APEH Unit 10 NotesThe “Age of Anxiety”: 1914-1950I. World War I resulted in an end to the old orderA. End of rule by the Hohenzollerns (Germany), Hapsburgs (Austria), & Romanovs (Russia)B. Democracies in Europe remained intact or took root. 1. France & Britain remained democratic 2. Germany became a democracy -- Weimar Republic 3. New state of Czechoslovakia was democraticC. 1920s, communist totalitarianism took root in Russia and fascism emerged in Italy; fascism in Germany in the1930sD. Political crises in the 1920s were followed by the GreatDepression beginning in 1929 and then the road toWorld War II in the 1930s.E. The new world in the aftermath of WWI created an “age of anxiety” 1. World War I was a staggering blow to Westerncivilization 2. Many people felt as if the world they knew had beenturned upside down and they had little control to change things for the better. 3. People saw themselves living in an age of continualcrisis (until at least the early 1950s) · WWI, revolutions at the end of the war, politicaland financial crises in the 1920s, the Great Depression, World War II and the onset of the Cold War.II. Modern PhilosophyA. After the war, new and upsetting ideas began to spread through the entire population 1. Before 1914 most people still believed in Enlightenment ideas of progress, reason and the rights of the individual. 2. Optimistic pre-WWI view was the result of significant progress of the past two centuries.B. Critics of the pre-war world anticipated many of thepost-war ideas. 1. Rejected the general faith in progress and the powerof the rational human mind. 2. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900): a. One of the most important critics of the rationalism of the Enlightenment b. In Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883-85), he blastedreligion and famously claimed "God is Dead" · Claimed Christianity embodied a “slave morality,” which glorified weakness, envy, and mediocrity. · Individualism had been quashed by society. c. In Will to Power (1888) he wrote that only thecreativity of a few supermen—übermenschen—could successfully reorder the world. d. Though not widely read by his contemporaries, hiswritings seemed relevant in the atmosphere of post-World War I pessimism. 3. Henri Bergson (1859-1941): in the 1890s, heconvinced many young people that immediate experience and intuition were as important as rationaland scientific thinking for understanding reality.4. Georges Sorel (1847-1922): Syndicalism a. Believed socialism would come to power through agreat, violent strike of all working people.

b. Ideas foreshadowed the Bolshevik Revolution;Name_____________________________________ control by an elite few 5. Freudian psychology was first developed in the late1880s by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) a. Traditional psychology assumed a single, unifiedconscious mind processed sensory experiences in a rational and logical way. b. Freudian psychology seemed to reflect the spirit ofthe early 20th century, with its emphasis on humans as greedy irrational creatures. c. Became an international movement by 1910 andreceived popular attention after 1918, especially in Protestant countries of Northern Europe and the U.S. d. Freud asserted that because the human unconscious (ID) is driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires, humans are therefore NOT rational! The ID battles the Ego &Superego · Ego: Rationalizing conscious mediates what a person can do. · Superego: Ingrained moral values specify what a person should do. · Shattered the enlightenment view of rationality and progress. e. Freud agreed with Nietzsche that mechanisms of rational thinking and traditional morals values can be too strong on the human psyche · They can repress sexual desires too effectively, crippling individuals and entire peoples with guilt and neurotic fears · Many opponents and some enthusiasts interpreted Freud as saying that the first requirement for mental health is an uninhibited sex life · After WWI, the popular interpretation of Freud reflected and encouraged growing sexual experimentation, particularly among middleclass women.C. Post-war philosophers and authors expanded on theearlier pessimism 1. Paul Valéry (1871-1945): Poet who spoke of the “cruelly injured mind” besieged by doubts and suffering from anxieties due to economic, political, and social disruptions of the 1920s. 2. Logical empiricism (logical positivism)–took root in English-speaking universities a. Developed by Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), part of the Vienna Circle in the 1920s and 1930s. b. Philosophy is only the logical clarification of thoughts c. Abstract concepts regarding God, freedom, morality, etc, are senseless since they can neither be tested by scientific experiments nor demonstrated by the logic of mathematics. d. Only experience is worth analyzing. 3. Anti-utopian authors reflected a pessimistic uncertainfuture a. Oswald Spengler (1880-1936) – The Decline of the West (1918-22) · Every culture experiences a life cycle of growth and decline; Western civilization was in its old age, and death was approaching in the form of conquest by Asians. b. T. S. Eliot (1888-1965), "The Waste Land" (1922): Depicted a world of growing desolation. · Considered the most famous long poem of the 20th century.

c. Franz Kafka (1883-1924): Portrayed helpless individuals destroyed by inexplicably hostile and surreal forces.Unit 10 Notes /p.2 · The Trial (1925), The Castle (1926); TheMetamorphosis (1915) 4. Erich Maria Remarque: All Quiet on the WesternFront, 1929 · Powerful novel detailing the horrors of trench warfare during World War I. 5. Existentialism took root in Continental countriesafter World War II. a. In the wake of the horrors of World War II and theadvent of the atomic age, pessimism and hopelessness were expressed by existentialists. b. Existentialists saw life as absurd, with no inherentmeaning. c. Viewed a world where the individual had to findhis own meaning d. Most existentialists were atheists e. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980): Wrote that lifehad no meaning and that humans simply exist · He was strongly attracted to communism f. Albert Camus (1913-1960) · Individuals had to find meaning to life by taking action against those things with which they disagree. · Ones actions are derived from personal choicesthat are independent from religion or political ideology. g. Martin Heidegger and Karl Jaspers were alsoprominent existentialists. 6. Christian Existentialists shared the loneliness anddespair of atheistic existentialists. a. Stressed human beings’ sinful nature, need forfaith, and the mystery of God’s forgiveness b. Broke with Christian "modernists" of late 19thcentury who reconciled Bible & science c. Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855): rediscovery ofhis 19th century works led to revival of fundamental Christian belief after WWI. d. Believed Christian faith could anchor the individualcaught in troubling modern times. e. T.S. Eliot created his work within a perceivedtraditional Christian framework. · Advocated literary allegiance to tradition. 7. George Orwell (1903-1950) – 1984 (1949): "BigBrother" (the dictator) & his totalitarian state use anew kind of language, sophisticated technology, andpsychological terror to strip a weak individual of hislast shred of human dignity. 8. “Theater of the absurd” also reflected pessimism after World War II · Samuel Beckett (1906-1989): Irish playwright o Waiting for Godot (1952): Throughout the playtwo characters wait for Godot (perhaps God?) but he never comes. The dialogue is disjointed and convoluted.III. Science A. By the late 19th century, science was a major pillarsupporting Western society’s optimistic and rationalisticview of the world.B. "New Physics," much popularized after WWI,challenged long-held ideas and led to uncertainty 1. Max Planck (1858-1947): developed basis for

quantum physics in 1900 a. Postulated matter & energy might be differentforms of the same thing. b. Shook foundations of 19th century physics thatviewed atoms as the stable, basic building blocksof nature, with a different kind of unbreakableatom for each element. 2. Albert Einstein (1879-1955): a. 1905, Theory of relativity of time and spacechallenged traditional ideas of Newtonian physics(E=MC2) b. United apparently infinite universe with incrediblysmall, fast-moving subatomic world. c. Matter and energy are interchangeable and thateven a particle of matter contains enormous levelsof potential energy3. Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937): In 1919, hedemonstrated the atom could be split.4. 1927, Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976): “principle of uncertainty”-- as it is impossible to know the position and speed of an individual election, it is therefore impossible to predict its behavior. · Heisenberg’s principle: The dynamics of an experiment alters the state of the subject. 5. Impact of “new physics” on the common mind a. The new universe seemed strange and troubling. b. Universe was now “relative,” dependent on the observer’s frame of reference. c. Universe was uncertain and undetermined, without stable building blocks. d. Physics no longer provided easy, optimistic answers, or any answers for that matter.IV. Art and EntertainmentA. Functionalism in architecture 1. Late 19th century U.S.: Louis Sullivan pioneeredskyscrapers –"form follows function" 2. In 1905, architectural leadership shifted to German speaking countries (until Hitler in 1930s) 3. Bauhaus movement: Walter Gropius (1883-1969), broke sharply with the past in his design of the Fagus shoe factory at Alfeld, Germany (1911). a. Clean, light, elegant building of glass and iron. b. Represented a jump into the middle of the 20th century.B. Painting 1. Pablo Picasso (1881-1973): most important artist ofthe 20th century a. Developed cubism along with Georges Braque · Cubism concentrated on a complex geometry of zigzagging lines and sharply angled, overlapping planes. b. Often tried to portray all perspectives simultaneously c. Guernica (1937) is considered his masterpiece. · Huge mural portraying the bombing of a Spanish city by the German Luftwaffe in 1937. 2. Non-representational art · Some expressionists like Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944) sought to evoke emotion through non-figural painting 3. Dadaism: "Dada" was a nonsensical word that mirrored a post-WWI world that no longer made sense. a. Attacked all accepted standards of art and behavior, delighting in outrageous conduct. b. e.g., Mona Lisa painted with a mustache (MarcelDuchamp) Fagus Shoe Factory, Alfeld, Germany

4. Surrealism: Salvador Dali (1904-1989) most important (influenced by Freud's emphasis on dreams) a. After 1924, painted a fantastic world of wildUnit 10 Notes /p.3 dreams and complex symbols, where watches melted and giant metronomes beat time in impossible alien landscapes. b. His most famous painting is “Persistence ofMemory”, 1931C. Music 1. Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971): Most importantcomposer of the 20th century · "Rite of Spring" (1906) experimented with newtonalities (many of them dissonant) and aggressive primitive rhythms 2. Arnold Schönberg (1874-1951): pioneered "12-tone" technique (atonality) · This style of music was somewhat akin to WassilyKandinsky’s non-figural painting in his extreme abstract expressionist style.D. Movies 1. Moving pictures were first shown as a popular novelty in naughty peepshows and penny arcades in the1890s, especially in Paris. 2. Charlie Chaplin (1889-1978), Englishman, becamethe king of the “silver screen” in Hollywood during the1920s. 3. German studios excelled in expressionist dramas—e.g., The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1919). 4. Advent of “talkies” (films with sound) in 1927resulted in a revival of national film industries in1930s, especially France 5. Motion pictures became the main entertainment ofthe masses until after WWII. 6. Motion pictures, like radio, became powerful tools ofindoctrination, esp. in countries with dictatorialregimes. a. Lenin encouraged development of Soviet filmmaking leading to epic films in the mid-1920s. · Most famous films directed by SergeiEisenstein (1898-1948) who dramatized thecommunist view of Russian history. b. In Germany, Leni Riefenstahl directed amasterpiece of documentary propaganda, TheTriumph of the Will, based on the Nazi party rallyat Nuremberg in 1934.E. Radio 1. Guglielmo Marconi developed transatlantic“wireless” communication in 1901 2. Radio was used for military purposes in WWI 3. Not until 1920 were first major public broadcasts ofspecial events made in Great Britain & US 4. Most countries established direct control of radio bythe gov’t (only in U.S. was there private ownership) a. British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) b. Radio became used effectively for politicalpropaganda (e.g. Hitler & Mussolini)

Democracies in the 1920sI. Fear of CommunismA. In 1919 fear of Bolshevism swept through Europe (also known as "Red Scare")

B. Civil war in Russia raged as the Bolsheviks weredefeating their numerically superior “White” opponentsC. Communist revolutionaries took over Berlin for a week in January, 1919II. Weimar RepublicA. The Social Democratic Party (S.P.D.) took control ofthe government on November 9, 1918 1. Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated that same evening 2. The S.P.D. had been the largest party in Germanyprior to the war 3. Fear of communist revolutions throughout the country prompted Philip Scheidemann to proclaim a republic, but without official consent from any other parties.B. Threats from the Left 1. Germany’s lack of experience with democratic traditions made the Weimar’s hold on power tenuous 2. The Weimar Republic had to rely on conservative military groups to save it from communist outbreaks throughout the country a. This hurt the republic’s prestige b. The gov’t was given support by the military provided that the gov’t maintain discipline in the army and root out Bolshevism · In effect, the Weimar gov’t became a prisoner of the German army 3. “Freikorps” (Free Corps), right-wing paramilitary groups that formed after the war, became the vanguard of anti-communist repression 4. Spartacists, a group of communists led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, took control of Berlinfor a week in January 1919. · Elements of the “Freikorps” crushed the communist uprising, killing its leadersC. Elections in January created a center-left coalition incharge of running the government 1. S.P.D. had the most seats in the Reichstag but alsoshared power with the Center Party and the GermanDemocratic Party. 2. The capital was moved to Weimar to distance thegov’t from the Prussian imperial traditions of BerlinD. Treaty of Versailles, 1919 1. To Germans of all political parties, the Versailles Treaty represented a harsh, dictated peace, to be revised or repudiated as soon as possible. a. Article 231 placed sole blame of the war on Germany. b. Germany required to pay enormous reparations toBritain and France c. Germany’s military strength severely weakened d. Germany lost Alsace & Lorraine to France e. Germany lost eastern territory to Poland · East Prussia was separated from the rest of Germany by the “Polish Corridor” that extended north to the Baltic Sea. f. French troops would occupy territory west of the Rhine River and a small strip of land east of the Rhine to ensure against German aggression. · These territories were to be permanently demilitarized g. France took economic control of the Saar border region which was rich in coal and iron mines · The region would be administered for 15 years by the League of Nations · After 15 years, the people of the Saar could vote on whether to remain part of Germany or become part of France.

2. France was eager to punish Germany (but even moreeager to ensure its future security against German aggression)Unit 10 Notes /p.4 3. While Britain also sought to punish Germany, manyBrits believed a healthy German economy wasessential to a healthy British economy. · John Maynard Keynes (most significant economist of 20th century) criticized Versailles Treaty, declaring its punishing of Germany would damage the European economy. o Economic Consequences of the Peace, 1919 4. The Weimar Gov’t in June 1919 signed the Versailles Treaty probably dooming the Weimar Republic from the start · Conservatives, including influential militaryelements, saw the signing of the treaty as a “stab in the back” or the “diktat”—the “dictated peace”E. New Constitution created in August 1919 1. Reichsrat: upper chamber represented the Federalstates. 2. Reichstag: lower house elected by universal suffrage;supplied the Chancellor and Cabinet. 3. President elected for a 7-year term. 4. Female suffrage grantedF. Threats from the Right 1. Kapp Putsch, 1920 a. Conservative politicians and businessmen, withhelp from disgruntled army officers, took controlof Berlin in March and declared a new government b. Conservative parties gave their support 2. At the same time, right-wing conservatives tookcontrol of Bavaria 3. Chancellor Ebert implored workers to defend theWeimar Republic a. A general strike resulted which brought thecountry’s economic activities to a halt b. The putsch collapsed as a result and the republicwas saved 4. Though certain conservative groups failed to takepower forcefully, they continued to gain seats in theReichstag 5. The S.P.D. eventually withdrew from the governmentleaving a fragile center-right coalition in charge.G. Ruhr Crisis, 1923 1. Reparations: As provided for in the Versailles Treaty, the Allies announced in 1921 that Germany had to pay almost $34 billion in reparations · Germany's economy was still weak and it couldnot pay all of the reparations. 2. 1923, France, led by Raymond Poincaré, occupiedthe industrial Ruhr region of Germany. · In response, the Weimar gov’t ordered Ruhr residents to stop working & passively resist Frenchoccupation. 3. Runaway inflation occurred when Germany printedmoney to pay reparations a. The value of the German mark went from approximately 9 marks per U.S. dollar in 1919 to 4.2 trillion marks per dollar by mid-November 1923! b. Brought about a social revolution in Germany:Accumulated savings of many retired and middleclass

people were wiped out c. Middle-class resented the gov't and blamedWestern gov't, big business, workers, Jews, andcommunists for nation's woes. 4. Beer Hall Putsch, 1923: Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party failed to overthrow the state of Bavaria and Hitler was sentenced to one year in jail (where he wrote Mein Kampf.) · Hitler’s light jail term reflected conservative judges who sympathized with anti-republican views. 5. Gustav Stresemann assumed leadership in 1923 a. Called off passive resistance in Ruhr and agreed to pay reparations (but also sought consideration of Germany's ability to pay) · Poincaré agreed b. Supported by Social Democrats c. Stresemann restored Germany to normal status in the European community with the Locarno Pact in 1925 6. Dawes Plan, 1924: League of Nations plan thatrestructured Germany's debt with U.S. loans to Germany to pay back Britain and France, who likewise paid back the U.S. a. Resulted in German economic recovery b. Young Plan (1929): continuation of Dawes Plan (moot when Great Depression hit)H. Germany rejoined the world community of nations 1. Locarno Pact, 1925: Germany and other Europeannations agreed to settle all disagreements peacefully. ("spirit of Locarno" = peace) 2. Germany allowed to join League of Nations in 1926 a. In return, Germany had to guarantee western borders with France and Belgium b. Disagreement over Germany’s eastern border withPoland remained unresolved 3. Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928: Renounced war as "illegal" except for self-defense; signed by 62 nations but had no real enforcement mechanismIII. France: economic problemsA. Challenges were similar to those in GermanyB. Death, devastation, and debt of WWI created economicchaos and political unrestC. Throughout the 1920s, the government’s multi-partysystem was dominated by parties on the right(conservatives) · Supported status quo and had backing of business,army, and Church.D. 1926, Raymond Poincaré was recalled to office · Gov’t slashed spending and raised taxes, restoringconfidence in the economy.IV. Great BritainA. Wartime trend toward greater social equality continued,helping maintain social harmony. 1. Representation of the Peoples Act (1928): women over 21 gained the right to vote. (Representation of Peoples Act of 1918 had given women over 30 the right to vote). 2. Yet, the concentration of wealth in Britain was more geared towards the top than any other European country · Top 1% owned 2/3 of the national wealthB. Unemployment was Britain's biggest problem in 1920s:about 12% 1. Did not recover from economic losses suffered duringWWI 2. 1926, General Strike: support of miners who feareda dramatic drop in their low wages swept the country.

a. The strike eventually failed b. Gov’t outlawed such “sympathetic” labor strikes in1927Unit 10 Notes /p.5 C. Growth of social welfare 1. After WWI, the gov’t provided unemployment benefits of equal size to the unemployed and supplemented those payments with subsidized housing (200,000 units), medical aid, and increased old-age pensions. 2. Labour party rose as a champion of the workingclasses and of greater social equality and took powerbriefly in 1924 (9 months) a. Led by Ramsay MacDonald b. Labour Party came to replace the Liberal Party asmain opposition to conservatives. · Liberal party’s traditional 19th century support of free trade no longer seemed as relevant c. Conservatives regained power by framing theLabour party as pro-communist when it officiallyrecognized the Soviet Union3. Conservatives under Stanley Baldwin (1867-1947)ruled Britain between 1924 and 1929. · Showed the same compromising spirit on socialissues: female suffrage, expanded pensions to widows, orphans and the elderly.D. The Irish Question 1. After Easter Rebellion (1916) the extremist SinnFein faction gained prominence in Ireland. 2. Prompted a civil war between the Irish RepublicanArmy (IRA) and the Black and Tan, England’s special occupation forces there. 3. October 1921, London created the Irish Free State,from which Ulster withdrew, as part of the British Commonwealth (Northern Ireland) 4. In 1922, Britain granted southern, Catholic Irelandfull autonomy after failing to suppress a bitter guerrilla war.E. Loosening of the empire 1. End of its protectorate in Egypt (except Suez Canal) 2. Equality of British Dominions – Canada and AustraliaV. The Great Depression (1929-1933)A. Causes 1. Long-term problems within the U.S. economy: weakinternational economy, overproduction, unstable banking, certain weak industries, 1/2 of all Americanslived below poverty line. 2. Overproduction of agriculture in Europe (drove prices down thus hurting farmers) 3. Stock Market Crash (1929) may have triggeredU.S. depression that spread world wide 4. In 1931, Britain went off the gold standard; 20 othercountries followed suit 5. 1930, U.S. instituted extremely high Hawley-SmootTariff which resulted in retaliation by 23 other countries. 6. New York bankers began recalling loans made toGermany and other European countries, thus exacerbating Europe’s economic crisis.B. Impact on Europe 1. Shattered the fragile optimism of political leaders inthe late 1920s

2. Decline of production occurred in every country(except Russia with its command economy). 3. Mass unemployment resulted: Germany hit hardest(43%); Britain 18%, U.S. 25%C. Attempted remedies 1. Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" in U.S. sought toreform capitalism with increased gov't intervention inthe economy a. Influenced certain European countries b. Keynesian approach (developed by John MaynardKeynes) used after 1938 to permanently prop up the economy through public works programs and subsidies. 2. Scandinavia's response to depression was most successful under its socialist gov't 3. British recovery a. Orthodox economic theory followed after 1929: abandoned gold-standard, reorganized industry, increased tariffs, reformed finances, cut gov’t spending, balanced budget (although unemployed workers received barely enough welfare to live on) b. Economy recovered considerably after 1932. c. Years after 1932 actually better than in the 1920s. d. Like the U.S., Britain came out permanently fromdepression due to rearmament for WWII 4. France a. Impact of the depression didn’t occur immediatelyas France wasn't as highly industrialized as Britain, Germany & the US b. The depression increased class tensions and gave birth to a radical right that supported gov’t reorganization along fascist lines. c. Popular Front: Threat of fascism prompted coalition of republicans, socialists, communists and radicals · Popular Front led by Leon Blúm d. “French New Deal”: Inspired by U.S. New Deal, encouraged union movement and launched far reachingprogram of social reform, complete with paid vacations and a 40-hr work week. · Failed due to high inflation and agitation fromfascists and frightened conservatives in the Senate. e. French divisions over what actions to take in theSpanish Civil War destroyed the Popular Front in 1936 f. France remained politically divided as Germanycontinued its rearmament in late 1930s

Totalitarianism: 1920-1940Definition: government controls all aspects of the lives of the people.I. Totalitarianism A. Totalitarianism vs. conservative authoritarianism: acontrast 1. Conservative authoritarianism: traditional form ofanti-democratic government in Europe (absolutism) a. e.g., Louis XIV, Peter the Great, Frederick theGreat, Catherine the Great, Metternich b. Regimes sought to prevent major changes fromundermining the existing social order · Most people went about their lives and were more concerned with local affairs that directly affected them rather than national affairs

c. Popular participation in government was forbidden or severely limited · This is a stark contrast to 20th century totalitarianism where people were expected to participate in the system and actively support the regimeUnit 10 Notes /p.6 o Stalin’s 5-Year Plans in Russia o Hitler Youth in Germany d. Limited in power and in objectives (usually soughtthe status quo) · Lacked modern technology and communications and could not control many aspects of their subjects’ lives. · Usually limited demands to taxes, army recruits, and passive acceptance of the regime e. Conservative authoritarianism revived after WWI,especially in less-developed eastern Europe and in Spain and Portugal · Only Czechoslovakia remained democratic. f. Great Depression in the 1930s ended various levels of democracy in Austria, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Estonia, and Latvia 2. Totalitarianism a. New technology made this possible: radio,automobile, telephone · Governments could wiretap telephone lines to spy on suspected dissenters. · Improved communication enabled regimes tocoordinate quickly with local officials · Radio was a new tool used for propaganda (inaddition to the traditional printed media) · Automobiles and trucks gave regimesincreased mobility b. Tools of totalitarianism: censorship, indoctrination,terror · Virtually no freedom of the press; the press became an organ of the government · Education was geared to creating loyal citizens of the state while demonizing potential enemies · Failure to support or comply with government policy often resulted in physical punishment, imprisonment or deathB. Totalitarian regimes were either fascist or communist 1. Communist in Russia (Soviet Union) 2. Fascist in Italy and GermanyM COMMUNISM*F-Glorification of the state C-World wide "dictatorship of the proletariat" (classless society)F-Single party; single ruler (dictator)C-One party (communist) under the control of the Politburo. Dictatorship is not the final goal.F-Condemns democracy: rival parties destroy unity. Man is unable to successfully govern collectively.C-Condemns capitalism for exploiting workers (“haves” vs. “have nots”)F-Supports the idea of capitalism & owning of private property so long as it serves the needs of the stateC-Government controls all means of production (industrial & agricultural). No private ownership.F-Corporate State: captains of industry become stateeconomic deputies

C-Economy is centralized under the communist partyF-Aggressive nationalism C-Spread of communism for the benefit of the world's working class (Comintern)

F-Advocates Social Darwinism (powerful states control weaker ones)C-Condemns imperialism: advocates a world withoutnationalism with the workers unitedF-Believes desire for peace shows weakness of gov'tC-Peace is the ultimate goalF-Glorification of war (military sacrifice is glorified)C-Violent revolution to bring about the "dictatorship of theproletariat." War is not the end but merely the means.F-Emphasizes the inequalities among humansC-Emphasizes the perfectibility of society. Mankind is basically good. * While Marxist views may appear more benevolent and utopian in theory, 20th century communism in reality became as brutal a system as fascism, perhaps more so considering the massive deaths in the USSR at the hands of the governmentII. Soviet Union (USSR) A. Under Vladimir I. Lenin 1. Marxist-Leninist philosophy a. Theory of imperialism: imperialism is the highestform of capitalism as the search for new markets and raw materials feeds the bourgeois hunger for more profits · Conquered peoples are ruthlessly exploited b. "New type of party": cadre of educated professional revolutionaries to serve development of political class consciousness & guidance of the "Dictatorship of Proletariat" · Lenin’s view stood in stark contrast to Marx who did not envision a totalitarian dictatorship from above (by elites) but rather from below (by the workers) c. Like Marx, Lenin sought a world-wide communistmovement · 1919, Comintern created (Third CommunistsInternational) o Was to serve as the preliminary step of the International Republic of Soviets towards the world wide victory of Communism 2. War Communism a. Purpose was to win the Russian Civil War (1918-1920) b. First mass communist society in world history c. Socialization (nationalization) of all means of production & central planning of the economy d. In reality, the Bolsheviks destroyed the economy: mass starvation from crop failures, decrease in industrial output e. Secret police (Cheka) liquidated about 250,000 opponents 3. Kronstadt Rebellion (1921) a. Mutiny by previously pro-Bolshevik sailors in March at Kronstadt naval base had to be crushed with machine gun fire. b. Caused by the economic disaster and social upheaval of the Russian Civil War. c. Major cause for Lenin instituting the NEP 4. NEP – New Economic Policy, 1921-28 a. Sought to eliminate harsh aspects of War Communism

b. Lenin’s response to peasant revolts, military mutiny, and economic ruin c. Some Capitalist measures allowed (Lenin: "necessary step backwards") · Gov't would not seize surplus grain; peasants could sell grain on the open market · Small manufacturers allowed to run their own businessesUnit 10 Notes /p.7 d. Gov't was still in control of heavy industry, banksand railroads. e. Results of the NEP: the Russian economyimproved · Industry and agricultural output back to pre-WWI levels · Workers shorter hours/better conditions · Temporary relaxing of terror and censorship 5. Lenin’s impact on Russian society a. “Russia” renamed to Soviet Union in 1922 (Unionof Soviet Socialist Republics – USSR) b. Old social structure abolished – titles for nobilityended c. Loss of influence for the Greek Orthodox Church d. Women gained equality (in theory) e. Russians had greater expectation of freedom thanthey had during the Czar’s regime (althoughexpectations were later crushed by Stalin)B. A power struggle ensued after Lenin’s death in 1924 1. Lenin left no chosen successor 2. Joseph Stalin was more a realist and believed in"Socialism in one Country" a. First, Russia had to be strong internally and should defer efforts for an international communist revolution b. Sought establishment of a Socialist economywithout the aid of the West 3. Leon Trotsky was more the Marxist ideologue andbelieved in "permanent revolution"—a continuation ofa world communist revolution · Party leaders believed Trotsky was too idealistic;Russia first had to survive 4. Stalin gained effective control in 1927 and had totalcontrol by 1929 · Trotsky was exiled and eventually assassinated byStalin’s agents in Mexico City (1940)C. Soviet Union under Stalin 1. Entire Politburo from Lenin's time was eventuallypurged leaving Stalin in absolute control. 2. The 5-year plans a. "Revolution from above" (1st Five-Year Plan),1928; marked the end of Lenin’s NEP b. Objectives: · Increase industrial output by 250%; steel by300%; agriculture by 150% · 20% of peasants were scheduled to give uptheir private plots and join collective farms · “We are 50 or 100 years behind the advancedcountries. We must make good this distance in10 years. Either we do it or we shall go under.” c. Results: · Steel up 400% (USSR now 2nd largest steelproducer in Europe) · Oil production up 300%

· Massive urbanization: 25 million people movedto cities · Yet, quality of goods was substandard and thestandard of living did not rise 3. Collectivization was the greatest of all costs underthe Five-year Plans a. Purpose: bring peasantry under absolute controlof the communist state · Use of machines in farm production, to freemore people to work in industry · Gov't control over production · Extend socialism to countryside b. Resulted in consolidation of individual peasantfarms into large, state-controlled enterprises. c. Farmers were paid according to the amount ofwork they did · A portion of their harvest was taken by thegov't · Eventually, the state was assured of grain for urban workers who were more important politically to Stalin than the peasants. · Collective farmers first had to meet grain quotas before feeding themselves. d. Results: · Significantly opposed by farmers as it placedthem in a bound situation (like the mirs). · Kulaks, wealthiest peasants, offered greatest resistance to collectivization · Stalin ordered party workers to "liquidate them as a class." · 10 million peasants died due to collectivization (7 million in forced starvation in Ukraine) · Agricultural output no greater than in 1913 · By 1933, 60% of peasant families were on collective farms; 93% by 1938 4. Structure of gov't a. Central Committee was the apex of Soviet power (about 70 people in 1930s) b. Politburo: About a dozen members; dominated discussions of policy and personnel c. General Secretary: highest position of power;created by Stalin 5. Stalin's propaganda campaign a. Purpose: glorify work to the Soviet people andencourage worker productivity b. Used technology for propaganda · Newspapers like Pravda (“The Truth”), films, and radio broadcasts emphasized socialist achievements and capitalist plots. · Sergei Eisenstein (1898-1914): quintessential patriotic filmmaker under Stalin · Writers & artists expected to glorify Stalin and the state; their work was closely monitored c. Religion was persecuted: Stalin hoped to turn churches into "museums of atheism" 6. Benefits for workers: a. Old-age pensions, free medical services, free education, and day-care centers for children b. Education was key to improving one’s position: specialized skills and technical education.

c. Many Russians saw themselves building the world’s first socialist society while capitalism crumbled during the Great Depression · USSR attracted many disillusioned Westerners to communism in the 1930s. 7. Women a. The Russian Revolution immediately proclaimedcomplete equality of rights for women b. In 1920s divorce and abortion made easily available c. Women were urged by the state to work outsideUnit 10 Notes /p.8 the home and liberate themselves sexually. · Many women worked as professionals and inuniversities. · Women still expected to do household choresin off hours as Soviet men considered home and children women’s responsibility. · Men continued to monopolize the best jobs. · Rapid change and economic hardship led to many broken families. 8. The “Great Terror” (1934-38) a. First directed against peasants after 1929, terror was used increasingly on leading Communists, powerful administrators, and ordinary people, often for no apparent reason. b. The "Great Terror" resulted in 8 million arrests c. Show trials were used to eradicate "enemies ofthe people" (usually ex-party members) d. Late 1930s, dozens of Old Bolsheviks (had beenLenin’s closest followers) were tried and executed e. Purges: 40,000 army officers were expelled orliquidated (weakened USSR in WWII) f. Millions of citizens were killed, died in gulags(forced labor camps), or simply disappearedIII. Fascist Italy A. Causes for the rise of fascism in Italy 1. In the early 20th century, Italy was a liberal state with civil rights and a constitutional monarchy. 2. Versailles Treaty (1919): Italian nationalists were angry that Italy did not receive any Austrian or Ottoman territory, (Italia Irredenta) or Germany’s African colonies as promised. · Prime minister Vittorio Orlando angrily left theParis Peace Conference before it was completed 3. Depression in 1919 caused nationwide strikes andclass tension 4. Wealthy classes fearful of communist revolutionlooked to a strong anti-communist leader 5. By 1921 revolutionary socialists, conservatives andproperty owners were all opposed to liberal parliamentary government. 6. Fascism in Italy eventually was a combination ofconservative authoritarianism and modern totalitarianism (although not as extreme as Russia or Germany)B. Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) rises to power ("IlDuce") 1. Although he was the editor of a socialist newspaper,he was, at heart, a nationalist. 2. Organized the Fascist party a. Combined socialism and nationalism: territorialexpansion, benefits for workers, and land reform for peasants.

b. Party was named after fasces: the rods carried byImperial Roman officials as symbols of power. c. Initially, his party failed to prevail because of competition from the well-organized Socialists. 3. 1920, Mussolini gained support of the conservativeclasses and frightened middle class for anti-Socialistrhetoric; abandoned his socialist programs. 4. Blackshirts (squadristi): Paramilitary forces attackedCommunists, Socialists, and other enemies of the fascist program (later, Hitler's "Brown Shirts"followed this example) · This significantly undermined the stability of thegovernment. 5. March on Rome, October 1922: led to Mussolinitaking power a. Mussolini demanded resignation of existing gov’tand his own appointment by the king. b. Large group of Fascists marched on Rome to threaten the king to accept Mussolini's demands. c. Government collapsed; Mussolini received right toorganize a new cabinet (government). d. King Victor Emmanuel III gave him dictatorialpowers for 1 year to end nation’s social unrest.C. Corporate State (syndicalist-corporate system) wasthe economic basis for Italian fascism. 1. “Everything in the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state.” 2. By 1928, all independent labor unions were organizedinto government-controlled syndicates a. Established organizations of workers and employers; outlawed strikes and walkouts. b. Created corporations which coordinated activitiesbetween worker-employer syndicates. c. Authority from the top, unlike socialist corporatestates where workers made decisions.D. Mussolini created a dictatorship 1. Right to vote was severely limited. 2. All candidates for the Italian parliament were selectedby the Fascist party. 3. Gov’t ruled by decree. 4. Dedicated fascists put in control of schools. 5. Gov’t sought to regulate leisure time of the people. · Fascist youth movement (Balilla) · Labor unions · The Dopolavoro (“After Work”): social activities forthe working class 6. Italy never truly became a totalitarian regime a. Mussolini never became all-powerful b. Failed in attempt to “Fascistize” Italian society bycontrolling leisure time c. Old power structure of conservatives, military, andchurch remained intact. · Mussolini never attempted to purge conservative classes. · He propagandized and controlled labor but left big business to regulate itself. · No land reform occurred d. Did not establish ruthless police state (only 23political prisoners executed between 1926-1944) e. Racial laws not passed until 1938 and savage persecution of Jews did not occur until late in WWII when Italy was under German Nazi control. 7. Women

a. Unlike Russia’s more modern approach to genderissues, Italy’s social structure emphasized a traditional role for women · This also became the case in Nazi Germany b. Divorce was abolished and women told to stay home and procreate. c. In an attempt to promote marriage, Mussolini decreed a special tax on bachelors in 1934. d. By 1938, women were limited by law to a maximum of 10% of better-paying jobs in industry & gov'tUnit 10 Notes /p.9 E. Accomplishments under Mussolini 1. Internal improvements made such as electrificationand road building. 2. More efficient government at the municipal (city)level. 3. Suppression of the Mafia (which was especially strong in southern Italy and Sicily) 4. Improvement of the justice system (except for“enemies of the state”) 5. Lateran Pact, 1929, resulted in reconciliation withthe papacy a. Vatican recognized as a tiny independent state;received $92 mil for seized church lands b. In return, Pope Pius XII recognized the legitimacyof the Italian state.F. Fascist legacy 1. Italian democracy destroyed 2. Terrorism became a state policy. 3. Poor industrial growth due to militarism andcolonialism. 4. Disastrous wars resulted (from attempt to recaptureimperialistic glories of Ancient Rome).IV. Nazi Germany A. Roots of Nazism: Extreme nationalism + racism =Nazism 1. Hyper-nationalism fed the impulse to conquer othernations · The alleged “stab in the back”—the WeimarRepublic’s signing of the Versailles Treaty—fed thenation’s frustration 2. Racist ideas a. Racial superiority of the Aryan Race—Germanicpeoples b. Inferiority of Jews and SlavsB. Rise of Adolf Hitler 1. Became leader of National Socialist GermanWorkers Party (NAZI) after WWI · Tiny group of only 7 members that grew dramatically within just a few years 2. S.A. ("Brown Shirts"): Nazi paramilitary group thatterrorized political opponents on the streets. · In effect, the private army of the Nazis who werevery loyal to Hitler 3. Beer Hall Putsch, 1923: Hitler failed in his attemptto overthrow the state of Bavaria (and ultimately, Germany) and was sentenced to a 1-year jail term a. The issue gave Hitler national attention b. Hitler realized in the future he'd have to takecontrol of Germany legally, not through revolution 4. Mein Kampf (1923) written while in jail: became the

blueprint for Hitler's future plans a. Lebensraum (“living space”): Germans shouldexpand east, remove the Jews and turn the Slavs into slave labor b. Anti-Semitism: Hitler blamed the Jews forGermany's political and economic problems c. Leader-dictator, Führer, would have unlimitedarbitrary power 5. Fall of Weimar Republic was a result of the GreatDepression a. Unemployment reached 43% by end of 1932 b. Economic chaos and political impotence played into Hitler’s hands · Hitler began promising German voters economic, political, and military salvation. · Hitler promised big business leaders he would restore the economy by breaking Germany’s strong labor movement and reducing workers’ wages if necessary. · Hitler assured top army leaders that the Nazis would reject the Versailles Treaty and rearm Germany. · Nazis also appealed to the German youth: o 40% of party under age 30 in 1931; 67% under 40 c. 1930, Chancellor gained permission from President Hindenburg for emergency rule by decree · Struggle between Social Democrats & Communists contributed to the breakdown of the Weimar gov't. d. The Nazis won the largest percentage of votes inthe Reichstag in 1933 elections (though not a majority) · Demanded that Hitler play a leadership role in the government e. Hitler became Chancellor on January 30, 1933;appointed by President Paul von Hindenburg.C. The Third Reich (1933-1945) 1. Hitler quickly consolidated power a. Reichstag fire occurred during violent electoralcampaign in 1933 · Incident used by the Nazis to crack down onthe communists b. The S.A. stepped up its terrorism of politicalopponents c. Enabling Act (March 1933) passed by Reichstag · Gave Hitler absolute dictatorial power for fouryears · Only the Nazi party was legal d. Hitler outlawed strikes and abolished independentlabor unions. e. Publishers, universities, and writers brought intoline · Democratic, socialist, and Jewish literature put on blacklists. · Students and professors burned forbidden books in public squares. · Modern art and architecture were prohibited (dubbed "degenerate art" by the Nazis) 2. Joseph Goebbles: minister of propaganda effectively glorified Hitler and the Nazi state · Leni Riefenstal’s Triumph of the Will (a documentary of the Nuremburg rally of 1934) was used by the regime as propaganda to make Hitler look larger than life and glorify the Nazi regime. 3. “Night of Long Knives” (June 1934)

a. Hitler was warned that the army and big business were suspicious of the S.A. b. To please conservatives, Hitler’s elite personal guard—the S.S.—arrested and shot without trial about 1,000 SA leaders and other political enemies. c. The S.S. grew dramatically in influence as Hitler'sprivate army and secret police · Led by Heinrich Himmler 4. The S.S. joined with the political police, the Gestapo, to expand its network of special courts and concentration camps. 5. Hitler Youth: Nazis indoctrinated German youthswith views of German racial superiority and Jews asUnit 10 Notes /p.10 the source of Germany’s problems a. Eventually, membership in the Hitler Youtheffectively became mandatory · This is an example of how totalitarian regimesdemanded participation by the masses (in contrast to 17th century absolutism where regimes merely sought obedience) b. Children were encouraged to turn in their teachersor even their parents if they seemed disloyal to the Reich 6. Persecution of Jews a. By the end of 1934, most Jewish lawyers, doctors,professors, civil servants, and musicians had lost their jobs and the right to practice their professions. b. Nuremburg Laws of 1935 deprived Jews of allrights of citizenship. · Marriage or sex between Jews and other Germans was prohibited · Jews could not hire German women under the age of 45 as domestic workers · Jews were forbidden from displaying the Reich or national flag c. Other laws were passed: Jews could not use hospitals; could not be educated past the age of 14; were prohibited from using parks, libraries and beaches; war memorials were to have Jewish names removed d. By 1939, 50% of Germany’s 500,000 Jews hademigrated (many were the "cream of the crop") · Huge emigration fees and confiscation of Jewish property helped the government to finance economy recovery. e. Kristallnacht (“The Night of Broken Glass”) --1938 · Hitler ordered an attack on Jewish communities(using the assassination of a German diplomat in Paris by young Jewish boy as pretense) · Well-organized wave of violence destroyed homes, synagogues, and businesses. · Thousands of Jews were arrested and made to pay for the damage. f. Holocaust: 6 million European Jews were eventually killed during WWII ("Final Solution") 7. Other victims of Nazi persecution included Slavs,Gypsies, Jehovah’s Witnesses, communists, homosexuals, mentally handicapped, and politicalopponents (totaled 6 million by 1945) a. T4 project: 200,000 handicapped and elderlypeople were murdered by 1939 in the name of maintaining Aryan purity.

D. German economic recovery 1. Major reason for Hitler's soaring popularity · Hitler delivered on his economic promise of “workand bread.” 2. Large public works program started to get Germanyout of the depression. · Included superhighways (autobahn), offices, gigantic sports stadiums, and public housing. 3. 1936 Olympics were held in Berlin, signaling Germany’s legitimacy by the international community 4. 1936, Germany began rearmament and governmentspending began to focus on the military. 5. Results of Nazi economic policies b. Unemployment dropped from 6 million in January 1933, to about one million in late 1936. c. By 1938, shortage of workers existed; women took many jobs earlier denied by antifeminist Nazis. d. By 1938 standard of living for the average employed worker increased moderately. e. Profits of business rose sharply.E. Nazi society: was there really a social revolution? 1. Well-educated classes held on to most of the advantages they possessed prior to the rise of Hitler 2. Only a modest social leveling occurred. 3. Like fascist Italy, women were viewed as housewives and mothers. a. Hitler implored German women to “make babies for the Reich” b. Birth control information and abortions were forbidden for German women (although allowed for unwanted groups such as Jews, Gypsies and Slavs c. Women were denied most meaningful occupations outside the home d. Only in wartime were large numbers of womenmobilized for work in offices & factories.

World War III. Failure of collective security and peaceA. Treaty of Versailles (1919) did not create an enduringpeace 1. Severe punishment of Germany due to Article 231 resulted in conservative German resentment against the "dictated peace" (“diktat”) 2. League of Nations, without the U.S. & USSR, didn't have the will nor the support to maintain peace. · During the 1930s, the League essentially stood by while aggressors like Germany and Italy invaded other countries and violated provisions of the Versailles Treaty.B. Washington Naval Conference, 1921-22: did not stop the naval arms race between the West and Japan 1. Five Power Treaty: created a 5-5-3 battleship ratio between U.S., Britain and Japan · Yet, smaller naval vessels were exempt from the agreement 2. Four Power Treaty a. Replaced Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 b. Bound Britain, Japan, France, and the U.S. to preserve status quo in the Pacific, a concession to Japan’s favor.C. “Paper agreements” of the 1920s had few enforcementmechanisms 1. Locarno Pact, 1925: Germany and other European nations agreed to settle all disputes peacefully.

a. Gave Europeans a false sense of security about the future b. “Spirit of Locarno" was no longer relevant once Hitler took power c. Provisions were not enforceable 2. Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928 a. 62 nations signed the treaty proclaiming "war is illegal" (unless for purely defensive purposes) b. Once again, the treaty lacked enforcement provisions c. Hitler later claimed that his aggressive military ventures were for “defensive purposes”D. Great Depression resulted in the rise of fascism in Japanand Germany 1. Japan invaded Manchuria, 1931 a. League of Nations condemned the invasion but didUnit 10 Notes /p.11 little by way of sanctions b. Japan pulled out of the League 2. Hitler withdrew from League of Nations in 1933 andsecretly began rearmament 3. London Economic Conference in 1933 failed toachieve international cooperation in remedying thedepression a. The U.S. played a major role in undermining the treaty b. The conference’s failure sent a strong signal to Hitler that the democracies lacked the organization and will to address international crisesE. Stresa Front, 1935 1. Mussolini and others grew concerned when Hitlerwithdrew from Versailles Treaty 2. Italy, France, and Britain protested strongly,understanding the danger · Agreed to use force to maintain the political statusquo in Europe 3. Ironically, a year later Mussolini allied Italy with Hitler to help fascists win in the Spanish civil war.F. Italian invasion of Ethiopia, 1935 1. Italy gained a measure of revenge for its earlierdefeat by the Ethiopians in 1896. · 500,000 Ethiopians died in the war compared to only 5,000 Italians. 2. League of Nations imposed sanctions on Italy, but did not include oil on the list of embargoed goods. a. No attempt was made to prevent Italy’s navy fromusing the Suez Canal on its way toward Ethiopia. b. France and Britain were not willing to press Italybecause they needed Italy’s help in keeping Hitler in check. · Britain, in particular, sought to appease Italy to end the crisis and only placed an embargo on the sale British weapons to Italy. c. In 1936, the League lifted its sanction on Italy. d. The Stresa Front was now defunct as Mussoliniclearly defied the League of Nations 3. Hitler was further encouraged that the internationalcommunity lacked the will to enforce peaceG. Spanish Civil War , 1936-1939 1. Generalissimo Francisco Franco, a fascist, sought tooverthrow the republican government in Spain

a. Franco sought to restore power of the Catholic Church & destroy socialism & communism in Spain b. Civil War erupted between the fascists (Falangistsor Royalists) and the republican Loyalists 2. Mussolini and Hitler supported Franco and used theconflict as a testing ground for their military forces a. Italy sent 100,000 soldiers to Spain and the Italian army gained practical experience in warfare b. Germany's air force – the Luftwaffe—bombedrepublican-held cities · The bombing of innocent civilians in the city ofGuernica prompted Pablo Picasso to paint his masterpiece—Guernica—in 1937. 3. Franco won the war and imposed a fascistdictatorship in Spain a. Help from Germany and Italy was a major causefor the fascist victory. b. Britain and France officially recognized Franco’sgovernment c. The League of Nations once again proved ineffective, this time in helping republican Loyalists against Franco. · Ineffective in patrolling Spain’s borders toprevent supplies from reaching Franco’s forces d. Hoping to maintain peace, the British government did little to help the Loyalists e. In France, the issue of the war split the government and led to the fall of the leftist Popular Front. 4. In response to military cooperation in Spain, the Rome-Berlin Axis was formed ("Fascintern"): an alliance between fascist Italy and GermanyH. Germany reoccupied the Rhineland, 1936 1. Directly violated the Versailles Treaty (as well as theLocarno Pact) a. The Rhineland—a region between the Franco-German border and the Rhine River—had been demilitarized in the Versailles Treaty. · This would guarantee France that German forces were not directly across the border. b. The German military high command was very nervous: feared Germany was still too weak to effectively resist a Franco-British invasion and that Hitler was being reckless c. The League of Nation’s futility in earlier crises convinced Hitler that France and Britain would do nothing 2. France was unwilling to enforce the treaty withoutBritish aid a. This may have been the turning point in the balance of power · France was still more powerful than Germany and may have been able to defeat and remove Hitler b. Pacifism in Britain, stemming from the horrible memories of World War I, made the government reluctant to risk another world war with Germany. · By the mid 1930s, there were many in Britain who believed Germany had been unfairly punished by the Versailles Treaty 3. For the first time since World War I, Germany nowhad troops close to the Franco-German border · Posed a major threat to France’s securityI. Japan invaded China in 1937 · The League of Nations watched the "rape of Shanghai" but did little to punish JapanII. Germany’s conquests in Europe lead to World War II

A. Hitler repudiated the Versailles Treaty and began massive rearmament in the mid-1930s · This was an important reason for Germany’s economic recovery from the depressionB. Anschluss (March 1938): Germany annexed Austria 1. Germany’s threat of military action forced the Austrian Chancellor to resign 2. Austrian Nazi party assumed control and requested that Germany annex Austria 3. Germany marched into and absorbed Austria without firing a shot 4. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain rejected joining an alliance with France and Russia a. Believed it to be too aggressive diplomatically and that it might destroy future attempts to negotiate peace with Hitler. b. As a result, the international community did nothing in responseUnit 10 Notes /p.12 C. Czechoslovakia 1. Sudetenland a. Hitler demanded that Germany receive the German-speaking province in western Czechoslovakia or else there would be war b. Czechoslovakia refused · It had well-defended borders along its border with Germany and had France as an ally · Another world war now seemed imminent 2. Munich Conference, 1938 a. Issue of the Sudetenland was to be resolved in aconference arranged by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain b. Conference attended by Germany, Britain, France,and Italy · Czechoslovakia or its ally, Russia, were notinvited c. Chamberlain adopted a policy of appeasement · Definition of appeasement: making concessionsto an aggressor in order to achieve peace · Pacifist sentiment in Britain and France wasvery strong d. Solution: Czechoslovakia was forced to give awaythe Sudetenland · Germany, in return, guaranteed the independence of Czechoslovakia o Czechs were shocked that the fate of its country was decided by other countries · Hitler promised he would make no more territorial demands in Europe · If Czechoslovakia refused to comply, it would receive no military support from Britain or France e. Chamberlain returned to Britain a hero claiming hehad achieved "peace in our time" 3. Germany invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia,March 1939 a. Hitler had double-crossed Chamberlain b. Czechoslovakia did not resist the invasion c. In the space of a year, Hitler had taken bothAustria and Czechoslovakia without engaging in warD. Germany’s invasion of Poland began World War II 1. One week after taking Czechoslovakia, Hitlerdemanded the Baltic port city of Danzig (located in

the Polish Corridor that separated East Prussia fromGermany) a. As he had done with Sudetenland, Hitler used thealleged poor treatment of ethnic Germans in Poland as a pretext for his demand b. Chamberlain threatened that if Germany attackedPoland, Britain would fight a war to protect Poland c. Hitler sought to avoid a two-front war against France & Britain in the west and Russia in the east 2. German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, Aug. 1939 a. Hitler sought assurances that Russia would notattack Germany if he invaded Poland.· A guarantee of non-aggression would ensurethat Germany would only have to fight a onefrontwar against France and Britain b. The world was shocked that the archenemiesHitler and Stalin would make such an agreement c. Public provisions of the treaty: 10-yearnonaggression pact between Germany and Russia d. Private agreement: Germany and USSR wouldinvade Poland and split the country in half. · Stalin would also get the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania · France & Britain had offered Stalin military risk without gain; Hitler had offered Stalin territorial gain without risk 3. Germany invaded Poland on Sept. 1, 1939 a. Marked the beginning of World War II b. September 3, Britain & France declared war on GermanyIII. Germany’s conquests: 1939-1941A. Blitzkrieg ("lightning war") used against Poland 1. New form of warfare used by Germany to quickly defeat an enemy by poking a hole in enemy line and cutting off front lines from the rear thus surrounding enemy. 2. Used coordinated attack on one part of enemy line with air force, tanks, and artillery 3. Strategy sought to avoid trench warfare of WWI 4. Poland defeated in about a month 5. Partition occurred when USSR attacked from east a. Stalin invaded Finland (1939) b. USSR annexed Estonia, Latvia, & Lithuania (1940) to create a buffer zone against Germany · Believed Hitler would one day invade Russia 6. Sitzkrieg (“phony war”): After Poland, a 7-month lullensued, causing some to say WWII was a myth. The world waited to see where Hitler might strike next.B. 1940 1. April: Hitler invaded Denmark, Sweden, Norway 2. May: Netherlands, Belgium & Luxembourg fell toGermany 3. June: Fall of France occurred in less than six weeks a. Dunkirk: thousands of French and British soldiers were trapped on beaches of France · Before Germans came in for the kill, thousands were rescued by an armada of British vessels b. Vichy France created · Hitler did not wish to waste time subduing all of France · Puppet gov't created in southern France o Marshal Henri-Philippe Pétain in charge (later executed for treason by the French gov’t) Pétain had been a war hero in WWI at the battle of Verdun. · Vichy France eventually was taken over completely by Germany later in the war

c. The “Free French” were led by General Charles De Gaulle, who fled to Britain during France’s fall 4. Tripartite Pact, 1940: Japan added to Rome-Berlin axis for mutual defense and military support.C. Battle of Britain: one of most critical battles of the war 1. Hitler offered Britain peace if it accepted Germany’s control of western Europe · British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who hadreplaced Chamberlain, flatly refused 2. Hitler then planned a massive German invasion ofEngland (“Operation Sealion”) · Germany tried to soften Britain up for a Germaninvasion with massive aerial bombings 3. August, Luftwaffe (led by Herman Goring, one ofHitler's inner circle) was ordered by Hitler to destroy the Royal Air Force (RAF) · Britain effectively used radar (a new technology)to detect Germany’s air attacksUnit 10 Notes /p.13 4. After almost destroying the RAF, Hitler ordered thebombing of London (“the Blitz”): fatal error · RAF recovered and ultimately defeated the Luftwaffe 5. Hitler forced to call off invasion of Britain inSeptember a. Germany lost 2,433 planes; RAF lost 900 b. The “Blitz” continued until May, 1941 6. Significance: Hitler now had to guard against a futuretwo-front war · D-Day in 1944 was launched from BritainD. German invasion of the Soviet Union, June 1941 1. Hitler all along had planned on invading Russia tofulfill his dream of "lebensraum" (“living space”) inthe east · Constituted Hitler’s greatest blunder 2. "Scorched Earth": Soviets destroyed anything ofvalue as they withdrew to deprive German army ofresources; thousands of towns in the USSR destroyed 3. By winter, Germans were at the gates of Moscowwhile laying siege to Leningrad (St. Petersburg) thatlasted two years 4. In the USSR, WWII became known as “GreatPatriotic War of the Fatherland” 5. Atlantic Charter (Aug 1941): Churchill and U.S.President Franklin Roosevelt met secretly after the invasion of Soviet Union a. Agreement: once Axis Powers were defeated, there would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes of inhabitants (self-determination) b. Called for “a permanent system of general security”: later became the United Nations c. Stalin endorsed the agreement soon thereafter d. Meanwhile, the U.S. remained militarily neutraluntil December, 1941 · Neutrality Acts in 1930s prevented FDR fromdrawing U.S. into the conflict earlier · Lend-Lease Act (1941) gave large amountsof money and supplies to help Britain and Soviets; effectively ended U.S. neutrality · Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Dec. 7, 1941, resulted in U.S. entry into the war

E. Hitler declared war on U.S. on December 11 1. Proved to be another fatal blunder 2. Instead of focusing on Japan (who had attacked theU.S.), the U.S. (along with Britain) would now insteadfocus on defeating Germany first.F. The Grand Alliance formed in 1942 · Consisted of Britain, the Soviet Union and the U.S. as well as two dozen other countriesIV. Nazi Empire in EuropeA. German victories by the end of 1941 1. Controlled all of western Europe (except for neutralSwitzerland & Sweden): Austria, Czechoslovakia, western Poland, France, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, western Russia. 2. Spain allowed Germany the use of its ports (althoughSpain remained essentially neutral) 3. German allies: Italy, Japan, Romania, Hungary, &Bulgaria. 4. Britain isolated, although gained much aid from U.S.B. The Nazi “New Order” 1. Nazis exploited Europe for its economic value 2. Nordic peoples – Dutch, Norwegians, and Danes-received preferential treatment as they were racially related to Germans. 3. Hitler heavily taxed the French as they were seen as“inferior” Latin people; they were tolerated as a race. 4. Slavs in eastern Europe were seen as “subhuman” a. Seized men & women for slave labor to work inGerman factories. b. Hitler planned that Poles, Ukrainians, and Russians would be enslaved and forced to die out, while Germanic peasants resettled the resulting abandoned lands. c. Polish workers and Soviet prisoners of war weretransported to Germany where they did most of the heavy labor and were systematically worked to death. · 80% of Soviet prisoners did not survive thewar.C. Genocide of Jews, Gypsies, Jehovah’s Witnesses, andcaptured communists 1. Businesses and property was confiscated 2. Jews had to register with gov't authorities & wearyellow ID stars. 3. In Poland, Jews were forced to live in ghettos (e.g.Warsaw and Krakow) a. Deprived of adequate supplies b. Several families crammed into a single apartment c. Forbidden contact with the outside world 4. “Final Solution” to the Jewish Problem: began inlate 1941 a. Formal plan came at Wannsee Conference in1942 b. Six death camps built in Poland in addition tohundreds of concentration camps · Auschwitz was the most notorious c. 6 million Jews killed (approximately 2/3 of thepre-war Jewish population) d. Between 5-6 million others also murderedincluding political prisoners, Jehovah’s Witnesses,and GypsiesD. Underground movements sprang up and increasedduring the war. 1. Sabotaged Nazi supply depots, derailed trains, blew

up bridges. · The French Underground is the most famousexample 2. Supplied allies with valuable information & aid: detailed troop movements, published secret newspapers, hid escaped Allied prisoners and downed Allied pilotsV. Turning points in the warA. El Alamein, Nov. 1942 1. By November, British forces (led by Bernard Montgomery) drove the Germans (led by Erwin Rommel—the “Desert Fox”) out of Egypt · German forces were pushed westward across North Africa. 2. “Operation Torch” (Nov. 1942) a. Meanwhile, U.S. and British forces landed on the beaches of Morocco and Algeria and engaged retreating German forces b. Rommel’s Afrika korps were surrounded by Allied armies and defeated by May, 1943 and removed from Africa while suffering mass casualties and prisoners of war.Unit 10 Notes /p.14 3. Hitler’s decision to invade the USSR instead ofdefeating Britain in the Mediterranean now proveddisastrous 4. Allied victory in North Africa opened the door for the invasion of Italy in July, 1943B. Stalingrad (Nov. 1942—Feb. 1943) 1. Critical battle of the Eastern Front · First German land defeat in Europe 2. Hitler sought to take the industrial city of Stalingraden route to taking control of Soviet oil fields in theCaucasus Mountains. 3. German armies were eventually surrounded by Soviet forces. · Hitler refused to allow the German forces tosurrender and thus the bulk of the German army in Stalingrad (300,000 men) was destroyed in the battle. 4. After the battle, the Soviets began the 2 ½-yearcampaign of pushing the German army back to Berlin 5. Subsequent battle of Kursk (July 1943) was the largest tank battle in human history ending in a Russian victory 6. By February 1945 Soviet armies had penetrated tothe outskirts of Berlin.C. D-Day, “Operation Overlord”, June 6, 1944 1. 120,000 troops crossed the English Channel fromsouthern England and invaded France in an amphibious assault on Normandy (northern French coast) · Success of D-Day demonstrated how importantthe Battle of Britain had been in 1940 when Germany failed to defeat the RAF and invade England. · Had the invasion failed, Germany would have been able to concentrate its forces against the Soviets on the eastern front, perhaps resulting in a stalemate. 2. Western front established a. Spelled the end of Nazi domination of Europe b. Paris was liberated 1 month later c. Hitler now fighting on three fronts: east againstRussians; west against U.S. and Britain (& France); and in Italy against U.S. and Britain d. By the fall, Allied troops reached the German

border and were preparing an invasion of Germany.D. Battle of the Bulge, Dec. 1944 1. Hitler's last gasp offensive to drive Allies away fromthe western German border 2. Brutal fighting in the dead of winter resulted infrightful casualties on both sides. 3. After Hitler’s counteroffensive failed, the Allies quickly penetrated deep into Germany in 1945.E. May 8, 1945: Germany surrendered (Hitler committedsuicide a few days earlier)F. End of the war against Japan: Aug. 1945 1. U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima andNagasaki 2. Japan surrendered although the emperor was allowedto remain on the throneVI. Diplomacy during the warA. Casablanca Conference, 1943: 1. FDR and Churchill declared a policy of unconditional surrender for “all enemies” 2. Italy would be invaded first before opening 2nd Frontin France · Stalin never forgave the Allies for putting off an invasion of France until 1944: it ensured the Russians would have to fight the brunt of the German army aloneB. Tehran Conference, 1943: First meeting of the “BigThree”—Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin 1. Allies agreed to an invasion of the Western Europe in 1944. 2. Stalin reaffirmed the Soviet commitment to enter the war against Japan once Germany had been defeated 3. Stalin insisted on Soviet control of eastern Europe and the carving up of Germany amongst the Allies · Churchill demanded free governments in eastern Europe and a strong Germany after the war to preserve a balance of power in Europe. 4. Roosevelt acted as a mediator and believed he couldwork with Stalin to achieve a post-world peace within the construct of the United Nations.C. Yalta Conference, 1945: "Big Three" met again 1. Stalin agreed to enter Pacific war within 3 monthsafter Germany surrendered 2. Stalin agreed to a “Declaration of Liberated Europe”which called for free elections. 3. Called for United Nations to meet in U.S. beginning inApril 1945 a. Soviets would have 3 votes in General Assembly b. U.S., Britain, USSR, France & China to be permanent members of Security Council. 4. Germany to be divided into occupied zones and acoalition government of communists and non-communistswas agreed to for Poland. 5. U.S.S.R. allowed to keep its pre-1939 territory. 6. FDR accepted Soviet control of Outer Mongolia, theKurile Islands, the southern half of Sakhalin Island,Port Arthur (Darien), and partial operation of theManchurian railroads.D. Potsdam Conference, July 1945: Stalin, Harry Trumanand Clement Atlee 1. Issued warning to Japan of unconditional surrender orface utter devastation · During conference Truman ordered dropping ofatomic bomb on Japan

2. Stalin reversed his position on eastern Europe statingthere would be no free elections 3. Approvals given to concept of war-crimes trials andthe demilitarization and de-Nazification of Germany. 4. Reparations from Germany could be taken from eachrespective zone.VII. Results of the warA. Human losses: About 55 million dead (including missing) 1. 22 million in the USSR alone 2. Holocaust resulted in deaths of 6 million Jews and 6million otherB. Millions left homeless and millions relocated (especiallyGermans living outside Germany)C. Much of Europe lay in ruins: would take years to rebuildthe economyD. Women played even larger role in the war economy thanin WWI (gained more rights after the war)E. The U.S. and Soviet Union emerged as the two dominantpowers in the postwar world. · Post-war competition for influence in Europe ledresulted in the Cold WarUnit 10 Notes /p.15 VIII. Why did Germany lose the war?A. Three-front war: Russia, France and Italy 1. German army stretched across an entire continent 2. Eventually, Germany began running out of soldiers · Resorted to using children and older men near theend of the warB. Major blunders 1. Allowed Britain to remain intact after the Battle ofBritain 2. Invasion of the Soviet Union (and later decision toengage Soviet army at Stalingrad) 3. Hitler’s declaration of war against the U.S. immediately after Pearl Harbor guaranteed the U.S. and Britain would focus first on Germany before defeating Japan.C. Industrial capacity not equal to Allies 1. U.S. out-produced all the Axis powers combined 2. Allied bombing of German cities destroyed factories 3. Use of slave labor (Slavs, Jews) not as effective 4. Much economic energy spent on the “Final Solution” 5. Germany did not shift its economy to “total war” until 1943. By that time, the Germans were being severely out-producedD. Axis alliance proved to be a liability 1. Italy’s failures in Greece and Yugoslavia drewGermany into the Balkans when it should havefocused on the Mediterranean 2. German forces eventually had to take control of Italyafter the Allies began penetrating up the peninsula · Mussolini caught and executed by his own people in 1944 3. Japan’s attack on the U.S. drew Germany into war against the U.S.E. Grand Alliance proved overwhelming

1. Included U.S., Britain, Russia and over 40 other countries 2. Alliance worked together to achieve “unconditionalsurrender” for Germany