apoptosis: death comes for the cell joe w. ramos j [email protected] from ingmar bergman’s the...
TRANSCRIPT
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Apoptosis:Death comes for
the Cell
Joe W. Ramos
From Ingmar Bergman’s The Seventh Seal
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Mutations in proteins that regulate cell proliferation, survival and death can
contribute to oncogenesis
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From Okada and Mak, Nat. Rev. Cancer 4:592-603
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Apoptosis: Programmed Cell Death
• A term used to describe the morphological changes associated with programmed cell death.
• The term was originally used by Wyllie and his colleagues and is from the Greek meaning “dropping away” as the leaves from a tree.
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Apoptosis
• Active cell death• Requires energy and RNA and protein synthesis• Characteristic morphological features• DNA cleaved, chromatin condenses• Cells shrink• Formation of apoptotic body• Cleared by phagocytosis• No inflammation=no tissue damage
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Necrosis
• Passive cell death• Cells swell up• Membrane breaks down and cellular contents
leak out• Nucleus disintegrates• Cell ghosts• Inflammatory=tissue damage
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The function of Cell death
• Multicellular development– involved in deletion of entire structures,
– sculpting of tissues,
– and regulates the neuron number
• The immune response
• The body’s defense against cancer
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Death and the mouse’s paw
Fig 18-18
Dark Green fluorescence indicates apoptotic cells.
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Apoptosis regulates nerve cell targeting
Fig 18-20
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Apoptosis in Lymphocyte development
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How do we recognize Programmed Cell Death?
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The Face of Cell Death: Apoptosis
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Detection of apoptotic cells
• Microscopy– Cells have classic features (eg. small darkly stained nuclei)– Detection of free 3’ ends of DNA by TUNEL assay (terminal
deoxytransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling)
• Gel electrophoresis– Detect DNA ladder of 180 bp intervals caused by internucleosomal
DNA cleavage
• Flow cytometry– Measure externalization of phosphatidylserine (PS) with
fluorescently labeled Annexin-V– Measure DNA fragmentation with propidium iodide fluorescence
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Analysis of DNA content with a flow cytometer
Recall the fluorescence intensity of the DNA dye (amount of DNA) is measured for each cell.
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Triggers of apoptosis
• Programmed cell death in which many more cells are produced than survive (e.g. development of lymphocytes)
• Toxic stimuli (viruses, chemicals, ionizing radiation)
• Extracellular signals (Fas, p75 NGF-R, TNF)
• DNA damage (p53)
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C. elegans has played a key role in our understanding of Apoptosis
ced-1 mutant(No engulfment)
ced-1/ced-3(No cells die)
1090 total cells131 die
Ced-3=no death
Ced-4=no death
Ced-9=all die
H.R Horvitz and colleagues responsible for much of this work, 2002 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Sulston and Brenner.
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C. elegans apoptosis
CED-9=Blocks apoptosisCED-4=linker molecule forms activating complex with CED-3CED-3=Protease that executes cell by chewing up proteinsEGL-1=Proapoptotic by blocking CED-9 function
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Three classes of proteins function in the apoptotic pathway-conserved in
vertebrates
Mammalian Bcl-2 can substitute for Ced-9 in c. elegans
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Death’s Methods: A protease cascade
Fig 18-22
These proteases are called caspases
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Caspases• Caspases are Cysteine directed proteases that cleave after
ASPartate residues• Ced-3 is the C. elegans homologue• At least 14 family members• Synthesized as proenzymes with low levels of caspase
activity (~1-2 % of active form)• Activated upon after aggregation or cleavage to mature
form– Caspases –8 and –9 are “initiator” caspases– Caspases –3 is the “effector” caspase– Caspase activation requires a stimulus – They proteolyze cellular proteins to carry out cell death program
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The Caspase Family
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Procaspase activation
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Caspase cascade
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Two Pathways that Initiate Apoptosis
• Intrinsic/ Mitochondrial Apoptosis– Regulated by Mitochondria– Cytochrome c release
• Extrinsic/ Death Receptor Apoptosis– Activated by ligation of Death Receptors– Fas, TNF alpha
• These pathways intersect at the effector caspases
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Activation of the Intrinsic Pathway
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Two mechanisms for p53 activation of apoptosis
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Intrinsic/Mitochondrial Pathway
CARD domain
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Intrinsic Pathway: Apaf-1 Induced Apoptosis
CARD domains
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Smac/Diablo and IAPs
Smac=Second mitochondrial activator of caspasesIAP=Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins
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Bcl-2 family members
• A very large family with 19 members identified• Bcl-2 (homologous to ced-9) is prototype• All have the BH3 domain (Bcl-2 Homology)
– BH-3 is the pro-apoptotic domain exposed on activation
• Act as dimers=either hetero or homodimers– Pro-apoptotic dimers (Bax) increase mitochondrial
permeability
– Anti-apoptotic members (Bcl-2, Bcl-XL) form dimers with pro-apoptotic members to inactivate them
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The Bcl-2 Family
BH domains=protein-protein interaction domains
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Some trophic factors prevent apoptosis by inducing inactivation of a pro-apoptotic regulator
Figure 23-50
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Mitochondrial permeability
PT=Permeability transition, bursts outer membrane
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Cell, Vol 111, 331-342, 1 November 2002
Bid, Bax, and Lipids Cooperate to Form Supramolecular Openings in the Outer Mitochondrial Membrane
Tomomi Kuwana 1, Mason R. Mackey 2, Guy Perkins 2, Mark H. Ellisman 2, Martin Latterich 3, Roger Schneiter 4, Douglas R. Green 1, and Donald D. Newmeyer 1
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Bid and Bad have distinct functions to activate apoptosis
* * *BH3 Peptide
Bax+ BH3 Peptide (Direct Activation)Bax + N/C-Bid + Bcl-xL+ BH3 Peptide (De-repression)
Liposome Assay (cardiolipin+Bax+Bid)
tBid Directly activates Bax pore formation
Bad indirectly activates Bax pore formation(Binds Bcl-xL→ releasing Bax)
N/C-Bid=recombinant activated Bid
Kuwana et al., Molecular Cell, 17, 525-535, 2005
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Extrinsic/Death Receptor Pathway
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Death Receptors and Ligands
CD95=Fas
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TNF receptor family
Death Domains (DD)Bind DDs of other proteins (e.g. FADD)…
…Recruiting them to the plasma membrane.
Cysteine-Rich Domains (CRD)
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Fas-FasL Apoptosis
• In response to antigenic stimulation, peripheral T cells expand
• The antigen specific T cells generated must be eliminated (except for the memory cells)
• Upon repeated antigenic stimulation via the T Cell receptor: T cells upregulate Fas and FasL
• Eliminate neighboring T Cells expressing Fas
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Activation of Apoptosis by Fas Ligand
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Fas Induced Apoptosis
The Formation of the Death Initiating Signal Complex (DISC)
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Adaptor Proteins contain conserved protein interaction domains
= inhibits apoptosis
-CARD domain of Apaf-1 binds CARD domain of procaspase-9.-DED domain of FADD binds DED domain of procaspase-8.-DED domains of FLIP can bind to the DED domain of FADD and block procaspase-8 recruitment.
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Fas and the intrinsic pathway:Bid
/Bax
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Proteolytic targets of effector caspases
• Cytoskeletal regulatory proteins– Actin
• Nuclear Lamins
• Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP)– PARP activity depletes ATP, thus cleavage of PARP may
maintain store of ATP to drive apoptosis
• DNA-fragmentation factor (DFF)
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Removal of apoptotic cell by phagocytosis
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Removal of cell corpses
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Phagocytosis tags and receptors
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Two roads to activate apoptosis
Extrinsic Intrinsic
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TNF receptors also signal to NFkB
NFkB activates transcription of several anti-apoptotic proteins including IAPs and Bcl-2.
Ubiquitylation is a common signal transduction mechanism (see regulation of cyclins for example)
IKKK=IkB Kinase kinase
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PEA-15 Structure and Binding Partners
•15-kDa protein containing 130 amino acids
•N-terminus consists of a Death Effector Domain and NES
•Regulated at Ser104 and Ser116 by phosphorylation
D E Dp104 p116
ERK1/2 Rsk2FADD
AKTOmi PLD1
PKC CamK II
NES
N- -Cs s
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Characterization of phospho-epitope antibodies
D E D104 116
PKC CamK II
NES
N- -C
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Effect of PEA-15 phosphorylation on its binding to ERK
pS104 pS116
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pS116 PEA-15 binds FADD
GST-PEA15 pulldown
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PEA-15 is Anti-apoptotic
Apoptosis
Apoptosis
CASPASECASPASE
FAS RECEPTOR
FADD
FADD
CASPASE
CASPASE
GROWTHSIGNALS
AKT
PKC
CaMKII
PEA
XPEAP-
P-
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SURVIVAL
PEA-15 is Anti-apoptoticFAS RECEPTOR
FADD
FADD
GROWTHSIGNALS
AKT
PKC
CaMKII
PEAP-
P-
• PEA-15 blocks Fas and TNF apoptosis in Hela, MCF7, NIH3T3
• PEA-15 blocks TRAIL apoptosis in glioma lines
• PEA-15 null astrocytes more sensitive to TNF
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MNK
Stathmin
RSK1
ERK
RSK2
ERKPEA
PROLONGED ERK ASSOCIATION
WITH RSK2
RSK2
ERK
p-p- PEA
INCREASED PHOSPHORYLATIONAND/OR
ALTERED CONFORMATION
PEA
RSK2
ERK DIRECTED TO RSK2
AKT
CaMKII PKC
PEA -p-p
APOPTOTICSIGNALING
PHOSPHORYLATED PEA-15IS RECRUITED TO DISC
TRANSCRIPTIONSURVIVAL
PROLIFERATIONRSK2p-
p-
RASRAF
MEK
GROWTH SIGNALS
SURVIVALPROLIFERATION RSK2p-
p-
MNK
Stathmin
RSK1PEA-15 regulates both ERK and apoptosispathways
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Example Question
• Compare the formation of the Death Initiation Signaling Complex (DISC) of the extrinsic pathway to the formation of the apoptosome of the intrinsic pathway. Drawings could help.– What signal initiates the formation of each (an
aggregation step)?– Where are the complexes formed in the cell?– What adaptor proteins mediate the formation of each
complex?– What are the initiator and effector caspases for each?– How are the caspases activated? What do they do?