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SummaryInformation is power.1 New technologies are making it easier for governments, business and civil society to collect data, share information, target resources, provide feedback and measure progress. Information can help to build trust between governments and citizens, allowing people to exercise their rights, hold decision-makers to account, reduce corruption and make more informed choices in their daily lives.

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have focused international and country efforts on poverty eradication and, over time, have prompted an alignment of donor aid policies. This has supported domestic efforts to reduce poverty, with clear progress being made on the delivery of basic social services including health and education at a global level. But beyond 2015, accelerated progress on poverty elimination and sustainable development requires more than effective delivery of services. Based on our experience and available evidence, we believe the post-2015 settlement must harness the power of technology and information to empower citizens with choice and control over the decisions that impact their lives.

Transparency, participation and empowerment should be core components of the post-2015 narrative upon which a future development agenda can be built but we need a practical, workable way to measure these components. Just as the Millennium Declaration was accompanied by the MDGs with targets and indicators to measure progress, we believe a specific goal on access to information can act as a proxy against which progress on transparency, participation and empowerment can be measured. Specifically we recommend that the post-2015 framework should establish:

Access to information as a goal in its own right - an international commitment by governments, private sector and civil society to ensure that citizens have access to, understand and are able to use information.

We believe a clear goal on access to information would be transformational with the capacity to: empower citizens to grasp new opportunity, enhance their livelihoods and participate more

effectively within their communities better hold government and other institutions to account improve the planning of services and the distribution of resources

Better quality, and more widely shared information, would lead to improved allocation of resources for poverty reduction and more informed decision-making by governments, civil society and the private sector. Access to information is essential to knowing:

Who and where the poor are (establishing clear baseline metrics of need) What financial resources are available to end poverty and what the relative advantages are of

different mechanisms How to track investments to ensure they deliver results

Information is powerThe Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have had considerable success in expanding the delivery of services to the poor. They have supported domestic efforts in prioritising human development and poverty reduction as well as stimulating new initiatives, with clear progress being made on the delivery of basic social services including health and education at a global level.2 Yet despite this progress, success has not been universal with the MDGs being limited by financial resources and the capacity to roll-out services. This has been to the detriment of the poorest and most marginalised.3

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Choice & Empowerment: Turning information into action on poverty

The case for including access to information in the post-2015 framework

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Since the MDGs were conceived a revolution has occurred. More information is available to more people than ever before. Technological advancements are making it easier for governments, business and society to share information and for citizens to use that information both to hold decision-makers to account and to make more informed choices about their daily lives. From deciding which hospital to have your operation4, to an organising tool of civil society, to understanding prices before you go to market5, access to information is driving transformational change.6

Transparency and participation are increasing too. Governments and businesses are turning to Open Data, Open Government and Open Economies7 as a means to improve accountability, drive efficiency and deliver effectiveness.8 The Kenyan government for instance has made hundreds of data sets available including information on budgets, health care, and education.9 The UK’s Prime Minister has stated it is his ambition to make the UK the most transparent government in the world.10 Initiatives in public spending, aid, climate finance and the extractive industries, are improving traceability of monetary flows ensuring resources are distributed effectively.11 Citizens are actively engaging with service providers (state, private sector and non-governmental), for example using mobile telephones to report problems12. This leads to fewer inequalities, improved service delivery and increased poverty reduction in a sustainable manner.13 The flow of information between governments, business and citizens is benefiting all sides.

Yet despite these advances marginalised people are often the ones who have the least access to critical information and with the potential to influence their lives. 300 million fewer women than men have access to mobile phones14 limiting their ability to choose and decide what is best for them and their family. The most marginalised also have the least ability to use the information: for example, being able to translate the information into their own language or the freedom to act on the information.

If the post-2015 settlement is to go beyond service provision and deliver sustained and equitable poverty eradication, then it must prioritise the empowerment of all citizens to exercise choice and control over their own lives. By promoting access to information, we can increase people’s ability to exercise their rights, participate meaningfully in decisions that affect them, hold governments and other actors to account, improve service delivery and reduce corruption.

Definition and scopeAccess to information is the ability of an individual to obtain and use information collected or generated by others. The UN Declaration on Human Rights includes freedom to seek, receive and impart information.15 This right is central to people’s right to exercise choice, to express their voice, to challenge and to secure change in how they are governed. In summary, access to information underpins transparency and accountability. It is an internationally recognised right – not a privilege – and it is a pre-requisite for effective participation.

Sources of information vary widely by issue and type16 as do the types of data needed17. Citizens ask simple questions with complex answers: How can my child get a better education? When will the electricity supply reach my house? When will more jobs become available? As does society in general: Is the education system providing the right skills for economic growth? Is there sufficient energy to meet the needs of the expanding electricity grid? How can unemployment be reduced? Most answers to these types of questions require pragmatic value judgements which are best made by comparing available resources, performance reports or indicators, organisational information and background/contextual information.18

But increased access to information is not only about active citizens – it is also about building institutions that work. Responsive and capable institutions, government, private sector and CSO’s, need to provide information in the interests of transparency; to receive feedback in order to deliver responsive services, and to access and apply data to deliver effectively. For institutions to use resources effectively in any context, the total resource package available needs to be visible so that each element can be applied to best effect.19 Institutions also need the best available data on the needs of their citizens, clients and

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customers. Best available data in the context of reducing poverty and promoting sustainable development means for example:

Up to date numbers on people in poverty – hence the importance of Jim Yong Kim’s commitment at the 2012 World Bank meeting in Japan to annually report progress in fighting poverty and building shared prosperity.20

More timely data on aid flows; the collective reporting of Official Development Assistance (ODA) under the OECD Development Assistance Committee Creditor Reporting System (DAC CRS) can take 18 months.

More granular data which, for instance, is gender disaggregated or provided at transaction level to improve scrutiny and value for money.

It is important to recognise that on its own, data is not sufficient to ensure that information genuinely empowers. Information needs combining, contextualising and explaining, for example through independent media, and in an enabling environment that allows people to act. Many barriers, arising for example through unequal power relations; poor governance; or gender and race discrimination, hamper the ability of the poorest to know that information important to them does exist, to know they can ask for it, and to know how to read and use it to claim their rights and entitlements.21

Learning from the International Aid Transparency InitiativeDevelopment Initiatives launched its aidinfo programme in 2008 with the aim of improving the transparency of aid information in order to increase the effectiveness of aid in reducing poverty. The proposition underpinning the programme was a simple one: that increased access to information about aid would enable donors and partner countries to plan and manage aid resource more effectively, at the same time as supporting parliaments, CSOs and citizens to hold their governments to account for the use of these aid resources.

aidinfo played a key role in the launch of the International Aid Transparency Initiative (IATI) at the Accra High Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness in September 2008 and drafted the initial scoping paper for the Initiative. Since then, we have provided technical support for IATI, supporting donors to publish aid information to the IATI Standard as well as supporting partner countries to use IATI data.

The experience we have gained from IATI has given us some useful insights into the issue of access to information more widely. Key lessons learned include:

Information needs to be published in a way that meets the needs of users of that information, rather than meeting the needs of those providing it (IATI was explicitly designed to meet the needs of partner countries, rather than donors, although the latter also benefit from publishing to IATI);

Different users need different kinds of information for different purposes, so information needs to be published in an open format that allows users to re-purpose the data to meet individual needs (under IATI, donors publish aid information under open licenses ensuring that this is the case);

Simply putting information “out there” is never enough: how information is published makes a huge difference, and publication to a common standard (like the IATI Standard) is essential to ensure that information from many different sources can be compared, combined and analysed;

Aid plays a small and decreasing role in the overall development picture – it is vital that access to information about all resources for poverty reduction are made available – for example, national budgets, the extractive industries, climate change finance – and that this information is also published to similar common, open standards, with interoperability between these standards to ensure that users of this data can build a complete picture of all of the resources available for poverty reduction;

As well as needing to link aid information to information on other resource flows, users want to be able to link aid information to other data sets, for example, poverty, health or education data, to maximise its usefulness – this points to the need for governments around the world to become much more open, increasing access to information across a wide range of sectors in

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order to support meaningful civic participation, in line with the aspirations of the Open Government Partnership.

The evidenceOur own programme experience has shown us the transformative power of information, and of the contribution that increased access to information can make to reducing poverty. Recent global agreements have also recognised the role of information in development.22 The Rio+20 Outcome Document The future we want stated:

“Opportunities for people to influence their lives and future, participate in decision-making and voice their concerns are fundamental for sustainable development” ... “improved participation of civil society depends upon, inter alia, strengthening access to information, building civil society capacity as well as an enabling environment.”

We agree that increased access to information is key to empowerment; and we know from our work, and that of partner organisations, that when citizens gain access to information and use it to demand change, the results can be dramatic – wherever they may be in the world. For example:

In the late 1990s, the Ugandan Government initiated a newspaper information campaign to boost the ability of schools and parents to monitor the government’s handling of a large school grant programme funded by a group of donors. This contributed to a rise in the amount of money reaching schools from 20% in 1995 to more than 80% in 2001, when information was published detailing where the money was going.23

In Indonesia, providing women in a village with budget monitoring knowledge and basic economic literacy completely changed the power relations between the women and the village chief; they commanded his respect and encouraged better allocation of public funds towards social services. Women became more entrepreneurial and requested small loans to start their own businesses.24

In South Africa, the Treatment Action Campaign made use of publicly available budget information to campaign successfully in the courts, in the media and on the streets for increased allocations for antiretrovirals, enabling 1.4 million people to access lifesaving drugs. In South Africa, approximately 75% of resources for HIV/AIDS are now generated domestically.25

Across the European Union (EU), member countries could generate a total €40 billion (USD $48.7 billion) a year in economic gains by making data more publicly available, according to a recent European Commission Communication on Open Data.26

Integrity Watch Afghanistan worked with shuras (community groups), in Afghanistan to train citizens to access information on reconstruction projects, and survey beneficiaries to try and improve the delivery of projects. The ability to do this from the community level enabled delivery of critical infrastructure to 60,000 Afghans, and prevented some corruption and misuse of funds.27

Conversely, we know from our own research that a lack of adequate information carries with it real costs to real people. Our programme, aidinfo, conducted a series of case studies in 2008-09 looking at the demand for better information to support effective aid management and coordination at country level.

In Rwanda, we were told that when planned aid disbursements did not arrive when they were expected; this had led to an unplanned drawing down of reserves, leading to liquidity problems in the Central Bank and unplanned government borrowing.

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In Malawi, our country level research provided examples of planned education and health programmes being cut when the projected figures originally given to line ministries by donors did not match those given by the Ministry of Finance. Less immediate but nonetheless important, research by ODI, WaterAid and IHME aimed at increasing the long-term impact of aid spending on poverty reduction was consistently hampered by lack of adequate data.28

How to implement access to information As with other issues, there is a question of how best to incorporate access to information into the post-2015 development framework – should it be a goal in its own right, part of a wider statement on transparency, accountability and participation, or should access to information be incorporated as indicators within other thematic goals?

Drawing on our analysis and programme experience, we believe that the post-2015 framework should incorporate access to information as a goal in its own right. We believe that transparency, participation and empowerment should be core components of the post-2015 narrative upon which a future development agenda can be built. However, just as the Millennium Declaration was accompanied by the MDGs with targets and indicators to measure progress, we believe a specific goal on access to information can act as a proxy against which progress on transparency, participation and empowerment can be measured. Our suggestion of a standalone goal also does not preclude measurement of access to information being included as indicators within other thematic goals; in fact we would welcome this addition. But we are concerned that failure to identify access to information as a goal in its own right will result in the post-2015 framework failing, like the MDGs, to prioritise and deliver on a measure of empowerment. In short, access to information is a prerequisite for transparency, participation and empowerment.

The goal would be an international commitment by governments, private sector and civil society to ensure that citizens have access to, understand and are able to use information. Its inclusion would be transformational with the capacity to:

empower citizens to grasp new opportunities, enhance their livelihoods and participate more effectively within their communities

better hold government and other institutions to account improve the planning of services and the distribution of resources

The following provides an indication of how progress on access to information could be measured. Its primary focus is on resource transparency which is the basis of our own experience. However, we recognise that access to information goes beyond resources and are keen to consult further on this. We have attempted to frame an access to information goal in the style of the existing MDGs – that is with a succinctly expressed goal and a very small number of targets and rather larger number of indicators roughly in line with existing goals. But this draft should be seen as a starting point for further discussion.

Goal: Increase access to and use of information to accelerate sustainable development (where sustainable development in people terms assumes people have a basic livelihood, access to basic services and can play an active role in society)

Targets: (Note: MDGs mostly have from 3 to maximum 6 targets)1. Right to information enshrined in legislation [including overruling of previous regressive

legislation]2. Detailed information on entitlements and government services, including those contracted to the

private sector, available online 3. Government budget and expenditure data publicly available online to common open standard

including timely [within 12 weeks] transaction level data, geo-coded where possible4. Private sector disclosure of tax and royalty payments 5. Investment in statistical capacity29 6. Universal access to mobile phone and broadband coverage30 [continued...]

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Indicators: (MDGs have 3 to 16, averaging about 9).a) % of entitlement data publicly available online b) % of government budget and expenditure data publicly available online % of publicly available

budget and expenditure data published at transaction levelc) % of publicly available budget and expenditure data geo-codedd) % of private sector to disclose tax and royalty payments e) % of population with mobile phone coveragef) % of population with broadband access g) % of per capita income of poorest decile to afford basic access to mobile internet31 h) % of women and girls with access to mobile internet i) Months taken for data to become publicly availablej) % of publicly funded research freely availablek) % of citizens with postgraduate qualifications in statistics, IT and related disciplinesl) % of government officials that have received training on access to information and/or % of local

authorities having Information Officers

Access to information & measuring post-2015 progressEradicating poverty and monitoring progress towards any new milestones and targets in any post-2015 agreement will rest on a set of accurate, timely, comprehensive and high quality data. There are clearly strong links between this aim and the broader access to information goal outlined above: these monitoring data should be accessible to and understandable for everyone, ideally in a one-stop shop.The MDGs have amply illustrated the perils of trying to assess progress with very poor, geographically patchy and often very out of date statistics. Jeffrey Sachs has highlighted “the lack of timely data” as a “key weakness” of the MDG process: including reliance on several years old household surveys that by the time it is processed are no longer relevant: “We need data not for reports but for management.”32

While some MDG monitoring data are of reasonable completeness and timeliness, notable child and maternal mortality indicators for goals 4 and 5, in others it is much poorer. For example, data for monitoring gender equality in education dates from 1999 (for gender enrolment ratios for developing regions).

For income poverty (MDG1), statistics are published by the World Bank only every four years, and even then these are often based on surveys from many years before. Much more certainty about poverty data - where the poor are, how poor they are and their needs – is absolutely essential if we are to genuinely and efficiently eradicate poverty by 2025. We should also be able to know for sure if any new goals had been met within a year of their deadline (compared with four years for the MDGs), with direct implications for any 2016 baselines, which may not be known until 2021 or 2022 on recent experience. Better data about the livelihoods of the poor and the services they lack and their needs will allow accurate targeting of scarce resources. This might include real-time reporting of maternal health deaths in hospitals, or the ability to establish whether schools are receiving properly receiving the resources allocated to them. A standalone goal on access to information would help ensure that this information is available.

This would require stronger commitments to statistical and surveying processes, as well as training and technical co-operation. It also requires strong country commitments to resourcing regular surveys and the independence and strong leadership of national statistical agencies. The widespread promotion, enabling and recognition of locally-owned monitoring systems would provide the source data. Civil society organisations will have a critical role to conduct independent research and cross reference official data with their own, captured at grassroots level. It will also ensure the new post-2015 agenda remains relevant and rooted in peoples' own dynamism and interests.33

The Rio+20 outcome document, The Future We Want, which will likely to be important for the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals process, includes two relevant asks:

integrated data that enable understanding of interconnections between goals; information exchange and cooperation, sharing information know-how between North and

South, e.g. in climate forecasting.

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Resources available to address poverty should be treated similarly, enhancing accountability, something under-addressed in the MDG process.

Timely – in some cases real-time – data collection, rapid analysis and exchange of information between people, civil society, government and business will help address some of the weaknesses of the current MDGs and ensure that making access to information not only important in itself but fundamental to eliminating poverty.

About usDevelopment Initiatives (DI) is an independent organisation working for the elimination of absolute poverty. DI focuses on the analysis and use of data to promote poverty reduction. Our mission is to empower and enable people to make evidence-based and data-informed decisions that deliver more effective use of resources for poverty eradication.

We have a track record of providing objective, independent and rigorous data and analysis to governments, multilateral agencies, NGOs and foundations. We are relied upon for practical advice and support by the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID), the International Aid Transparency Initiative (IATI), the Good Humanitarian Donorship group, ONE and the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. We run programmes such as the Global Humanitarian Assistance (GHA) programme, which works to provide better visibility of the resources available to people in humanitarian crises, and aidinfo, which focuses upon increased transparency and accountability of aid and other resources. From 2000 to 2010, DI was a part of the Chronic Poverty Research Centre; using evidence to promote security, choice and opportunity for the poorest remains central to our work.

This paperAn initial draft of this paper was produced in November 2012. Since then we have consulted widely with a number of representatives from government, civil society organisations and business to produce the current version. We are still open to ideas, improvements and suggestions particularly with reference to the indicators and targets.

Further information For further information about this briefing paper or the wider work of Development Initiatives please contact Andrew Palmer at andrew.palmer@devinit.org or +44 (0) 7817 546653.

References and resources

1 The phrase scientia potentia est (sometimes written as scientia est potentia) is a Latin aphorism often claimed to mean "knowledge is power". It is commonly attributed to Sir Francis Bacon; however, there is no known occurrence of this precise phrase in Bacon's English or Latin writings. However, this phrase does appear in Thomas Hobbes' 1658 work De Homine, cap. X.

2 The target of halving the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water has been met, increasing access from 76% to 89% of the global population over 1990-2010. Primary education enrollment ratio has increased from 82% in 1999 to 90% in 2010 and gender parity in primary classrooms is now a reality. Preliminary data highlight that both the poverty rates and the number of people living in extreme poverty have been falling in all regions. The latter fell from 47% in 1990 to 24% in 2008, a reduction from 2 billion to 1.4 billion. [Above information and statistics on the MDGs sourced from: United Nations, The Millennium Development Goals Report, 2012: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2012/English2012.pdf]

Aid from OECD to education sector, 1995-2008 (US$, millions)

Source: OECD DAC figures.

Melamed, C, 4 January 2012, After 2015 Contexts, politics and processes for a post-2015 global agreement on development, ODI.

3 The MDGs committed to halving extreme poverty not eradicating poverty.

4 Five years ago, Sir Bruce Keogh, then a cardiac surgeon in Birmingham, convinced his fellow cardiac surgeons to publish their individual patient mortality rates. Five years later, death rates have fallen. Sir Keogh’s work demonstrates how transparency compliments the work of our public service professionals, improves public service quality and performance, and saves lives.

Source: Open Government Partnership

5 Accessing information on market process for fish enabled fishermen in Kerala, Southern India, to sell their catch at markets with high demand and where the price was highest. With information on markets available through mobile technology, fishermen could make informed decisions about where to sell their fish.

Source: Open Government Partnership

6 From open budgets leading to a reduction of corruption in Brazil, to the publication of heart surgery data in the UK leading to a 50% increase in survival rates, or to citizens in Tanzania texting government providers when taps run dry to get the water flowing again, there is clear evidence that increased access to information empowers citizens to demand change.

Source: Open Government Partnership

7 Speech by Mark Lowcock DFID's top civil servant at the British Council in New Dehli, India on our shared potential to eradicate poverty within our lifetimes, 16 October 2012

“The idea of open economies goes a lot wider than free trade. It includes the idea that citizens should be free to provide for their livelihoods; to access goods and services, as well as infrastructure connecting them to markets; to trade their skills and capital and pursue investment opportunities; and to contribute to a thriving private sector. That economic governance should be transparent, credible, and stable – and include effective taxation as well as appropriate regulation.

“That the costs of doing business should be reduced and the risks of investing minimised, including through legal protection of property rights and contract enforcement. There is strong evidence behind the idea that open economies

support progress – not least the impact in India that Nandan Nilekani talked about of the economic liberalisation here in the 1990s.

“While some of this may be controversial in some quarters, one thing which is very clear from the last decade is that the countries getting left behind in the pace of progress are those enmeshed in conflict or suffering from chronically poor governance. Organisations like my own see an increasing proportion of our resources and efforts spent in such countries. The new post-2015 framework has to reflect the reality of that in some way.”

http://www.dfid.gov.uk/News/Speeches-and-statements/2012/Mark-Lowcock-The-future-of-international-development/

8 Open Government Partnership http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bq_ZWl1ZXA0

9 Kenyan Open Data Initiative https://opendata.go.ke/

10 UK Prime Minister David Cameron, November 2010

“It is our ambition to be one of the most transparent governments in the world.”

Prime Minister David Cameron, May 2010

“Greater transparency across government is at the heart of our shared commitment to enable the public to hold politicians and public bodies to account; to reduce the deficit and deliver better value for money in public spending; and to realise significant economic benefits by enabling businesses and non-profit organisations to build innovative applications and websites using public data.”

UK Coalition Programme for Government, May 2010

“…we will extend transparency to every area of public life.”

11 A selection of transparency initiatives include:

International Aid Transparency Initiative Website Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Website Transparency and Accountability InitiativeEuropean Transparency Initiative Website Global Transparency Initiative Website Construction Sector Transparency Initiative Website Africa Technology and Transparency Initiative Website Media Standards Transparency Initiative Website Forest Transparency Initiative Website Transparency in Trade Initiative Website

12 Citizens in New York are using mobile phones to report disasters, accidents and crimes. In Tanzania citizens text a number when water from a tap runs dry, government responds and the water flows to where it is most needed.

Open Government Partnership http://www.opengovpartnership.org/

13 Citizenship DRC: Blurring the Boundaries: Citizen Action across States and Societies. IDS, 201114

Speech by UK Secretary of State for International Development, Justine Greening, to the DFID/Omidyar Network Open Up! conference, at LSO St Luke's, London

“In a world where access to a mobile is becoming essential for accessing information, money, or identification, the so-called gender digital divide remains a significant barrier to participation. That 300 million fewer women own mobile phones than men, means that 300 million women are not getting access to information that could save their lives and those of their children. Changing this is a huge opportunity.”

http://www.dfid.gov.uk/News/Speeches-and-statements/2012/Justine-Greening-Speech-to-the-DFIDOmidyar-Network-Open-Up-conference/

15 Article 19: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.

16 Sources of information, Diagram produced by Development Initiatives:

https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B3WngmdQt3stRW96b01jUjQ0QmM/edit]

17 Types of information, Diagram produced by Development Initiatives:

https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B3WngmdQt3stc29NMnRYZkVSMkk/edit

18 The sort of information covered can be summarized as data on income and expenditure by all institutions who claim to be or who have a responsibility to be responsible to the public. Other sorts of information that need to be made more accessible include information on entitlements, -and information – especially research – paid for by public funds which should therefore be freely available to the public who provided the money. An essential first step is the provision by Governments of a wide range of basic data on expenditures and entitlements.

19 So for instance, aid needs to be intelligently applied in the context of other resource flows such as government own revenues and private finance.

20 Remarks As Prepared for Delivery: World Bank Group President Jim Yong Kim at the Annual Meeting Plenary Session, 11 October 2012

“Fourth, we need to continue investing in data and analytic tools, building on the success of the Open Data initiative. Data are crucial to setting priorities, making sound policy, and tracking results. Yet many countries have weak statistical capacity, and lack reliable and updated economic and poverty data. That’s why we will work with our partners to ensure virtually all developing countries have timely and accurate data. And we will be reporting annually on progress in fighting poverty and building shared prosperity.”

http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/2012/10/12/remarks-world-bank-group-president-jim-yong-kim-annual-meeting-plenary-session

21 Oxfam GB, unpublished working note: Right to Know, Right to Tell, Right to Decide

Oxfam GB, from Right to Be Heard Learning Companion http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/the-right-to-be-heard-framework-a-learning-companion-254793 22

Busan Global Partnership and the Rio+20 outcome document.

23 Ritva Reinikka, R and Svensson J, 2004, Fighting corruption to improve schooling: evidence from a newspaper campaign in Uganda. See paper.

24 Oxfam GB, from Right to Be Heard Learning Companion http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/the-right-to-be-heard-framework-a-learning-companion-254793

25 International Budget Partnership, From Analysis to Impact: Partnership Initiative Case Study Series. See here for further information.

26 European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, The European Economic And Social Committee And The Committee Of The Regions, Open data An engine for innovation, growth and transparent governance http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/policy/psi/docs/pdfs/directive_proposal/2012/open_data.pdf

27 Integrity Watch Afghanistan, CASE STUDY: Access to Information - International Security Assistance Force http://www.iwaweb.org/Docs/CBM/CaseStudies/CBM%20-%20CS11%20-%20Access%20to%20Information.pdf

28 The synthesis paper is available here.29

We plan to look at Paris 21 meetings/recommendations for more information on how to frame this indicator

30 For reference, existing MDG 8 commitment and indicator:

Target 8.F: In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications

8.14 Fixed telephone lines per 100 inhabitants8.15 Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants8.16 Internet users per 100 inhabitants

31 This might helpfully be linked to a target – e.g. cost should be under 0.1% of annual income

32 Jeffry Sachs “Monitor developments using real-time data”, in “Ending global poverty: the fight goes on”, The Observer, 18 Nov 2012

33 Richard Morgan and Shannon O’Shea, Unicef, Local Community-led Monitoring as an Engine: for a More Dynamic and Accountable Development Agenda http://www.unicef-irc.org/research-watch/Post-2015--What-Next-/903/