apeurophilosophers - weebly

14
Italian 1469 1527 1st political scientist Citystates were losing power Reacting to chaos in Italy Ideal = Caesar Borgia Admired and studied successful rulers What strong rulers do, not what they should do Separated politics and religion Most lasting book of the Renaissance The Prince, 1513 Both ruthless and merciful Both forthright and sly Both feared and loved Act in their own selfinterest Break promises and treaties Strong rulers Pawed way for absolute monarchs Similar to realpolitik of 19th century Interested in the ends and not the means Significance of Machiavelli: Machiavelli - French 15961650 Deductive reasoning (general ‐‐> detail) Inventor of coordinate geometry Mathematician Doubted all previous knowledge Discourse on Method "I think, therefore I am" How to prove what we know Cogito ergo sum Paved the way for Scientific Revolution Rene Descartes - English 15611626 Scientific method Inductive reasoning (detail ‐‐> general) Insauratio Magna (Great renewal) Did not understand mathematics Reject everything unless you can prove it Little influence on later scientists; but changed the thought process Sir Francis Bacon - John Locke - Philosophers Thursday, April 20, 2006 2:20 PM APEuroPhilosophers Page 1

Upload: others

Post on 12-Dec-2021

5 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

Italian○1469 ‐ 1527○1st political scientist○

City‐states were losing powerReacting to chaos in Italy○

Ideal = Caesar BorgiaAdmired and studied successful rulers○

What strong rulers do, not what they should doSeparated politics and religion○

Most lasting book of the RenaissanceThe Prince, 1513○

Both ruthless and merciful□Both forthright and sly□Both feared and loved□

Act in their own self‐interest

Break promises and treaties

Strong rulers○

Pawed way for absolute monarchsSimilar to realpolitik of 19th centuryInterested in the ends and not the means 

Significance of Machiavelli:○

Machiavelli -

French○1596‐1650○Deductive reasoning (general ‐‐> detail)○

Inventor of coordinate geometry□Mathematician○

Doubted all previous knowledge□Discourse on Method○

"I think, therefore I am"□How to prove what we know□

Cogito ergo sum○

Paved the way for Scientific Revolution○

Rene Descartes -

English ○1561‐1626○Scientific method○Inductive reasoning (detail ‐‐> general)○Insauratio Magna (Great renewal)○Did not understand mathematics○Reject everything unless you can prove it○Little influence on later scientists; but changed the thought process○

Sir Francis Bacon -

John Locke -

PhilosophersThursday, April 20, 20062:20 PM

APEuroPhilosophers Page 1

Page 2: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

English○1632 ‐ 1704○Political scientist○Basis of democracy○

Man without government (positive)

Life□Liberty□Property□

Man has basic rights

State of Nature○

To protect the rights of man□Government

Have right to overthrow the government□People

Social Contract○

Book about principles of government Two Treatises on Government○

"Clean slate"□No innate ideas (nothing there before birth) □

When we are born our brain is a "tabula rasa"

Environment shapes experience □All knowledge comes from sense experience □Idea of equality□

Empiricism

Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690○

Improve human nature by changing societyConfidence in social programsAll able to learn

Beginning of liberalism○

17th centuryRight vs. Wrong (Right = natural)

No matter of heritage, customs, traditions□Universal

Discover natural law through reasonLaw of NationsIdea used both by Locke and Hobbes

Natural Law○

English○1588 ‐ 1679○

Nasty, brutish, quarrelsome and short tempered○No capacity for self government○Conditions so bad that they lead to social contract with the ruler○Chaos○

State of Nature:○

Surrender rights and freedoms to ruler○Ruler protects from fear and gives order○Absoluter ruler○

Social Contract:○

Once man gives up rights he can never get them backMan can not overthrow the government because he accepted social contractNot allowed to overthrowDisagrees with Glorious Revolution

Opposed to Glorious Revolution○Leviathan, 1651○

Thomas Hobbes -

APEuroPhilosophers Page 2

Page 3: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

Opposed to the fact that people overthrew James II

Man give power to the governmentGovernment created by man NOT GOD○

Absolutist○

French-1694 ‐ 1778-VERY POPULAR ‐Witty, Optimistic, Sarcastic, Easiest to read-Bourgeois  -

CandideMocked nobility and philosophers"Tend your own garden"

Wrote 70+ books○Accomplishments:-

Great Watchmaker in the Sky□God made a watch (earth)… stuck it out and left it alone□God made it but is not involved in daily affairs□Does not believe in worship□

Deist…○

Believed in religious toleration○

Christ = religious fanatic□Bible = work of ignorant men□Miracles = bunch of lies□Clergy was more concerned with privilege and power than morals

Christianity = history of religious persecution in the name of God

Criticized Organized Church○

Religious views:-

Need strong governmentPeople too stupid to rule themselvesRuler should be enlightened

BEST government = Enlightened monarchy ○

Democracy is okay… but not for France○

Fight stupidity and laziness1.Keep church weak2.Protect freedom of thought, religion, and press3.

Government should○

Political Views:-

Source of problems = nobility○Get rid of titles of nobility○Opposed to slavery○

Opposed to censorship"I do not believe a word you say, but I will defend to the death, your right to say it"

Freedom of Thought and press○

Social Views:-

Voltaire -

French-1689 ‐ 1755-Aristocrat-

Concluded that none of them were perfect, but all had good characteristics

Studied different governments and culture○Political Scientist:-

Montesquieu -

APEuroPhilosophers Page 3

Page 4: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

Critical of absolute monarchy

Balance of power□

Admired British (Constitutionalism ‐ law is the highest, not the king or ruler)

Wanted to have a little of every government

COMPARED GOVERNMENTS, needs branchesLegislativeExecutiveJudicialTo prevent abuse of power (balance of powers)Constitution of USA

Separation of Power: ("Spirit of the Laws" 1748)○

Everybody must obey law (Even King)"Liberty is doing whatever the laws allow"

Very interested in law○

Criticized noblesMen are better… but women are capable… good for separation of power

Persians traveling through Europe sending letters back home

□Travel log

Escaped censorship this way

"Persian Letters" …book○

Despotism ‐ hot climatesDemocracy ‐ cooler climates

Forms of government vary with the climate??○

Violated natural lawsOpposed slavery○

Social views:-

Not very religious○Church useful for balance of power○Pope = magician○

Power comes from the peopleAGAINST DIVINE RIGHT○

Religious views:-

Swiss, lived in France-1712 ‐ 1788-

Misfit, not very popular○Sold his kids and wife for cash○

Very poor-

"Emile" ‐ life, education (empirical)"Confessions" ‐ society (1782)"Social Contract" ‐ government

○Publications:-

Catholic / Protestant (Religious)○Not deist ○Tolerant○Believed in empiricism○

Religious Views:-

Most democratic○Man is capable of ruling himself○Faith in common man○Government should reflect the "general will” ‐majority○Pure democracy ‐ everyone would directly participate○

Political Views:-

Rousseau -

APEuroPhilosophers Page 4

Page 5: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

Pure democracy ‐ everyone would directly participate○Separation of powers○Some participation○

British1771 ‐ 1858Owned a cotton factory

Make a profit□Treat workers well□

2 goals

Experimental industrial community□Textile mill□

High wages□Decent housing□Schools□Stores (buy goods at fair prices)□

Good working conditions□

New Lanark, Scotland

Later on it fell apartTried again

Successful for short time only

Experimental agricultural communityGood working conditions

Workers didn’t work as hard□Workers took advantage of it□Could not sell goods for as cheap□

Failed

New Harmony, Indiana

Equality for women

Robert Owen -

French1772‐1837Philanthropist Rival of Saint‐Simon Art of selling = practice of lying and deceptionStarted businesses that failedWanted to free society from bourgeoisie individualism 810 personality types

To create a community in which people work together for the good of all; self‐sufficient 

♦Goal

Self‐sufficient ◊Farm and workshop◊

One man and one woman of each personality type

►Had to be specific size (1620 people)◊

Channel "passions"◊

Example: criminals would be butchers►Do jobs that you are best at or work that you enjoyed◊

Rotate the jobs often◊Kids will do the dirty work◊

Phalanx = community♦Agricultural community

Charles Fourier -

APEuroPhilosophers Page 5

Page 6: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

Share all the profits◊"Phalanstery" = place where utopians would live♦None were ever created in France♦

Not through Fourier himself◊In United States◊Brook Farm ‐ in Massachusetts  (1842‐1847)◊

A few were made in other countries♦

Fourier needed funding♦Failed♦

French1811 ‐ 1882Political scientist / utopian

Wanted to create social workshops run by workersGoal

Guaranteed by the government"Right to Work"

publishedUse of competition to eliminate competition

The Organization of Work

Worker's PartyUniversal Suffrage

State would help workersSocial workshops

Talking about getting paidSociety needs all types of people… as long as all try as hard as they can, but pay people according to need

"From each according to his ability, to each according to his need"

Louis Blanc -

German1744 ‐ 1803Concerning the Origins of Speech

Ethnic origin□Cultural organization

People's spirit□Every nations has its own volkgeist□

Volkgeist

Helped spread German nationalism

Gottfried von Herder -

German1762 ‐ 1814PhilosopherFormation of Natural rightsApproved of French Revolution + Terror"German Idealism"

Published □Self‐consciousness □

Foundations of Natural Right

German people were always different □Picked up and took over Volkgeist

Inspired aggressive nationalism in Germans towards other groups

Johann Gottlieb Fichte -

APEuroPhilosophers Page 6

Page 7: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

German 1770 ‐ 1831Applied logic to philosophy

"Single most difficult philosopher to understand"□His works have a wide range of interpretations

Science of Logic

"speculative reason"□Thesis + Antithesis = Synthesis □Idea vs. Opposite = Merger = Next thesis□

Dialectic 

His works have been interpreted as justifications for revolutions around the world, and have been studied by many successful leaders and political activists seeking to impose change

Friedrich Hegel -

German1844 ‐ 1900NihilismExistence is meaninglessDestruction of existing Gov. / social institutions is necessary for future growth and improvement 

The Antichrist, 1888□Secular ‐ "Death of God"

Similar to anarchist beliefs, his outlooks were adopted by several reformists socialist and anarchist groups

Friedrich Nietzsche -

English1806 ‐ 1873Utilitarianism, 1861

Improve living and working conditions□Make working class part of politics

Individual freedom□Women's rights□Universal suffrage (for women too)□Protect women and children workers□Education by the state□

More liberal

Against classical economics□Women and children taken advantage of□Working class suffers □

Protested laissez‐faire

Notable thinker of 19th Century liberalism

John Stuart Mill -

English1748 ‐ 1832Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham -

APEuroPhilosophers Page 7

Page 8: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

Greatest good for the greatest number of people□Requires government regulation of economy to protect the ones who are being hurt

Individual economic freedoms19th Century Liberalism Women's RightsGovernmental control of monopolies Bentham was one of the first devoted supporters of utilitarianism and he instilled his beliefs in many of his followers and supporters, one being John Stuart Mill

Irish1729 ‐ 1797 

Fought against abuse and misgovernment□Member of British Parliament 

Against natural rights

Encourages rulers to resist revolutions □Reflections of the Revolutions of France

Whig partySupported American colonies against George IIIOpposed to the pro‐revolutionary "New Whigs" led by Fox"Father of Modern Conservatism"

Edmund Burke -

French1905 ‐ 1980Philosopher, playwright 

Absurdity of existence□Existentialism

Most famous work□Makes connections between animate and inanimate worlds□

Nausea, 1938 

"Father of Existentialism"

Jean Paul Sartre -

English1820 ‐ 1903Liberal philosopher / political scientists

Survival of the fittest□"Father of Social Darwinism"

Applied Darwin's ideas to society□The strong have the right to abuse the weak□Justified class structure of society□Imperialistic (global impact)□

Social Darwinism

Herbert Spencer-

German1818‐1883Critical of utopians

Karl Marx -

APEuroPhilosophers Page 8

Page 9: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

Said utopians = naïve, unscientific

Used historical and economical evidenceScientific Socialist

Expelled from FranceStudied Hegel

PartnerFriedrich Engels

18th Century = Nobles vs. Bourgeoisie □19th Century = Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat □Haves vs. Have‐nots□Winner = methods of production□

Class struggleCapitalism = stage

Capitalism ‐‐> Proletariat overthrow Bourgeoisie ‐‐> Socialism ‐‐> Pure Communism 

Classless society not possibleGovernment got bigger instead of disappear Underestimated nationalismUnderestimated religionIndustrial societies will be first to take up MarxismHuman = economic animalUnderestimated unions and capitalism

Marx' Flaws:

Russian1870 ‐ 1924Political scientist

Outline for a revolutionary partyElite group of intellectuals would lead the party

What Is to Be Done?

Radical

Russian revolution (leader)Revolutionary action

Party led by Elite Government = communist partyGovernment = owns all industry and business

Reformist Marxism ‐‐> Leninism / Leninist communism

Vladimir Lenin -

French1530 ‐ 1596Underlying principles of absolutism Believed in divine rightCalvinist 

Comes from supernatural powerAnalyzed sovereignty of a state

Jean Bodin -

French1627 ‐ 1704

Bishop Bossuet -

APEuroPhilosophers Page 9

Page 10: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

Studied politics and theology 

Not a contract♦Ruler's authority comes from God alone

Divine Right of KingsTutor of Louis XIV

German1483 ‐ 1546MonkCritical of church corruption and superstition

List of complaintsComplaint to Tetzel, main monk in charge of selling of indulgenciesNailed to church; initially didn't want to break with the churchWanted to have a debate

Ninety‐five Theses, 1517

individual does not need a priest□Priesthood of all believers

PERSONAL RELATIONSHIP WITH GOD□Bible = MAIN AUTHORITY 

Only thing to be saved is a deep faith□No need of church, prayer, sacrament□ALL you need is deep love of God□Good faith brings good things□

Justification (salvation) by faith alone

Priests turn bread and wine into the blood and flesh of God□Didn’t say that it was just symbolic□God present in it, because God present everywhere□

Transubstantiation 

Baptism and communion (bread and wine)□Reduced 7 sacraments to 2

Pilgrimages□Fasts□Masses□Saints□Monasticism; monks□Celibacy for clergy□

AGAINST

BELIEFS:

German particularism / liberties□Were now allowed to take all of church property□

Princes

Got a sense of standing up to authority□

Luther horrified-Peasant's Revolt 1524‐1525□

Masses

Appealed to:

Martin Luther -

French1509 ‐ 1564

Famous bookAppealed to reason/logicMost comprehensive explanation of Protestant belief

Institutes of the Christian Religion

Thought world was in moral crisis

Wanted to make sure that he got to heavenWorried about "good works" (for church) How much??

John Calvin -

APEuroPhilosophers Page 10

Page 11: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

Simplicity

Worship of icons and statues of saintsRejected iconoclasm

Recognized same abuses of church□Opposed to celibacy of clergy□No monastic orders□Priests not necessary□Admired simple piety□

Similar to Luther,

PERSONAL RELATIONSHIP WITH GOD□Bible = Only source of Xn doctrine

Communion = symbolic□Rejected transubstantiation

Rejected Bishops

Those who will be saved are picked by God at birth□Predestination□

Salvation by election

Church should be in charge of the state□Theocratic / Theocracy

Not just Germany like Luther□Universal, expansionist appeal

Puritans who came to the New World were Calvinists□Puritanical approach to life

BELIEFS:

Man full of sin, incapable of saving himself□T: Total Depravity

God chooses the elect unconditionally, not chose on basis of merit, Predestination

□U: Unconditional election

Only the elect share in Christ's sacrifice□L: Limited atonement

When God choose to save someone, he will□I: Irresistible Grace

The Elects cannot lose their elect status□P: Perseverance of the Saints

Calvin's Tulip

Basel, Geneva, Zurich, Bern□Switzerland

John Knox / Presbyterians□Scotland

Huguenots□France

Puritans□England

Puritans fled□Holland

Puritans fled again□New World

SPREAD MUCH FURTHER THAN LUTHERANISM

Spread of Calvinism

Max Weber = German sociologist

Calvinism encouraged to work hard and save money□Encouraged reinvesting money□Protestant work ethic□

Calvinalism led to the development of Capitalism

Weber Thesis

Never venerated the stateCalvinism and democracy

APEuroPhilosophers Page 11

Page 12: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

Self governing

Mayflower Compact□Made constitution□

Formed covenants

Protected minoritiesEmphasized honest workRoot of development of democracy

English1491 ‐ 1547Wanted a divorce, but the church would not give it to him

Act of SupremacyEstablished Anglican church 

Ruler became head of Anglican ChurchLater became more Puritan / Protestant 

Anglicanism 

Henry VIII -

Dutch1466 ‐ 1536The greatest Christian HumanistCopied the style of the Latins Rejected Middle AgesInterested in behavior and moralityUsed satire in writing ‐ to expose weaknesses of churchTalked about peace, educationCritical of hypocrisyNEVER totally rejected the church 

Criticized clergyHis most famous bookSatirical, makes fun of church values

In Praise of Folly

Erasmus -

Spanish1491 ‐ 1556Started society of jesuits Scholarly priestsMission: spread Catholicism, halt Protestant Reformation

Published Spiritual Exercises

Became a saintThe Jesuits later set up societies in the colonized world to convert the indigenous people to Christianity 

Ignatius Loyola -

English1328 ‐ 1384Prior to the reformation

Controversy over having more than one pope claiming authorityDuring the "Great Schism"

Asked for reforms within the churchPaved the way for the reformation

John Wycliffe -

CzechJohn Hus -

APEuroPhilosophers Page 12

Page 13: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

1369 ‐ 1415Religious reformerStudied Wycliffe Opposed to the papal schism 

Council of ConstanceExcommunicated by the church and later burned at the stake

English1478 ‐ 1535Lawyer, politicianNorthern HumanistWrote UtopiaRefused to give Henry VIII a divorce and got executed Later became a saint

Sir Thomas More -

Swiss 1484 ‐ 1531Iconoclast (no icons)Similar to CalvinBelieved that the Eucharist was a symbolLiteral interpretation of the BibleDied in battle 

Huldreich Zwingli -

Germanic1465 ‐ 1519Studied religion, gained high rank in the church

FraudExcused sins for moneyCorruption of the clergy Made many people dissatisfied 

Sale of indulgencies 

Caused Martin Luther to write the 95 Thesis 

John Tetzel -

Austrian1860 ‐ 1904Jewish

Creation of a modern Jewish stateFather of Zionism

Tried to achieve successAttended conferencesStarted activist groups

Politically active

Theodor Herzl -

Dutch1632 ‐ 1677Criticized the bible Born Jewish, but questioned

God is everywhereGod and nature are equal

Pantheism

Baruch Spinoza -

APEuroPhilosophers Page 13

Page 14: APEuroPhilosophers - Weebly

German1646 ‐ 1716Very intelligent and well educated

Very successfulStudied mathematics

Independently of NewtonFormulated calculus

Crucial contributor to the advancement of mathematical science

Gottfried Leibniz -

German1724 ‐ 1804One of the greatest philosophers of all time

RationalismGathering rational input

Critique of Pure Reason, 1781

Came up with a series of rational formulations

Studied by later influential figures (Marx, Lenin, etc.)Studied excessively even today 

Immanuel Kant-

French1798 ‐ 1857

Theological□Metaphysical□Positive□

3 stagesBelieved in the promise of science

Facts more vital than theoryApplications of the scientific method

Positivism 

Auguste Comte -

APEuroPhilosophers Page 14