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Italian○1469 ‐ 1527○1st political scientist○
City‐states were losing powerReacting to chaos in Italy○
Ideal = Caesar BorgiaAdmired and studied successful rulers○
What strong rulers do, not what they should doSeparated politics and religion○
Most lasting book of the RenaissanceThe Prince, 1513○
Both ruthless and merciful□Both forthright and sly□Both feared and loved□
Act in their own self‐interest
Break promises and treaties
Strong rulers○
Pawed way for absolute monarchsSimilar to realpolitik of 19th centuryInterested in the ends and not the means
Significance of Machiavelli:○
Machiavelli -
French○1596‐1650○Deductive reasoning (general ‐‐> detail)○
Inventor of coordinate geometry□Mathematician○
Doubted all previous knowledge□Discourse on Method○
"I think, therefore I am"□How to prove what we know□
Cogito ergo sum○
Paved the way for Scientific Revolution○
Rene Descartes -
English ○1561‐1626○Scientific method○Inductive reasoning (detail ‐‐> general)○Insauratio Magna (Great renewal)○Did not understand mathematics○Reject everything unless you can prove it○Little influence on later scientists; but changed the thought process○
Sir Francis Bacon -
John Locke -
PhilosophersThursday, April 20, 20062:20 PM
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English○1632 ‐ 1704○Political scientist○Basis of democracy○
Man without government (positive)
Life□Liberty□Property□
Man has basic rights
State of Nature○
To protect the rights of man□Government
Have right to overthrow the government□People
Social Contract○
Book about principles of government Two Treatises on Government○
"Clean slate"□No innate ideas (nothing there before birth) □
When we are born our brain is a "tabula rasa"
Environment shapes experience □All knowledge comes from sense experience □Idea of equality□
Empiricism
Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690○
Improve human nature by changing societyConfidence in social programsAll able to learn
Beginning of liberalism○
17th centuryRight vs. Wrong (Right = natural)
No matter of heritage, customs, traditions□Universal
Discover natural law through reasonLaw of NationsIdea used both by Locke and Hobbes
Natural Law○
English○1588 ‐ 1679○
Nasty, brutish, quarrelsome and short tempered○No capacity for self government○Conditions so bad that they lead to social contract with the ruler○Chaos○
State of Nature:○
Surrender rights and freedoms to ruler○Ruler protects from fear and gives order○Absoluter ruler○
Social Contract:○
Once man gives up rights he can never get them backMan can not overthrow the government because he accepted social contractNot allowed to overthrowDisagrees with Glorious Revolution
Opposed to Glorious Revolution○Leviathan, 1651○
Thomas Hobbes -
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Opposed to the fact that people overthrew James II
Man give power to the governmentGovernment created by man NOT GOD○
Absolutist○
French-1694 ‐ 1778-VERY POPULAR ‐Witty, Optimistic, Sarcastic, Easiest to read-Bourgeois -
CandideMocked nobility and philosophers"Tend your own garden"
Wrote 70+ books○Accomplishments:-
Great Watchmaker in the Sky□God made a watch (earth)… stuck it out and left it alone□God made it but is not involved in daily affairs□Does not believe in worship□
Deist…○
Believed in religious toleration○
Christ = religious fanatic□Bible = work of ignorant men□Miracles = bunch of lies□Clergy was more concerned with privilege and power than morals
□
Christianity = history of religious persecution in the name of God
□
Criticized Organized Church○
Religious views:-
Need strong governmentPeople too stupid to rule themselvesRuler should be enlightened
BEST government = Enlightened monarchy ○
Democracy is okay… but not for France○
Fight stupidity and laziness1.Keep church weak2.Protect freedom of thought, religion, and press3.
Government should○
Political Views:-
Source of problems = nobility○Get rid of titles of nobility○Opposed to slavery○
Opposed to censorship"I do not believe a word you say, but I will defend to the death, your right to say it"
Freedom of Thought and press○
Social Views:-
Voltaire -
French-1689 ‐ 1755-Aristocrat-
Concluded that none of them were perfect, but all had good characteristics
Studied different governments and culture○Political Scientist:-
Montesquieu -
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Critical of absolute monarchy
Balance of power□
Admired British (Constitutionalism ‐ law is the highest, not the king or ruler)
Wanted to have a little of every government
COMPARED GOVERNMENTS, needs branchesLegislativeExecutiveJudicialTo prevent abuse of power (balance of powers)Constitution of USA
Separation of Power: ("Spirit of the Laws" 1748)○
Everybody must obey law (Even King)"Liberty is doing whatever the laws allow"
Very interested in law○
Criticized noblesMen are better… but women are capable… good for separation of power
Persians traveling through Europe sending letters back home
□Travel log
Escaped censorship this way
"Persian Letters" …book○
Despotism ‐ hot climatesDemocracy ‐ cooler climates
Forms of government vary with the climate??○
Violated natural lawsOpposed slavery○
Social views:-
Not very religious○Church useful for balance of power○Pope = magician○
Power comes from the peopleAGAINST DIVINE RIGHT○
Religious views:-
Swiss, lived in France-1712 ‐ 1788-
Misfit, not very popular○Sold his kids and wife for cash○
Very poor-
"Emile" ‐ life, education (empirical)"Confessions" ‐ society (1782)"Social Contract" ‐ government
○Publications:-
Catholic / Protestant (Religious)○Not deist ○Tolerant○Believed in empiricism○
Religious Views:-
Most democratic○Man is capable of ruling himself○Faith in common man○Government should reflect the "general will” ‐majority○Pure democracy ‐ everyone would directly participate○
Political Views:-
Rousseau -
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Pure democracy ‐ everyone would directly participate○Separation of powers○Some participation○
British1771 ‐ 1858Owned a cotton factory
Make a profit□Treat workers well□
2 goals
Experimental industrial community□Textile mill□
High wages□Decent housing□Schools□Stores (buy goods at fair prices)□
Good working conditions□
New Lanark, Scotland
Later on it fell apartTried again
Successful for short time only
Experimental agricultural communityGood working conditions
Workers didn’t work as hard□Workers took advantage of it□Could not sell goods for as cheap□
Failed
New Harmony, Indiana
Equality for women
Robert Owen -
French1772‐1837Philanthropist Rival of Saint‐Simon Art of selling = practice of lying and deceptionStarted businesses that failedWanted to free society from bourgeoisie individualism 810 personality types
To create a community in which people work together for the good of all; self‐sufficient
♦Goal
Self‐sufficient ◊Farm and workshop◊
One man and one woman of each personality type
►Had to be specific size (1620 people)◊
Channel "passions"◊
Example: criminals would be butchers►Do jobs that you are best at or work that you enjoyed◊
Rotate the jobs often◊Kids will do the dirty work◊
Phalanx = community♦Agricultural community
Charles Fourier -
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Share all the profits◊"Phalanstery" = place where utopians would live♦None were ever created in France♦
Not through Fourier himself◊In United States◊Brook Farm ‐ in Massachusetts (1842‐1847)◊
A few were made in other countries♦
Fourier needed funding♦Failed♦
French1811 ‐ 1882Political scientist / utopian
Wanted to create social workshops run by workersGoal
Guaranteed by the government"Right to Work"
publishedUse of competition to eliminate competition
The Organization of Work
Worker's PartyUniversal Suffrage
State would help workersSocial workshops
Talking about getting paidSociety needs all types of people… as long as all try as hard as they can, but pay people according to need
"From each according to his ability, to each according to his need"
Louis Blanc -
German1744 ‐ 1803Concerning the Origins of Speech
Ethnic origin□Cultural organization
People's spirit□Every nations has its own volkgeist□
Volkgeist
Helped spread German nationalism
Gottfried von Herder -
German1762 ‐ 1814PhilosopherFormation of Natural rightsApproved of French Revolution + Terror"German Idealism"
Published □Self‐consciousness □
Foundations of Natural Right
German people were always different □Picked up and took over Volkgeist
Inspired aggressive nationalism in Germans towards other groups
Johann Gottlieb Fichte -
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German 1770 ‐ 1831Applied logic to philosophy
"Single most difficult philosopher to understand"□His works have a wide range of interpretations
Science of Logic
"speculative reason"□Thesis + Antithesis = Synthesis □Idea vs. Opposite = Merger = Next thesis□
Dialectic
His works have been interpreted as justifications for revolutions around the world, and have been studied by many successful leaders and political activists seeking to impose change
Friedrich Hegel -
German1844 ‐ 1900NihilismExistence is meaninglessDestruction of existing Gov. / social institutions is necessary for future growth and improvement
The Antichrist, 1888□Secular ‐ "Death of God"
Similar to anarchist beliefs, his outlooks were adopted by several reformists socialist and anarchist groups
Friedrich Nietzsche -
English1806 ‐ 1873Utilitarianism, 1861
Improve living and working conditions□Make working class part of politics
Individual freedom□Women's rights□Universal suffrage (for women too)□Protect women and children workers□Education by the state□
More liberal
Against classical economics□Women and children taken advantage of□Working class suffers □
Protested laissez‐faire
Notable thinker of 19th Century liberalism
John Stuart Mill -
English1748 ‐ 1832Utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham -
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Greatest good for the greatest number of people□Requires government regulation of economy to protect the ones who are being hurt
□
Individual economic freedoms19th Century Liberalism Women's RightsGovernmental control of monopolies Bentham was one of the first devoted supporters of utilitarianism and he instilled his beliefs in many of his followers and supporters, one being John Stuart Mill
Irish1729 ‐ 1797
Fought against abuse and misgovernment□Member of British Parliament
Against natural rights
Encourages rulers to resist revolutions □Reflections of the Revolutions of France
Whig partySupported American colonies against George IIIOpposed to the pro‐revolutionary "New Whigs" led by Fox"Father of Modern Conservatism"
Edmund Burke -
French1905 ‐ 1980Philosopher, playwright
Absurdity of existence□Existentialism
Most famous work□Makes connections between animate and inanimate worlds□
Nausea, 1938
"Father of Existentialism"
Jean Paul Sartre -
English1820 ‐ 1903Liberal philosopher / political scientists
Survival of the fittest□"Father of Social Darwinism"
Applied Darwin's ideas to society□The strong have the right to abuse the weak□Justified class structure of society□Imperialistic (global impact)□
Social Darwinism
Herbert Spencer-
German1818‐1883Critical of utopians
Karl Marx -
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Said utopians = naïve, unscientific
Used historical and economical evidenceScientific Socialist
Expelled from FranceStudied Hegel
PartnerFriedrich Engels
18th Century = Nobles vs. Bourgeoisie □19th Century = Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat □Haves vs. Have‐nots□Winner = methods of production□
Class struggleCapitalism = stage
Capitalism ‐‐> Proletariat overthrow Bourgeoisie ‐‐> Socialism ‐‐> Pure Communism
Classless society not possibleGovernment got bigger instead of disappear Underestimated nationalismUnderestimated religionIndustrial societies will be first to take up MarxismHuman = economic animalUnderestimated unions and capitalism
Marx' Flaws:
Russian1870 ‐ 1924Political scientist
Outline for a revolutionary partyElite group of intellectuals would lead the party
What Is to Be Done?
Radical
Russian revolution (leader)Revolutionary action
Party led by Elite Government = communist partyGovernment = owns all industry and business
Reformist Marxism ‐‐> Leninism / Leninist communism
Vladimir Lenin -
French1530 ‐ 1596Underlying principles of absolutism Believed in divine rightCalvinist
Comes from supernatural powerAnalyzed sovereignty of a state
Jean Bodin -
French1627 ‐ 1704
Bishop Bossuet -
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Studied politics and theology
Not a contract♦Ruler's authority comes from God alone
Divine Right of KingsTutor of Louis XIV
German1483 ‐ 1546MonkCritical of church corruption and superstition
List of complaintsComplaint to Tetzel, main monk in charge of selling of indulgenciesNailed to church; initially didn't want to break with the churchWanted to have a debate
Ninety‐five Theses, 1517
individual does not need a priest□Priesthood of all believers
PERSONAL RELATIONSHIP WITH GOD□Bible = MAIN AUTHORITY
Only thing to be saved is a deep faith□No need of church, prayer, sacrament□ALL you need is deep love of God□Good faith brings good things□
Justification (salvation) by faith alone
Priests turn bread and wine into the blood and flesh of God□Didn’t say that it was just symbolic□God present in it, because God present everywhere□
Transubstantiation
Baptism and communion (bread and wine)□Reduced 7 sacraments to 2
Pilgrimages□Fasts□Masses□Saints□Monasticism; monks□Celibacy for clergy□
AGAINST
BELIEFS:
German particularism / liberties□Were now allowed to take all of church property□
Princes
Got a sense of standing up to authority□
Luther horrified-Peasant's Revolt 1524‐1525□
Masses
Appealed to:
Martin Luther -
French1509 ‐ 1564
Famous bookAppealed to reason/logicMost comprehensive explanation of Protestant belief
Institutes of the Christian Religion
Thought world was in moral crisis
Wanted to make sure that he got to heavenWorried about "good works" (for church) How much??
John Calvin -
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Simplicity
Worship of icons and statues of saintsRejected iconoclasm
Recognized same abuses of church□Opposed to celibacy of clergy□No monastic orders□Priests not necessary□Admired simple piety□
Similar to Luther,
PERSONAL RELATIONSHIP WITH GOD□Bible = Only source of Xn doctrine
Communion = symbolic□Rejected transubstantiation
Rejected Bishops
Those who will be saved are picked by God at birth□Predestination□
Salvation by election
Church should be in charge of the state□Theocratic / Theocracy
Not just Germany like Luther□Universal, expansionist appeal
Puritans who came to the New World were Calvinists□Puritanical approach to life
BELIEFS:
Man full of sin, incapable of saving himself□T: Total Depravity
God chooses the elect unconditionally, not chose on basis of merit, Predestination
□U: Unconditional election
Only the elect share in Christ's sacrifice□L: Limited atonement
When God choose to save someone, he will□I: Irresistible Grace
The Elects cannot lose their elect status□P: Perseverance of the Saints
Calvin's Tulip
Basel, Geneva, Zurich, Bern□Switzerland
John Knox / Presbyterians□Scotland
Huguenots□France
Puritans□England
Puritans fled□Holland
Puritans fled again□New World
SPREAD MUCH FURTHER THAN LUTHERANISM
Spread of Calvinism
Max Weber = German sociologist
Calvinism encouraged to work hard and save money□Encouraged reinvesting money□Protestant work ethic□
Calvinalism led to the development of Capitalism
Weber Thesis
Never venerated the stateCalvinism and democracy
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Self governing
Mayflower Compact□Made constitution□
Formed covenants
Protected minoritiesEmphasized honest workRoot of development of democracy
English1491 ‐ 1547Wanted a divorce, but the church would not give it to him
Act of SupremacyEstablished Anglican church
Ruler became head of Anglican ChurchLater became more Puritan / Protestant
Anglicanism
Henry VIII -
Dutch1466 ‐ 1536The greatest Christian HumanistCopied the style of the Latins Rejected Middle AgesInterested in behavior and moralityUsed satire in writing ‐ to expose weaknesses of churchTalked about peace, educationCritical of hypocrisyNEVER totally rejected the church
Criticized clergyHis most famous bookSatirical, makes fun of church values
In Praise of Folly
Erasmus -
Spanish1491 ‐ 1556Started society of jesuits Scholarly priestsMission: spread Catholicism, halt Protestant Reformation
Published Spiritual Exercises
Became a saintThe Jesuits later set up societies in the colonized world to convert the indigenous people to Christianity
Ignatius Loyola -
English1328 ‐ 1384Prior to the reformation
Controversy over having more than one pope claiming authorityDuring the "Great Schism"
Asked for reforms within the churchPaved the way for the reformation
John Wycliffe -
CzechJohn Hus -
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1369 ‐ 1415Religious reformerStudied Wycliffe Opposed to the papal schism
Council of ConstanceExcommunicated by the church and later burned at the stake
English1478 ‐ 1535Lawyer, politicianNorthern HumanistWrote UtopiaRefused to give Henry VIII a divorce and got executed Later became a saint
Sir Thomas More -
Swiss 1484 ‐ 1531Iconoclast (no icons)Similar to CalvinBelieved that the Eucharist was a symbolLiteral interpretation of the BibleDied in battle
Huldreich Zwingli -
Germanic1465 ‐ 1519Studied religion, gained high rank in the church
FraudExcused sins for moneyCorruption of the clergy Made many people dissatisfied
Sale of indulgencies
Caused Martin Luther to write the 95 Thesis
John Tetzel -
Austrian1860 ‐ 1904Jewish
Creation of a modern Jewish stateFather of Zionism
Tried to achieve successAttended conferencesStarted activist groups
Politically active
Theodor Herzl -
Dutch1632 ‐ 1677Criticized the bible Born Jewish, but questioned
God is everywhereGod and nature are equal
Pantheism
Baruch Spinoza -
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German1646 ‐ 1716Very intelligent and well educated
Very successfulStudied mathematics
Independently of NewtonFormulated calculus
Crucial contributor to the advancement of mathematical science
Gottfried Leibniz -
German1724 ‐ 1804One of the greatest philosophers of all time
RationalismGathering rational input
Critique of Pure Reason, 1781
Came up with a series of rational formulations
Studied by later influential figures (Marx, Lenin, etc.)Studied excessively even today
Immanuel Kant-
French1798 ‐ 1857
Theological□Metaphysical□Positive□
3 stagesBelieved in the promise of science
Facts more vital than theoryApplications of the scientific method
Positivism
Auguste Comte -
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