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“VINN” - An accreditedmotivational program promotingconvicted women’s sense ofcoherence and coping

Torunn HøjdahlSenior Advisor, The Correctional Service of Norway, Staff Academyi

Jeanette H. MagnusProfessor, Head of the Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, NorwayRoger HagenAssociate Professor, University of Science and Technology, Department ofPsychology, NorwayEva LangelandAssociate Professor, Bergen University College, Faculty of Health and SocialSciences, Norway

DECLARATION OF CONFLICTING INTERESTS

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the research, authorship, or publicationof this article.

ABSTRACT

This article aims to present a motivational programaddressing rehabilitative needs specific to convictedwomen. The article shows how Antonovsky’stheory of Salutogenesis, its main concepts of Senseof Coherence and General Resistance Resources,are used as theoretical framework of this correctionalprogram. Social cognitive theory (self-efficacy), theTranstheoretical Model of Change and thecommunication style of Motivational Interviewingare used as supportive methods to complement thesalutogenetic approach.

The “VINN program”, as presented here, consistsof 15 topics, four individual interviews as well ashomework exercises. The goal of the program is tomotivate the women to explore what challenges areworthwhile to engage in, what makes sense to them,increase their Sense of Coherence and their Qualityof Life, and give confidence to desist from crime.The program is accredited by the Norwegian andSwedish correctional services. This articleadvocates using a salutogenetic approach as a newvaluable direction in creating programs for convictedwomen.

Keywords: Accredited correctional program, convicted women, female offenders, General ResistanceResources, Salutogenesis, Sense of Coherence, Rehabilitation.

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INTRODUCTION

A growing body of research indicates that manyconvicted women suffer from severe depressive andanxiety disorders and have struggled with poverty(Gido and Dalley, 2009; Van Wormer, 2010).Gender differences in lifetime psychiatric disordersare reported among offenders (Zlotnick et al, 2008).Convicted women were more likely to reportsuicide attempts, borderline personality disorder andbipolar disorder, than men. Anti-social personalitydisorder was the only psychiatric disorder that menwere more likely to report than women (Zlotnick,et al, 2008). There seems to be a link betweenwomen’s childhood abuse and mental healthproblems, particular traumatic stress, panic andeating disorders (Covington, 2008; Gido and Dalley,2009). In addition to psychiatric problems, moreconvicted women than men are involved indysfunctional and unhealthy sexual relationships(Bloom and Covington, 2008; Desrosiers andSenter, 2007, 2008).

The traditional focus in correctional programs hasbeen on targeting dynamic risk factors that areconnected with crime, such as the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model (Andrews, Bonta andWormith, 2006, 2011). Among others, thesedynamic factors include poor cognitive skills,identification with criminal role-models, impulsiveand anti-social lifestyle, dependency on alcohol and/or drugs and lack of work, education and income.Interventions based on cognitive behavioural theoryand social learning theories have been demonstratedto have effect in reducing reoffending (Andrews, etal, 2011; Maguire, Grubin, Lösel and Raynor,2010).

Various new concepts have emerged lately in thesearch for a complement to the RNR- model, suchas Desistance Theory (McNeill, 2006, 2009) andMotivational Interviewing (Bogue and Nandl, 2012;Miller and Rollnick, 2013; Miller and Rose, 2009;Walters and National Institute of Corrections,2007). The Good Lives Model (GLM) has beendiscussed in academic journals as a promising model(Purvis, Ward and Willis, 2011; Ward, Yates andWillis, 2012). The GLM model defines certainprimary “goods” that people strive for and that givethem a sense of being part of the greater community,

thus becoming more willing to adhere to its rules.Supporting offenders in reaching such goods canhave a positive influence on reducing recidivism.Primary goods that support offenders are forexample being part of a group, relationships, peaceof mind, healthy living, feeling good and being ableto control their life (Ward, et al, 2012). The GLMmodel is a form of health promotion (Ward et al,2006), but to our knowledge this model has not yetbeen specifically concerned with gender. There isneed for a gendered understanding in research, andalso when creating programs to reduce reoffending(Andrews et al, 2012). Interventions designed formen have often been used as standard correctionalpractice for female offenders as well, and the genderdifferences in general needs, health and comorbidpsychiatric disorders, suggest the need for genderspecific treatment (Zlotnick, et al, 2008).

Meta-analytic evidence has suggested thatparticipation in supportive social relationshipsimproves the women’s re-entry into the community(Desrosiers and Senter, 2007, 2008; Zaplin, 2008).Other studies emphasize that women with traumaticexperiences respond more positively when they;share their histories in groups with other women(Van Wormer, 2010), are in an environment thatstimulates growth, and have relationships based onrespect, empathy and where mutuality is supported(Bloom and Covington, 2008; Covington, 2008).Mutuality is imperative in a relationship, both toexpress own thoughts and feelings, and to be movedby and of other persons (Bloom, Owen andCovington, 2003; Covington, 2008). Researcherssuggest specific gender-responsive programs witha curriculum that focuses on their mental healthissues, enhances motivation and promotes copingskills. Additionally, such programs should addressthe women’s challenges and hone their strengths,and thereby support them to reach their full potential(Covington, 2008; Van Wormer, 2010).

Because of women’s specific rehabilitative needs,it seems that a salutogenetic approach (salute - ofhealth, and genesis - the origins, or coming intoexistence, Antonovsky, 1987) in correctionalprogramming is needed. A salutogenetic approachhas demonstrated a beneficial effect on people withmental health problems (Langeland et al, 2006). Anintervention based on salutogenetic principles; has

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been implemented among non-incarcerated personswith mental health problems, and showed asignificant improvement in their Sense of Coherence(SOC). They have a positive impact on SOC,coping with life’s demands, mental health and well-being (Langeland, et al, 2006; Langeland, Wahl,Kristoffersen and Hanestad, 2007; Langeland,Wahl, Kristoffersen, Nortvedt and Hanestad, 2007).Increased SOC has been a positive effect ofpreventive and therapeutic interventions inpopulations at risk among juvenile delinquents(Koposov, Ruchkin and Eisemann, 2003).

To the best of our knowledge, based on searchesin databases, journals and references (SwetsWise,ISI web of knowledge, Google scholars and Pub-med), Antonovsky’s salutogenetic approach(Antonovsky, 1987, 1991, 1996) has not beforebeen explicitly described as a theoretical model inany accredited correctional intervention forconvicted women. This approach looks promisingwith respect to completing and maintaining treatmentof the women’s mental health issues and needs oncoping with life’s demands. The importance andopportunity for such a perspective on programs incorrectional facilities seems therefore evident.

The purpose of this article is to present howAntonovsky’s theory of salutogenesis supplementedwith supporting theories, is used as theoreticalframework and implemented into a motivational andgender-sensitive program in correctional facilities.This program “VINN” is specifically tailored forconvicted women’s needs for promoting their SOCand coping. The program “VINN” consisting ofthree parts (illustrated in Figure 1 and Table 1) aimsto address these rehabilitative needs particular towomen sentenced to prison or probation. The name“VINN” is taken from the Norwegian language andmeans winning, in this case becoming stronger withenhanced coping strategies.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK IN VINN

The fundamental theoretical concepts underlying theVINN-program is “Sense of Coherence” (SOC),central in the theory of Salutogenesis and “GeneralResistance Resources” (GRR) (Antonovsky,1987). Elements from social cognitive theory (self-efficacy) (Bandura, 1997, 2001) together with

Motivational Interviewing (Miller and Rollnick,2013; Miller and Rose, 2009; Rollnick, Miller andButler, 2008) and the Transtheoretical Model ofChange (Prochaska and DiClemente, 1982;Prochaska and Levesque, 2002) are used tocomplete and support the salutogenetic approach.

TheTheory of Salutogenesis

The theory of Salutogenesis developed byAntonovsky (1979; 1987) represents a reactiontowards the dominating focus on pathogenesis (thefocus on illness and risk factors) in sociological andhealth-related research. Antonovsky’s researchderives from interviews with women who stayedhealthy in spite of highly stressful experiences inconcentration camps during World War II. His mainfinding was that these women were characterizedby a strong SOC. Antonovsky (1987, 19) definesSOC as a: “global orientation that expresses theextent to which one has a pervasive, enduring,though dynamic, feeling of confidence that thestimuli deriving from one’s internal and externalenvironments in the course of living arestructured, predictable, and explicable(comprehensibility). The resources are availableto one to meet the demands posed by thesestimuli (manageability), and these demands arechallenges worthy of investment andengagement (meaning)”. This particularcombination of the cognitive and the motivationalcomponent is unique according to Antonovsky(1996). In this approach, health can be seen as apoint on a continuum, where the central idea is tofind the pathways that move a person towards thehealthy end of the continuum and thus increaseSOC, and enter into a positive interplay betweenGeneralized Resistance Resources (GRR) andSOC. This is in contrast with the traditional focuson minimizing risk. Each person is understood asbeing in a dynamic and open interaction with theinternal and external environments, and theprominent focus is to give attention to the person’sown history. SOC is structured by GRR that seemto provide a person with coping skills and serve asa buffer in neutralizing the negative influences of stress(Antonovsky, 1991, 1996; Chen, 2010).Antonovsky defines GRR as “any characteristicof the person, the group, or in the environmentthat can facilitate effective management of

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tensions.” The following areas have been seen asimportant to understand as the available sources fora person‘s GRRs (Antonovsky, 1979, 99):

1) Physical and biochemical resources - such asappearance, fitness and body image.

2) Cognitive and emotional resources - such asself-identity, wisdom, knowledge andintelligence, where the most crucial copingresource is self-identity.

3) Valuative resources - coping strategies that arecharacterized by flexibility, foresight andrationality, including action and effectivemanagement of emotions.

4) Interpersonal and relational resources - aperson with deep, immediate and close boundsto others may resolve tension more easily thanthose who have non-social bounds. Theavailability of social support is a central copingresource.

5) Material resources such as a safeaccommodation, healthy economy, food andincome.

6) Macro socio-cultural aspects - belonging to aculture or a community gives a person a placein the world and a sense of connection.

When someone faces or meets certain demands ora risk-situation, it is crucial to focus on developingan understanding of how the GRR can be useful inmanaging these demands. Someone who has theability to identify, mobilize and utilize their GRR,seems to find it easier to deal with tension andperceive experiences that encourage thedevelopment of SOC. For each person it isimportant to have flexibility, strategies to make plans,and to have a willingness to consider how they shouldbehave, in order to manage stressors and risk factorsin the best possible way. When someone perceivessome of life’s demands as worthy of engagement,they experience a greater sense of meaningfulness,and a greater sense of the other two components,comprehensibility and manageability as well(Antonovsky, 1991).

Supporting theories in the VINN-program

Three theories support and supplement thesalutogenetic approach. The first one is the socialcognitive theory with the important concept of self-efficacy, defined as “beliefs in one’s capabilitiesto mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources,and courses of action needed to meet givensituational demands” (Wood and Bandura, 1989,26). The key principle is that people’s motivationfor change and actions are grounded more on whatthey believe they can do (cognitions), than on whatis objectively experienced and true. The conceptof self-efficacy also plays an important role in theself-regulation of affective states. This perspectiveexpands Antonovsky’s concepts ofcomprehensibility and manageability; tounderstand, meet and manage the demands posedby stimuli deriving from one’s internal or externalenvironments.

The second component, “Motivational Interviewing”(MI) (Miller and Rollnick, 2002; Miller and Rose,2009; Rollnick, et al, 2008), is complementary toSalutogenesis with its collaborative conversationstyle (Miller and Rollnick, 2013). The purpose ofMI is to guide, follow and strengthen a person’sown motivation and engagement to change behavior.An atmosphere of acceptance and compassion isregarded as crucial in MI (Miller and Rollnick, 2013;Rogers, 1957, 1970; Rollnick, et al, 2008). MIhas a special attention for establishing an empathictherapeutic alliance when practicing the basic “core”skills; asking open-ended questions, reflectingchange talk and coping, providing affirmations andsummaries. The use of core-skills helps instrengthening and evoking the person’s ownmotivations for changing behavior, and thus thepossibility for promoting coping, health and well-being. This communication style is supportive toincrease meaningfulness, which is the motivationalcomponent in SOC. Both MI and Salutogenesisfocus on guiding a person toward commitment forchange of behavior and in setting goals for the future(Miller and Rollnick, 2013).

The third important model underlining the changeprocesses is the “Stages of Change” suggested inthe Transtheoretical Model (Norcross, Krebs andProchaska, 2011; Prochaska and DiClemente,

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1982; Prochaska and Levesque, 2002). In thismodel, behavioural change is conceptualized as aprocess that emerges over time and embracesprogression through series of stages;precontemplation, contemplation, preparation,action and maintenance.

APPLICATION OF THEORIES IN THEVINN PROGRAM

Antonovsky‘s theory (1987) was selected as a basisfor the VINN-program, because of its emphasison identifying each individual‘s GRR, improvingSOC, health and coping in risk situations. A typicalsalutogenetic orientation implies to evokecommitment for changing behavior and movementtowards the more salutary end of the continuum,and an active adaption to the environment. Itaddresses in particular health issues and promotescoping, social support and self-identity.

As a gender-responsive curriculum built onSalutogenesis, the VINN-program, aims to maintainthe women’s need for support, and for sharingexperiences with other women in the group aboutdemands and coping strategies that can be helpfulfor them. During the program the women areencouraged to find something meaningful to beengaged in and believe in. This corresponds withSalutogenesis and with Bandura’s social cognitivetheory (1997), applied as an explicit change modelin VINN. Furthermore, the women are motivatedto explore what quality of life means for themindividually and to find a lifestyle that may competewith crime, and thus reduce their chances ofreoffending.

Figure 1 illustrates the present theoretical frameworkfor the VINN-program, together with the evidence-based methods and the three parts of the curriculum(A, B, C). Together this approach aims to motivatethe women, support their ability to cope, increasetheir Sense of Coherence, improve their quality oflife and support desistance from crime. They arealso encouraged to create positive relationships withand towards others, increase the use of GRR in orderto cope in demanding situations.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE VINNPROGRAM

Inclusion

To be included in a VINN group and become a“member”, one must be serving a sentence in prisonor be under the supervision of the Probation Serviceat a unit offering the VINN-program. The womenapply for participation themselves. The facilitatordiscusses each woman’s motivation for change, suchas changes in attitudes to crime, criminal or unhealthylife-style, relations towards others, substance abuseor violence. The women’s motivation of change isassessed according to the Stages of Change Model(Prochaska and Levesque, 2002) and the facilitatoridentifies her needs in relation to her sentence. If awoman is assessed to be at the precontemplationstage, her intention of making changes might be lowand her chances for dropping out higher than if sheis in the stage of contemplation. According to(Prochaska and Levesque, 2002) when a person isat the action stage, the commitment and willingnessto look for alternatives to problem behavior, seemsto increase. Thus, an expressed willingness to sharepersonal experiences as well as an acknowledgmentof the importance in showing openness towards life-style alternatives to criminal behaviour, is crucial forinclusion and for completing the program.

Structure

The program runs for a period of 6-12 weeks, andeach session lasts for three hours (including twobreaks). A group consists of two facilitators and 4-8 offenders, all women (see Table 1 for furtherdetails about aims and contents of the 15 topics).

Each session has the following structure:

Welcome; each member tells about theirhomework, how she has practiced her newsocial skills and relaxing exercises, and abouther experiences from the last session.

Presentation of the agenda and the aim ofthe current session, and opening of the newtopic with a brainstorm in the group.

Discussion of the topic of the session, withfocus on Salutogenesis, self-efficacy, strength,Sense of Coherence, General ResistanceResources, coping and relations.

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Role-play, relaxing-exercise, skill-training. Working with (exercises from) the work-book

in the session. A short presentation of the topic for the next

session. Clarifying skill-training and what to do in

the work-book and exercises before nextsession.

A conversation that summarizes andevaluates the session.

CONTENTS AND AIM OF EACH TOPICIN THE VINN PROGRAMThe topics and interviews as presented in Table 1below, are created to address rehabilitative issuesthat are particular to women (Covington, 2008; VanWormer, 2010; Zaplin, 2008). All topics areinformed by the salutogenetic approach andsupporting theories, and maintain a gender-sensitivecontent.

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Column I gives the title of the 15 topics and the interviews.Column II describes the goals and desired outcomes for each topic and interview.Column III presents issues and questions to be discussed in each session.

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THE ATMOSPHERE IN THE VINNPROGRAM AND GENERALRESISTANCE RESOURCES

During the program the facilitator establishes a warmand supportive atmosphere together with themembers. The facilitators appear as positive role-models with an empathic and listeningcommunication style. The members in the groupare encouraged to express concern about each otherand support each other.

The facilitators support the members to identify andutilize their GRR, and this might help the women tomove towards healthier condition and increaseSOC. Each woman considers and identifies theGRR at her disposal or in her immediatesurroundings (Antonovsky, 1987, 1991; Erikssonand Lindstrom, 2006).

Here are some examples on how the GRR are tobe identified and discussed during sessions. In thefirst three topics, the women identify cognitive andemotional resources, and some positive aspects ofeach woman are to be written on the flip-over. Self-identity is the most crucial GRR, together with socialsupport. Confidence in managing risk-factors, suchas crime, violence and substance abuse is discussedas necessary in a rehabilitation process (see topics“Crime”, “Substance abuse and addiction” and“Violence” in Table 1). The women discuss howthey may appear positive toward others. Thevaluative GRR, such as flexibility, action andeffective management of emotions, are importantfor most of the women, especially when managinganger. Accordingly, the interpersonal and relationalGRR, like the quality of a supportive relationshipand social bounds, are associated with a moresuccessful reentry into the community (see topic“Sexuality and love”, “Borders in relationship”,“Children” and “Network and relations” in Table1). According to Chen (2010), social support fromfamily seems to have an effect on managingsubstance abuse and abstinence (see topics“Substance abuse and addiction”, “Network andrelations” in Table 1).

First of all, it is important that the facilitators givecongruent and genuine feedback to each womanduring the sessions, with a special focus on theirstrengths, self-efficacy and coping abilities.Secondly, a reflective listening style is also importantcombined with open-ended questions with asalutogenetic focus, such as:

“You have talked about your anger/grief/aggression. How could you deal with yourstrong emotions in a way that is beneficialboth to you and your companions?”

“You have told about your traumaticexperiences in your childhood, we would alsowant to hear about your strengths andpossibilities and how you have managedthese demands? Which of your strengthscould you use to accomplish your desires forthe future?”

“How could you get a meaningful life?” “In what ways could you support someone

who talks about her shame?”

Such a communication style aims to support thewomen and empower them to face challenges andmeet demands, and in developing an understandingof how the GRR can be useful in managing thesedemands.

The material GRR, such as need of housing, income,work/school, impact the integration andrehabilitation within communities, and are to bediscussed in the individual interviews. During theprogram, each woman creates a “map of life”, anddiscusses different issues particularly related to herneeds, so that she acquires an overview of her life.When planning the future, the macro-social GRR,like a social network and a feeling of belonging in aneighborhood and a community is important toidentify and utilize. This holistic view of life mighthave a positive effect on SOC.

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DEVELOPMENT OF VINN

During the last 12 years, the curriculum and topicsin VINN have been developed and refinedaccording to results from published results and thetheoretical framework presented above, in closecollaboration with the facilitators and the womenparticipating in the program. These feed-backsessions have been important in developing andrevising the structure, the gender-responsive contentand the facilitation of the program. From eachsession the participants and facilitators gave theirwritten feedback. In addition, certified facilitatorsand one of the authors of the program have alsoreviewed videos from various group sessions andtalked with the participating women about theirexperiences. This has been shown useful inevaluating possible limitations and criticisms to theprogram and to make improvements compatiblewith this feedback.

Recently, relaxation exercises, informed by Williams(Williams, Kabat-Zinn, Teasdale and Segal, 2007)were also included to ease tensions and increasethe level of present concentration. The participantsare encouraged to use the exercises themselves instressful situations, in order to manage strongnegative emotions, panic and trauma.

The VINN-program is used both as a group-intervention program and as one-to-oneconversation program. The latter is important ifthere are not enough women to constitute a group,which may be the case in some geographical areasor in probation, or if a potential participant isintellectually challenged or too anxious to participatein a group.

ACCREDITATION OF VINN

The program presented here was accredited inNorway in 2009 and in Sweden in 2010 inaccordance with approved country specific criteriaof accreditation. These criteria are built upon theten international criteria described by Maguire andcoworkers (Maguire, et al, 2010). Generally, thepurpose of an accreditation process is to ensurethe quality of an intervention. The program must bedelivered according to high standards, andcorrespond with internationally acclaimed evidence-

based methods (Hanson, 2005; Maguire, et al,2010). To our knowledge, similar requirements arerequested by accreditation panels in England andWales, the USA, Canada, Australia, TheNetherlands, Denmark, Norway, Finland andSweden.

Usually, the criteria that have to be presented andmet (as illustrated in Figure 1) in order to reachaccreditation of a correctional program are: a cleartheoretical model of change, criteria for selectionand inclusion of participants, an explanation of whichdynamic factors would be targeted, an overview ofresearch evidence supporting the effectiveness ofthe selected methods, appropriated skills orientation,an outline of the intensity, sequencing and durationof the intervention, a descriptions of how theparticipants should be engaged and motivated, thecontinuity of program and services and how tomaintain program integrity, and finally, an ongoingevaluation of effect.

DISSEMINATION OF THE VINN-PROGRAM

The VINN program has been implemented incorrectional facilities in six countries in Europebetween 2004 and 2012; Estonia, Norway,Sweden, Denmark, Finland, the Russian federation;the republic of Mordovia, the oblast in Perm,Chuvashia, Ryazan, Belgorod and the regions ofTomsk and Moscow. The structure and topics arethe same in all countries, but the content andimplementation are adapted to women’s needs andthe various cultural contexts and to the varioussystems’ type of legislation and implementation ofsentences, for example high security and lowsecurity prisons, half-way houses, alternativesentences, community sentences, electronicmonitoring and in services following up release onlicense.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, a presentation of an accreditedintervention with a salutogenetic approach,complemented with internationally acclaimedevidence-based theoretical models like socialcognitive theory (self-efficacy), the TranstheoreticalModel of Change and the communication style ofMotivational Interviewing, has not been published

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before. We imply the importance of including asalutogenetic framework, informed by Antonovsky,in rehabilitation programs, as a complement to thecurrently framed models, for four reasons.

Firstly, this approach provides additional value tothe treatment of convicted women because of a focuson promoting health, coping, Sense of Coherenceand the emphasis on relations, social support andself-identity. Secondly, this approach allows anunderstanding of how the General ResistanceResources can be utilized to meet and managedemands and stressors. Thirdly, when a womanfashions her life and finds something meaningful tobe engaged in and believe in, this could increaseher motivation to make plans for positive behaviouralchanges that can improve her quality of life andrestrain her from committing new crimes. Finally,each woman in the program gets an opportunity toreflect on her coping strategies, in order to enhanceself-efficacy in aspects related to self-control indemanding situations, and in desisting from crime.

Our final point is that the dominant treatment ofoffenders mainly has focused on risk reduction, whilethe salutogenetic model is also concerned with abroader and more holistic perspective. Thesalutogenetic approach seems promising as a guideto correctional researchers and consultants creatingnew programs for convicted women, and is apotential contribution in resolving some issues ofrehabilitation and mental health promotion amongconvicted women. A comprehensive evaluation ofthe efficacy of the program is ongoing and will bethe subject of another paper.

NOTESi

Torunn Højdahl, corresponding author. Ph.D. candidateat the Institute of Health and Society, University ofOslo, Norway. torunn@krus.no; hojdahl@gmail.com

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“VINN” - An accredited motivational program promoting convicted women’s sense of coherence and coping

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