ap review for unit 6-10. review: watch the video and tell me what was wrong with this research?
TRANSCRIPT
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AP Review for Unit 6-10
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• Review: Watch the video and tell me what was wrong with this research?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AmNuVgVmIBs&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&index=27
Research methods
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Standard Deviants Experiments
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j04DPW37OKE
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Standard Deviants Classical Conditioning
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=21YYHS3YUyE&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&index=2
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The Law of Effect
• Edward Thorndike• One of the 1st to research this
kind of learning (operant) Locked cats in a cage
• Behavior changes because of its consequences
• Rewards strengthen behavior.• If consequences are
unpleasant, the Stimulus-Reward connection will weaken.
• Called the whole process instrumental learning.
rewarded behavior is likely to recur.
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Operant Conditioning
Standard Deviants Operant Conditioning
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M1fGcSyT-5M&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&index=3
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Reinforces
• A reinforcer is anything the INCREASES a behavior.
Positive Reinforcement:• The addition of something pleasant.
• Candy for pushing a lever.
Negative Reinforcement:• The removal of something unpleasant.
• Hitting the alarm snooze.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JA96Fba-WHk
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Examples of Negative Reinforcement
Taking aspirin to relieve a headache.Hurrying home in the winter to get out of the cold. 3.
Giving in to an argument or to a dog's begging.Fanning oneself to escape the heat.Leaving a movie theater if the movie is bad.Smoking in order to relieve anxiety.Following prison rules in order to be released from
confinement.Feigning a stomachache in order to avoid school. 9.
Putting on a car safety belt to stop an irritating buzz.Turning down the volume of a very loud radio.Putting up an umbrella to escape the rain.Saying "uncle" to stop being beaten.
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ContinuousReinforce the behavior
EVERYTIME the behavior is exhibited. Usually done when the subject is first learning to make the association.
• Reinforce the behavior only SOME of the times it is exhibited.
• Acquisition comes more slowly.
• But is more resistant to extinction.
• FOUR types of Partial Reinforcement schedules.
Continuous v. Partial ReinforcementPartial also called
Intermittent
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Schedules of ReinforcementContinuous
reinforcement refers to reinforcement being administered to each instance of a response
Partial reinforcement lies between continuous reinforcement and extinction
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TYPE MEANING OUTCOME
Fixed Ratio
Reinforcement depends on a definite number of responses
Activity slows after reinforcement and then picks up
Variable Ratio
Number of responses needed for reinforcement varies
Greatest activity of all schedules
Fixed Interval
Reinforcement depends on a fixed time
Activity increases as deadline nears
Variable Interval
Time between reinforcement varies
Steady activity results
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Ratio Schedules1. Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a
response only after a specified number of responses. e.g., piecework pay.
2. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.)
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Interval Schedules1. Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a
response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close.)
2. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)
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Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed interval Reward on fixed time basis
Leads to average and irregular performance
Fast extinction of behavior
Fixed ratio
Variable ratio
Variable interval
Reward tied to specific number of responses
Leads quickly to very high and stable performance
Moderately fast extinction of behavior
SCHEDULEFORM OF REWARD
Reward given after varying periods of time
Leads to moderately high and stable performance
Slow extinction of behavior
Reward given for some behaviors
Leads to very high performance
Very slow extinction of behavior
INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE
EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOR
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PunishmentMeant to decrease a
behavior.Positive Punishment• Addition of something
unpleasant.
Negative Punishment (Omission Training)
• Removal of something pleasant.
Punishment works best when it is immediately done after behavior and if it is harsh!
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Classical Conditioning and Humans
• John Watson brought Classical Conditioning to psychology with his Baby Albert experiment.
Click to see Baby Albert to some nice jazz.
This type of Classical Conditioning is also known as Aversive Conditioning.
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The Contingency Model Contingency theory proposes that for learning to take place, a
stimulus must provide the subject information about the likelihood that certain events will occur. Robert Rescorla demonstrated that the pairing of a conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not always produce learning and contended that it is necessary for the CS to signify a contingency.
This is one of the reasons some people can not lose weight or quit smoking.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwQXYtM8DTQ
Day 9 - Contingency Theory - A lesson from the HAT
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Latent Learning:• Latent learning – learning
in the absence of rewards• Humans and animals will
work in the absence of rewards
• If one group is given rewards and the other is not, the rewarded group will work harder
• But…if the non rewarded group is eventually rewarded at a later time, they will work hard because the think a reward might come at a later time.
• Edward Tolman – Rats and maze example (rats created a cognitive map)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a9UDvHAsddE
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Latent LearningEdward Tolman – Rats
and maze example (rats created a cognitive map)
Cognitive Map: mental picture
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SBTP7W5c3c8&feature=related
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Social or Observational Learning
Modeling by watching the behavior of a model. For example; if you want to learn a new dance step you watch someone else do it.
Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll
We learn through modeling behavior from others.
Observational learning + Operant Conditioning
Click pic to see some observational learning.
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Children See, Children Do
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KHi2dxSf9hw
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Biological Factors in Learning:
• Historically speaking, humans have avoided foods that are sour/bitter from a survival standpoint.
• Taste Aversions – an intense dislike or avoidance of food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning.
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MemoryStandard Deviants Memory
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zf7zMl630lY&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&index=19
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Information Processing Model: compares our memory to a computer
3 Step Process in how Memory Works
Three step process….
1. Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system.
2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.
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Three Stages of Memory
Stage 1 - Sensory Memory is a brief representation of a stimulus while being processed in the sensory system
Stage 2 - Short-Term Memory (STM) is working memoryLimited capacity (7 items)Duration is about 30 seconds
Stage 3 - Long-Term Memory (LTM) is large capacity and long duration
Three Stage Model
Atikinson-Shiffrin three-stage model of memory, describes 3 different memory systems characterized by time frames:
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Short Term Memory Activity
Three Stage ModelLong Term Memory
Unlimited storehouse of information.Explicit ( or declarative)
memories: our LTM of facts and experiences we consciously know and can verbalize. EG. Sematic (facts and general knowledge)and episodic (birthdays)
Implicit ( or non-declarative) memories: our long term memory for skills and procedures to do things by previous experience without that experience being consciously recalled. (Eg. Swimming.)
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Recall Versus RecognitionRecallyou must retrieve
the information from your memory
fill-in-the blank or essay tests
Recognitionyou must identify the
target from possible targets
multiple-choice tests
Retrieving Memories Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory
storage.
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Mnemonics
A trigger to aid memory, involving prompts such as visual imagery or sounds. Since imagery is at the heart of memory. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery in aiding memory.
1. Method of Loci
2. Link Method3. Context
Effects
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Theories of ForgettingProactive interference: old
information interferes with recall of new information
Retroactive interference: new information interferes with recall of old information
Decay theory: memory trace fades with time
Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful memories (protective memory loss)
Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent
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PhonemesIn a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
B, a, and t Chat has three phonemes, ch, a, and t.
How many phonemes does platypus have?
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MorphemesIn a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning.
Can be a word or part of a word (prefix or suffix).
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Grammar
A system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate and understand others.
Capitalize the beginning of a sentence
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SemanticsThe set of rules by which we derive meaning in a language.
Adding ed at the end of words means past tense.
The Chinese languages do not have expansive semantic rules. They usually have totally different symbols for different tenses.
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SyntaxThe rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.
In English, adjectives come before nouns, but not in Spanish!!
Is this the White House of the House White?
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ChomskyInborn Universal Grammar
We acquire language too quickly for it to be learned.
We have this “learning box” inside our heads that enable us to learn any human language.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3gU-B0-DCKI
Chomsky's View of Language Development
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Whorf’s Linguistic RelativityThe idea that
language determines the way we think (not vive versa).
•The Hopi tribe has no past tense in their language, so Whorf says they rarely think of the past.
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Lev VygotskyRussian
psychologist, contemporary of Piaget but his work not published in English until after his death in 1934
Believed that Piaget ignored the role of culture on cognitive development
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Vygotsky’s TheoryCognitive development = active
internalization of problem-solving processes as a result of interaction with others Ie, learning is ACTIVE, SOCIAL, and CREATIVE
(ASC, sound familiar?)Children learn how to think through their
interactions with othersWhere Piaget saw the child as a scientist,
Vygotsky saw the child as an apprentice
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Zone of Proximal DevelopmentVygotsky’s view:
“…what a child can do with assistance today she will be able to do by herself tomorrow.” (Vygotsky, 1978)
Contrast with Piaget:“Every time we teach a child something, we keep
him from inventing it himself. On the other hand, that which we allow him to discover for himself will remain with him visible for the rest of his life.” (Piaget, in Piers, 1972)
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OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING, DECISION-MAKING,AND FORMING JUDGEMENTS
Confirmation Bias Stress/Tension
Fixation
Tendency to search for info That confirms one’s beliefs
Availability Heuristic
Representative Heuristic
Judge the liklihood of events based on How well they match a prototype.
Inability to see problem from a freshPerspective.
Judge the liklihood of events on howAvailable the event is in our memory.
Influenced by media.
Some stress helpful, but can Overload.
Daniel BooneThinking Cap
Mental SetFunctional Fixedness
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Theories of Motivation and Emotion
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UP4dEr1wsjM&feature=player_embedded
Clips for class motivation
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3 Main Debates:1. Nature vs. Nurture: How do genetic inheritance (nature) and experience (nurture) influence our development?
blog.lib.umn.edu
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2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity (Stages) Is development a gradual, continuous process like riding an escalator, or does it proceed through the sequence of separate states like climbing rungs on a ladder?
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Stability vs. Change: Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age?
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Reflexes:automatic (means involuntary) responses
Babinski Reaction- Foot is rubbed against and the rest of the toes fan out.
Moro Reflex- Baby feels like it is falling and arms and legs go out in search of something to hang onto.
Rooting Reflex- if the baby is touched at the end of the mouth, the baby still turn and begin to suck.
Grasping Reflex- Touch a babies hand it will close.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gyVLD0hl0XY
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Mary Ainsworth Attachment Theory
1. Secure Attachment- Just like it sounds the child is secure that mom is coming back and happy to see her when she does.
2. Avoidant Attachment -when mom comes back the child avoids them.
3. Anxious Attachment they are anxious in their surroundings . abc-counselling.com
Ainsworth had a parent drop off their child with a stranger and then observed how the child reacted. She came up with Three distinctive attachments:
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Terms that go With Piaget’s cognitive development
1. Object Permanence: The understanding that the an object exists even if they can not see it. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nwXd7WyWNHY
2. Egocentric: cannot look at the world through anyone’s eyes but their own. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OinqFgsIbh0
3. Conservation refers to the idea that a quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance and is part of logical thinking. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7gUY8GM7rco
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Jean Piaget Cognitive Development Stages
http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Piaget's_Stages
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Stage 1:Pre-conventional Morality
from appsychology.com
dailycaller.com
Motivated by trying to avoid punishment. Morality based on rewards and punishments.If you are rewarded then it is OK.If you are punished, the act must be wrong.
Lauren will give her dad the money because she does not want to be punished.
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Stage 2: Conventional Morality
from appsychology.com
Based on wanting to please and being accepted by others.
Around teen age: Lauren might give her dad the money because it will improve her relationship with him or she could not give it to him because she wants to gain her moms approval.
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Stage 3: Post-Conventional Morality
Based on self-defined ethical principles or a sense of justice.
Your own personal set of ethics.
from appsychology.com
drsusanziebarth.com
Lauren would not give her father the money because she would recognize her father’s addiction is destroying her family and wrong for society.
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Criticisms of Kohlberg
from appsychology.com
Carol Gilligan pointed out that Kohlberg only tested boys.
Boys tend to have more absolute value of morality.
Girls tend top look at situational factors.
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Stage 1: Trust v. Mistrust
from appsychology.com
stock-images-illustrations.com
Can a baby trust the world to fulfill its needs?The trust or mistrust they develop can carry on with the child for the rest of their lives.
+ Hope, drive- Sensory distortion, withdrawal
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Stage 2: Autonomy V. Shame & Doubt
from appsychology.com
Toddlers begin to control their bodies (toilet training).Control Temper TantrumsBig word is “NO”Can they learn control or will they doubt themselves?
+ Will power, self control - Impulsivity, compulsivity
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Stage 3: Initiative V. Guilt
from appsychology.com
Word turns from “NO” to “WHY?”Want to understand the world and ask questions.Is there curiosity encouraged or scolded?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hjA7sSVtTFA
+ Purpose, direction
- Ruthless, inhibition
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Stage 4: Industry v. Inferiority
from appsychology.com
School beginsWe are for the first time evaluated by a formal system and our peers.Do we feel good or bad about our accomplishments?Can lead to us feeling bad about ourselves for the rest of our lives…inferiority complex.
+ Competence, initiation- Narrow character, low
motivation
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Stage 5: Identity v. Role Confusionfrom appsychology.com
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SR8j_P1O0os&feature=related
In our teenage years we try out different roles.Who am I?What group do I fit in with?If I do not find myself I may develop an identity crisis.
+ Self certainty, fidelity
- Withdrawal, fanaticism
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Stage 6: Intimacy v. Isolation
from appsychology.com
Have to balance work and relationships.
What are my priorities?
realitytvmagazine.sheknows.com
bostonist.com
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Stage 7: Generativity v. Stagnation
from appsychology.com
Is everything going as planned?Am I happy with what I created?Mid –life crisis!!!
mariansgarden.ca
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Stage 8: Integrity v. Despair
from appsychology.com
Look back on life.Was my life meaningful or do I have regret?
lolbyte.com bridezilla.com
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Jung’s Basic Assumptions
Less focus on sexuality, more on human history and the supernatural
Duality (Dual nature to personality) All people have essentially “two” personalities on a variety of
variables (Introversion and Extraversion) Good Evil Yen Yang
Collective Unconscious a common reservoir of images derived from our species universal experiences. It explains why, for many people, spiritual concerns are deeply rooted and why people in different cultures share certain myths and images, such as mother as a symbol of nurturance.
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Jung’s Archetypes
Archetypes: archetype as an expression of the Self and considers that by exploring the manifestations of the archetypes one can take the first step on the path towards individuation
Best-known archetypes Persona/Shadow, Animus/Anima, Magician, Child-god, Mother,
Hero/Demon
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Jung’s Topographical Model
Conscious What we are currently aware of (class, Spring Break)
Unconscious Where battles between opposing archetypes take place (memories, understanding of future, and repressed battles; struggle between Persona and Shadow for identity)
Collective Unconscious Where archetypes are (Understanding and awareness of Persona and Shadow by all human beings)
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Personality“Characteristic pattern of thinking,
feeling and acting.”
Four major perspectives on Personality
Psychoanalytic - unconscious motivationsTrait - specific dimensions of personalityHumanistic - inner capacity for growthSocial-Cognitive - influence of environment
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Freud & Personality Structure
Id - energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drivesPleasure Principle
Ego - seeks to gratify the Id in realistic waysReality Principle
Super Ego
- voice of consciencethat focuses on howwe ought to behave
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Critic's of Freud (Neo Freudians)
Karen Horney and Alfred Adler agreed with Freud that childhood is important but believed that childhood social not sexual tensions are crucial for personality formation.
He really only studied wealthy woman in Austria.
His results are not empirically verifiable (really hard to test).
No predictive power.
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Neo-FreudiansPsychodynamic Theories
Alfred Adler and his ideas of superiority and inferiority.
Adler also talked about birth order and how it played a part in personality.
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What are projective tests, you ask?Projective tests aim to provide this
“psychological x-ray” by asking test takers to describe or tell a story. Henry Murray introduced the TAT test or Thematic Apperception test, in which people view the picture and then make up stories about them.
Their answers can give some insight into their latent content.Ask me to read you something…a story.. And you will write
your response.
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Another way to measure Psychoanalysis is the Rorschach Inkblot
Test
The most widely used projective testA set of ten inkblots designed to identify
people’s feelings when they are asked to interpret what they see in the inkblots.
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Assessing TraitsHow can we assess traits?
(aim to simplify a person’s behavior patterns)
Personality InventoriesMMPI• most widely used personality inventory• assess psychological disorders (not normal traits)• empirically derived - test items selected based
upon how well they discriminate twixt groupsof traits
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Trait Theories of PersonalityThey believe that we
can describe people’s personalities by specifying their main characteristics (traits).
Traits like honestly, laziness, ambition, outgoing are thought to be stable over the course of your lives.