is


116/175

rolled

51613 51673 51683 51693 516 3 516;3

1B& 2 1B&B2 1B& 2 1B&I2 1B&F2 1B& 2

1 & 2 1 &B2 1 & 2 1 &I2 1 &F2 1 & 2

1I& 2 1I&B2 1I& 2 1I&I2 1I&F2 1I& 2

1F& 2 1F&B2 1F& 2 1F&I2 1F&F2 1F& 21 & 2 1 &B2 1 & 2 1 &I2 1 &F2 1 & 2

Discrete and continuous


117/175

$aria(les A discrete $aria(le is one that can ta,e

onl% o(tained (% a discrete set of inte!ersor +hole nu (ers& that is the $alues areta,en (% /u ps. 't is o(tained (% the

operation of countin!. 4or e a ple& theo. of (oo,s and /ournals in a li(rar%& .. A continuous $aria(le is one that ta,e on

an% $alue-fractional or inte!ral-+ithin a!i$en inter$al. A continuous $aria(le iso(tained (% the process of easure ent.4or e a ple& speed

of car& the te perature of 'sla a(ad etc.

i d $


118/175

; peri ent and ;$ent The ter e peri ent eans a planned

acti$it% or process +hose results %ield a setof data. A sin!le perfor ance of ane peri ent is called a trial. An outco e of ane peri ent is called an e$ent. An e peri ent

+hich produces di erent results e$en thou!hit is repeated a lar!e nu (er of ti es underessentiall% si ilar conditions& is called arando e peri ent. 4or e a ple& tossin! ofa fair coin& dra+in! of a card fro a dec, ofFB pla%in! cards& thro+in! a dice etc

Pro(a(ilit%


119/175

Pro(a(ilit%

A pro(a(ilit% is a nu (er +hich eansrelati$e fre6uenc% of occurrence o$er the lon!run or e presses a de!ree of (elief. 'nco on lan!ua!e& +e use the +ord chance

rather than pro(a(ilit%. >hen +e sa% the pro(a(ilit% that a tossedcoin +ill land head up is F0S 1or 0.F2& +e areusin! the relati$e fre6uenc% eanin! ofpro(a(ilit%.

Pro(a(ilit% al+a%s lies (et+een 0 and 1non-ne!ati$e2. ote 0 eans 0S 3 eans 00S.

"i ple Rando "a ple


120/175

i ple Rando a ple

A si ple rando sa ple is one selected ina anner such that each ele ent of thepopulation has an e6ual chance of (ein!included in the sa ple.

Methods of selection of a ".R.". otter%s%ste )dra+& co puter etc.

".R. "a ples are i portant in the

de$elop ent of pro(a(ilit% and statisticalinference. "i ple rando sa ple 3rando sa ple are sa e.

Roundin! nu (ers


121/175

Roundin! nu (ers The process of roundin! o or si pl%

roundin! a nu (er eans that a certainnu (er of di!its counted fro the left& areto (e retained and the last fe+ di!its are to(e 1i2 dropped in a deci al nu (er or 1ii2

replaced +ith eros in a +hole nu (er. >eadopt Lchoose the closer con$ention inroundin! as e plained (elo+:

'f +e +ish to round JI. 8 to three di!its (%droppin! the 8& +e a% +rite the roundednu (er as either JI. or JI.J& +e chooseJI.J (ecause it is closer to JI. 8.

Ho+e$er& if FF.FI is to (e rounded to three


122/175

(di!its& +e +rite FF.F rather than FF. & +h%hen the di!it to (e dropped is e actl% F& orF follo+ed onl% (% eros& the acceptedpractice is to increase the last si!ni*cantdi!it (% one if it is odd& and to lea$eunaltered if it is e$en. 4or e a ple& thenu (ers I.F F and J .8F are rounded o si!ni*cant di!its as I.FI and J .8&respecti$el%. Thin, +h% ;'GHT 74 B0 "T#D; T"


130/175

Weight

97.5

92.5

87.5

82.5

77.5

72.5

67.5

62.5

57.5

52.5

47.5

30

20

10

0

Std. Dev = 9.46

Mean = 67.8N = 120.00

Histo!ra )4re6uenc% pol%!on


131/175

) p

H'"T7GRAM A D 7RMA C#R9;

74 >;'GHT 74 B0 "T#D; T"


132/175

74 >; GHT 74 B0 T#D; T

Weight

97.5

92.5

87.5

82.5

77.5

72.5

67.5

62.5

57.5

52.5

47.5

30

20

10

0

Std. Dev = 9.46

Mean = 67.8

N = 120.00

or al distri(ution


133/175

",e+ness 1de!ree of as% etr%2


134/175

Graphical displa% of s,e+ness1s% etrical 3 positi$el% s,e+ed2


135/175

Graphical displa% of s,e+ness1ne!ati$el% s e+ed2


136/175

1ne!ati$el% s,e+ed2

4or or al distri(ution:


137/175

a2 The inter$al -V 3 OV includes8.BJS of the cases)o(ser$ations.

The inter$al -BV 3 OBV includesF.IFS of the cases)o(ser$ations.

(2 The inter$al - V 3 O V includes.J S of the cases)o(ser$ations.

ote:- 4or oderatel% s,e+eddistri(ution the a(o$e percenta!eshold appro i atel%.

"cale of easure ents


138/175

1 2 ,o!inal :- u (ers represent cate!ories. u (ers

do not re ect di erences in a!nitude.u (ers ser$e to distin!uish !roups.

; a ple:- "e & nationalit%& clinicaldia!nosis place of do icile.

1B2 rdinal :-u (ers indicate ran, order of

o(ser$ations. ; a ples:- "ocial class& le$el of

education& perfor ance e$aluation.

1 2 'nter$al :-u (ers descri(e the a!nitude of


139/175

u (ers descri(e the a!nitude ofthe di erences a on! the thin!s. Here&

the ero point on the scale is ar(itrar%and does not correspond to thea(sence of the trait)characteristic (ein!

easured.

; a ple:- Te perature& calendar %ear1A.D.2 Ratio :-

u (ers represent e6ual units froa(solute ero. 7(ser$ations can (eco pared as ratio or percenta!es.

; a ples:- Distance& a!e& ti e& +ei!ht&(lood pressure.

H%pothesis Testin! 1 steps2


140/175

"tate ent of null 3 alternati$eh%pothesis.

Decide upon le$el of si!ni*cance& W.

Test-statistic to (e used 1decision2. Critical re!ion or re!ion of re/ection. Co putation)Calculation. Result)interpretation.

'ndependent 3 dependent 1 Paired2 t-test 1Testin! h%pothesis a(out t+o


141/175

eans2

; a ple: The s%stolic (lood pressure of 0+o en +ere recorded (efore and afterad inisterin! the dru! 1calciu channel(loc,er2. Test the h%pothesis 1at the FSle$el2 That the dru! a ects the a$era!e(lood pressure 7f +o en.

B sa ple t- test is used to test the e6ualit%of t+o population ean& i.e. H 0 :X UXB andH :X YXB

B.P. beforeB.P. beforetaking drugtaking drug

B.P. afterB.P. aftertaking drugtaking drug

Di erence dDi erence d ii


142/175

g g(mm/Hg.)(mm/Hg.)

g g(mm/Hg.)(mm/Hg.)

128128 115115 1313115115 112112 331010 10!10! "1"1

128128 11#11# ##122122 115115 !!1$51$5 138138 !!

132132 121210#10# 105105 $$102102 10$10$ "2"2

11!11! 115115 22

t> ?d where d>9.@=s d 1=


143/175

s d An n 1

/ standard de$iation o diBerence >s d> 9. ;;6t>59.@=3 8.87t tab >t =.=7 5C3 >7.7;7

Result:4 ) = is rejected which i!plies that drughas signifcant eBect in reducing the D. . owo!en.

(, E( T-ST: (, E( techniFue is used to testthe eFuality o !ore than two population!eans6 i.e.: ) =: 1> 7 >HH..> k .

%or this purpose6 %4test


144/175

The follo+in! t+o $arieties of +heat +ere planted in 8di erent

localities. The %ields of these $arieties 1in Q. !2 arerecorded as

(elo+: Test the h%pothesis to test the e6ualit% ofean %ields for B $arieties.

%ariet& %ariet&11

2525 1515 33 3$3$ $0$0 1818 2!2! 3131

%ariet&%ariet& 2828 1$1$ $0$0 3#3# $3$3 2$2$ 2#2# 3333

+ere recorded as !i$en (elo+. Test +hether thereis an% si!ni*cant e ect of trainin! on (od% +ei!htor not.

'eig'eigtt

11 22 33 $$ 55 !! 88 ## 1010

BeforBeforee 5555 $$88 $5$5 22 $8$8 55## 3!3! $$00 $$88 5252

fterfter 55 5511

$8$8 00 5252 55!!

$5$5 $$ $$##

5555

R;GR;""'7


145/175

; ;

'ntroduced (% ;n!lish 5io etrician&"ir 4rancis Galton in th centur%. Tendenc% to !oin! (ac, or re!ress

to+ards a$era!e1hei!ht e a ple2. To esta(lish

functional) athe atical relationship()+ one dependent and one or oreindependent $aria(les.

T+o ain ai s of re!ression are :


146/175

T+o ain ai s of re!ression are :

a2 To esta(lish relationship a on!$aria(les. (2 Prediction of future $alues of the

response $aria(le.Deter inistic and pro(a(ilistic odels.Method of least s6uares 1esti ation ofpara eters2.;sti atin! a 3 ( usin! the for ulaederi$ed (% M ".

M "


147/175

General e6uation of linear re!ression NiUWO[ \ O [ B\ BO............O [ , \ , O ] i


148/175

1iU &B& & ..&n2

>here N is dependent $aria(le& \ & \B& ..\ , areindependent $aria(les& W is intercept& [ &[B& &[, arere!ression coeEcients 3 ] i s are the rando errors.Re!ression can (e linear or non-linear or cur$e-linear.

"i ple and ultiple linear re!ression."i ple correlation.Dia!nostic chec,in! of the *tted odel ore$aluatin! the 4it. 't is $er% i portant toin$esti!ate the structure of the residuals and thedata pattern throu!h !raphs.

Data of four !raphs


149/175

4our di erent !raphs ha$in! sa esu ar% statistics


150/175

'nterpretation of $arious de!rees ofcorrelation 1scatter dia!ra 2


151/175

7(ser$ed 3 *tted data


152/175

Multiple re!ression


153/175

#suall% si ple re!ression is inade6uatein real +orld situation

Multiple re!ression is an e tension ofsi ple re!ression. NiUWO[ \ O [ B\ BO ] i1iU &B& & ..&n2.;sti ate W& [ 3 [B usin! M ".

.

Multiple re!ression


154/175

Di ension Graph B


155/175

Co on 9iolation in A!ricultural; peri ents


156/175

; p(ariance heterogenity and )onnormality

>here the $ariance is functionall% related tothe ean.

#suall% associated +ith data +hosedistri(ution is not nor al. ; a ples 1i2 "uch as the o. of infestedplants per plot or the o. of lesion per leaf1 usuall% follo+ a Poissondistri(ution +here in " BU\2.

1ii2 "uch as percent sur$i$al of insects orpercent plants infected +ith a disease. Hereeach occurrence can onl% (e one of the t+opossi(le outco es 1e.!. ali$e or dead andinfested or not infested2. these follo+ a

(ino ial distri(ution

Data transfor ation


157/175

't is the ost appropriate re edialeasure for $ariance hetero!eneit%+here the $ariance and ean arefunctionall% related 1see the !raphs2.

7ri!inal data are con$erted into a ne+scale resultin! in a ne+ data set that ise pected to satisf% the condition of

ho o!eneit% of $ariance. A fe+ datatransfor ation techni6ues aredescri(ed here.

Di erent t%pes of $ariancehetero!eneit% .


158/175

ete o!e e t% .

#ogarith!ic trans or!ation. This transfor ation is ost appropriate

f d h d d d $i i i


159/175

for data +here standard de$iation is

proportional to the ean. Thiscondition is !enerall% in data +herenu (ers and co$er a +ide ran!e of$alues. e.!. data on the nu (er ofinsects per plot.

To illustrate the procedure for appl%in!lo!arith ic transfor ation& +e usedata on the nu (er of li$in! lar$ae onrice plants treated +ith $arious rates ofan insecticide fro a RC5 e peri ent+ith four replications. The !raphs are!i$en !ear

"o e rules for choosin! the propertransfor ation scale for Sa!e datad i$ d f d i$ h


160/175

deri$ed fro count data are !i$en here.

Rule1. 4or percenta!e data l%in! +ith theran!e of 0 to J0S& no transfor ation

is needed. Rule 7 .

4or percenta!e data l%in! +ith in the

ran!e of either 0 to 0S or J0 to 00S&(ut not (oth& the s6uare transfor ationshould (e used.


161/175

Rule 8. 4or percenta!e data that do not

follo+ the ran!es speci*ed in either

rule or rule B& the arc sinetransfor ation should (e used.

"u!!ested readin! 'ntroduction to "tatistical theor%& part ' 3 Part ''

1B00 )l di i 2


162/175

1B00 )latest edition2.

(% Prof. "her Muha ad Chaudhr% 3Dr. "hahid Qa al. "TAT'"T'C": Methods and Application 1B00F2

(% Dr. M. Af al (e!Qar$an 5oo, House& ahore.

"tatistical Methods and Data Anal%sis1;dition:B0002(% Dr. 4a6ir Muha ad& Qita( Mar,a 5ha+ana5a ar& 4aisala(ad.

A!riculture 3 applied statistics-' (% P.Q "ahu1B00J2& Qal%ani pu(lishers.5io statistical anal%sis I th edition (% K.H Zar&

ational (oo, foundation& 'sla a(ad"tatistical procedures for a!ricultural research

1 8I)latest edition2 (% Q A Go e 3 A A Go e


163/175


164/175

",e+ness


165/175

Re!ression cur$es


166/175

"cale of easure ents

o!inal !easure!ent:


167/175

,o!inal !easure!ent:A no inal scale is one in +hich it ispossi(le to place the $aria(le intounordered cate!ories. 4or e a ple&

+e a% +ant to ,no+ ho+ uchpatients in a hospital areh%pertensi$e& dia(etic anic-depressi$e 3 ps%choneurotic& 3 so on.Data of this t%pe are fre6uentl%referred to as count data.

rdinal !easure!ent: An ordinal easure ent is one in+hich the results can (e ordered alon!a !i$en scale 7rdinal data are data


168/175

a !i$en scale. 7rdinal data are data

that can (e ordered (ut do not ha$especi*c nu erical $alues. 4or e a ple&students or e plo%ees can (e !radedaccordin! to their perfor ance as

U; cellent& BU$er% !ood& U !ood&

IU satisfactor%& FU a$era!e. This isordinal $aria(le (ecause the di erent!rades &B& &I&F are ordered in thesense that !rade is (etter than B&+hich is (etter than !rade & -----& and

so on. Ho+e$er& +e cannot sa% thatthe di erence (et+een cate!ories and B is the sa e as the di erence(et+een !rades B and & ----& and soon. This is also called Ran, data.

'nter$al !easure!ent. An inter$al easure ent is one in +hich the

incre ents are consistent across the entirei ! l H $ & i h h li i i


169/175

easurin! scale. Ho+e$er& it has the li itation

that it does not include true ero point. Theost co on e a ple is the te perature. Ano(/ect can (e e posed to 0 o 4ahrenheit& 0 o 4and 0 o 4. The actual di erence (et+een 0 o and 0 o is the sa e as (et+een 0 o and 0 o& (ut there is no true ero point in the scale& itcannot (e concluded that 0 o represents t+iceas uch heat as 0 o or that 0 o representsthrice as uch heat as 0 o. "uch a conclusion

+ould not (e correct. 't a% (e noted that inthe e a ple the ero point 1that is ar(itrar%2has a di erent eanin! for 4ahrenheit 3Celsius te peratures.

Ratio Measure!ent: The ratio easure ent is one in

+hich the inter$als are consistent


170/175

+hich the inter$als are consistent

alon! the entire scale and there is atrue ero point. 4or e a ple& 5loodpressure and (od% +ei!ht are on

ratio scales 1or easure ent2(ecause the ero-point is +ell-de*ned in (oth instances. 'n case of(od% +ei!ht& +e can sa% that adi erence of l(s is actuall% t+ice aslar!e as a di erence of l(s.


171/175

)istogra! o weight o 17= students:


172/175

De*nition of "tatistics The +ord statistics see s to ha$e (een deri$ed


173/175

(fro the atin +ord status or the 'talian +ordstatista. 5oth these +ords eans a politicalstate.

'n plural sense6 statistics refer to nu ericalfacts in an% *eld of stud%& These facts are

collected in s%ste atic anner +ith a de*nitepurpose in $ie+. 4or instance& statistics of (irths3 deaths& price statistics& a!ricultural statistics&statistics of cri es& statistics of road accidents&statistics of educational institutions etc.

'n singular sense. 't refers to the science ordiscipline that includes procedures 3techni6ues of collection& presentation& anal%sis3 interpretation of nu erical data.


174/175

=uadratic ;6uation


175/175

applied research methods new

Documents