6 Veritas

“Beggar on a Throne of Gold: A Short History of Bolivia”

by Robert W. Jones, Jr.

The varied geographic regions of Bolivia make it one of the most climatically diverse countries in South America. Map by D. Telles.

The Bolivian Altiplano (Spanish for “high plain”) landscape. Little rainfall and cold temperatures create a harsh environment.

is a land of sharp physical and socialcontrasts. Although blessed with

enormousmineralwealthBoliviawas(andis)oneofthepoorestnationsofLatinAmericaandhasbeendescribedasa“BeggaronaThroneofGold.” 1ThisarticlepresentsashortdescriptionofBoliviaasitappearedin1967whenCheGuevarapreparedtoexportrevolutiontothecenterofSouthAmerica. InGuevara’sestimation,Boliviawasripe for revolutionwith its history of instability and adisenfranchised Indian population. This article coversthegeography,history,andpoliticsofBolivia. Geography and DemographicsBolivia’s terrain and people are extremely diverse.

Sincegeography is aprimary factor in thedistributionof the population, these two aspects of Bolivia willbe discussed together. In the 1960s Bolivian societywas predominantly rural and Indian unlike the restof South America. The Indians, primarily Quechua orAymara, made up between fifty to seventy percent ofthe population. The three major Indian dialects areQuechua, Aymara, and Guaraní. The remainder ofthe population were whites and mixed races (called“mestizos”).Itisdifficulttogetanaccuratecensusbecausethe Indians have always been transitory and there arecultural sensitivities. Race determines social status inBoliviansociety.Amestizomayclaimtobewhitetogainsocial status, just as an economically successful Indianmayclaimtobeamestizoor“cholo”(inBolivianslang).2 Geographyanddemographicsareintertwined.Geographers andgeologists generallydivideBolivia

into three geographic regions. The first region is theAndesMountainsandAltiplano, in thewestandsouth.TheAndesareactuallytwonorth-southparallelranges (cordilleras).Thewesternrange(Cordillera Occidental)runsalong the Peru and Chile borders. The eastern range(Cordillera Oriental) stretches from Peru to Argentinaand Chile. In between the two ranges is theAltiplano,a highland desert plateau that is 500miles long by 80mileswide.TheAltiplano is 12,000 to 13,000 feet abovesealevel.3Itgetsverylittlerainfallbecausethetwohighcordilleras block rain clouds. Because of this, the scrub

vegetation grows sparser towards the south, wherethe terrain is rocky with dry red clay. Northwest ofLaPazon thePeruborder isLakeTiticaca, thehighestcommercially navigable lake in the world. The majorcitiesontheAltiplanoarethecapital,LaPaz,andPotosí,both13,000feetabovesea level.About three-fourthsofBolivia’spopulationlivesonthe Altiplano.4TheQuechuaandAymarahavelivedthereforcenturies.5TheAltiplano IndiansspeakeitherQuechuaorAymaraandhavelittleknowledgeofSpanish(especiallywritten).The semitropical and temperate valleys of the

northeasternmountainrange(called theCordillera Real) formthesecondBoliviangeographicregion.Theselongnarrow valleys called “Yungas” (the Aymara word for“warm valleys”) are cut by rivers, which drain to theeast.Climateandrainfallmake theYungas someof the

Bolivia

Vol. 4 No. 4 7Vol. 4 No. 4 7

Three-quarters of the population lives on the Altiplano. The Ñancahuazú area of the Chaco had a population density of less than 10 people per square mile. Map by D. Telles.

Indians make up between 55% to 70% of the Bolivian population. Since ethnicity determines class it is difficult to take an exact census. The Aymara Indian couple above are dressed in typical fashion for life on the harsh Altiplano.

mostfertilelandinBolivia,andtheyarefilledwithlushvegetation.Thebarelyaccessiblehighmountain slopesandpeaksarelargelyuncultivatedbecauseroadaccessis limited. Sucre and Cochabamba are located in thisregion.6 The ruralpopulation ispredominately Indian.Thewhitesandmestizosdominatethecities.The third region, the Oriente, is composed of the

easterntropicallowlandplains(calledllanos)thatcoverabouttwo-thirdsofthecountry.7TheOriente is furthersubdivided into three areas based on topographyand climate. The northernOriente, primarily the Beniand Pando Departments and the northern part ofCochabambaDepartment,istropicalrainforest.Duringthe rainy season, fromOctober toMay, transportationisdifficultbecauselargepartsturnintoswamp.Bythe1960s,travelwasincreasinglydonewithaircraftorboatsbecauseof this.TheentireBeniregion(Amazonbasin)issparselypopulatedbyapproximatelythirtydifferent

Indiangroups.8Moving south is the

transitional zonewith adrierclimate, which comprises thenorthern half of the SantaCruz Department. Herebelts of tropical rainforestsalternatewithsavannagrassplains. Large sections of landwere cleared for farmingand cattle ranching. In thelate 1920s oil and naturalgas exploration took place inthis region. The largest cityis Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz de la Sierra), which in the 1960s had considerable economic growth.9 While mestizos migrated to the area lookingfor opportunity, two veryinsular communities are eastof Santa Cruz. In the 1950sseveral thousand JapaneseandOkinawansemigrated tofarmfruit,rice,andvegetables.There are also several largeMennonite communities eastofSantaCruz.10

8 Veritas

Francisco Pizarro was the Spanish Conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire, including what is present day Bolivia. He was killed in 1541 during a revolt by followers of Diego de Almargo, his principal rival, in Lima, Peru.

Bolivia 1966-67:• Size: 424,164squaremiles (aboutthesizeofTexasandCaliforniacombined)• Gross National Product: $543million• Annual per capita income: $125-$145• Exchange rate: 20BolivianPesos (Bolivianos) to$1(butdependingontheareaitcouldvaryasmuch as50Bto$1)

•Literacy level:Between30%and40% (dependingonthestatisticsource)•Life expectancy:Between43to48yearsold (lowestinSouthAmerica)•US Foreign Aid–$68.9milliondollars• US Military Aid–$2.83milliondollars (BoliviawasinthebottomthirdofLatinAmericaforfunding)

Thefinalregion is thesoutheasternmostpartof theOrientelowlandscalled“theChaco”(sometimescalledtheGranChacoortheChacoDesert).TheChacoisbasicallyahugeflatexpanse,whichhasastrikingclimatecontrast.Itbecomesincreasinglydriermovingfromeasttowest.Afteradryseasonofninemonths(ApriltoDecember),thedeserttransformsintoavastinsect-infestedswampduringathree-monthlongrainyseason.Theseextremesinclimateandrainfallsupportthornybrushjungleandgrassyareasforcattle.11Cheaplandbroughtfewsettlerstothisinhospitableregion.12However,itdidattractCheGuevarain1967.

ItwasthehostileareaborderingtheChacothatCheselectedforhisguerrilla focobase.Thecountrysidehasrollinghillswithdeep,denselywooded, thorninfestedravines (canyons or gullies) that generally run north -south. In the center of the area, theÑancahuazúRivertwists its way through a steep canyon where smallerstreams and gullies branch off themain river.Narrowriverbankssporadicallydisappearintothecanyonwalls.Thecanyonsidesarecoveredwiththicketsofreeds,trees,vines, and cacti.Hilltopsare largelybarrenwith smalltreesandscrubvegetation.Pathsarelimited,andcuttingatrailwithamacheteisoftennecessary.13 The area around the Ñancahuazú River is sparsely

populated with small towns and villages. There arefewroads.Thepopulationisamixofpeople,primarilylowlandGuaraníIndiansandpoormestizoswhomigratedforcheapland.Thisareahadbeenpartofagovernmentland reform program giving ten-hectare homesteads(about25acres)toabout16,000families.14Peopleclusterin small, isolated communities to eke out a living byfarming, cattle ranching, or working on governmentoilandpublicworksprojects.Themajortransportationartery is the Santa Cruz - Cochabamba highway thatconnectstheareatotheAltiplano.

HistoryThe history of Bolivia in the 1960s reflects its pre-

Columbian and Spanish colonial heritage. The Indiangroups eventually formed two “great” kingdoms, theAymaraandtheInca(Quechua).15TheSpanishconquestledbyFranciscoPizarrobeganin1526.During300yearsof colonial rule, Spain imposed its political and socialinstitutionsonapredominantlyextractiveeconomythatconcentratedonmineralexports–firstsilver,andthentin–usingIndianforcedlabor.Afterahardstruggletogainindependencein1825,Bolivia’shistorywasmarkedwithpoliticalandterritorialinsecurity.Theoneconstantduringthe18thand19thcenturiesinBoliviawasinstability.

Pre-Columbian HistoryTheIncaEmpirebeganexpandingfromthehighlands

of Peru in the early 13th century. In 1438, the IncasincorporatedalargeportionofwesternSouthAmericathat included the Bolivian Altiplano. The empire wascreated and expanded by peaceful integration andmilitary conquest. At its height the Incas controlledabout12millionpeople.TheIncaEmpireincludedlargepartsoftoday’sEcuador,Peru,Bolivia,Argentina,Chile,andColombia.

The ConquestFranciscoPizarro,withfewerthan200men,toppled

theIncaEmpire.Pizarrotookadvantageoftheinstabilitycausedbyarecentcivilwar,asmallpoxepidemic,andEuropeanmilitarytechnologytoseizepower.Thedeathof Huayna Capac caused fighting between two halfbrothers,HuáscarandAtahualpa,overthesuccessionto the Inca throne.16Aftera three-year-longcivilwar(1529-1532) Atahualpa defeated Huáscar, just as theSpaniards arrived.17 On 16 November 1532, PizarrocapturedAtahualpa anddemanded a ransom for hislife.Afteralargeroomwasfilledwithgoldandsilver,theIncarulerwasexecuted.18Theconquistadorsspenttenyears consolidatingpower in theAndean region.Although there were several Indian rebellions, theywerequicklyputdown.For300yearsSpaincontrolledwhatispresentdayBolivia.

Vol. 4 No. 4 9

A 16th Century woodcut of Cerro Potosi shows the Cerro Rico (Rich Hill). This mountain of silver funded the Spanish Empire. Once the silver ran out, tin became the major export of the country.

Mita System Themita, a labordraft system set upby the

Aymara kingdoms, was then adapted by theIncas. All males, except the young and old,served in thearmy,onpublicworksprojects—irrigationsystemsandimperialroads,orinthemines.22 Mita labor service tookplace betweenharvestandplanting.WiththeSpanishconquestthemitatraditionwentaway.FranciscodeToledo,theSpanishgovernorofthe

viceroyaltyofPeru,reinstatedthemitain1573.ByadaptingthemitatotheEuropeanfeudalsystemthe Spanish required all indigenous (Indian)malesbetween18to60yearsofagetoworkforthreeweeksperyearandayeareverysixyearsintheminesoronotherpublicworks(repairingorbuildingroads).23The“Potosí(Bolivia)mita,” required the indigenouspopulation towork inthemines. The Indian death rate in themineswasreported tobe80%ayear.24Later themita wasexpandedtoincludeamandatorytwo-yearsofmilitaryservice.

Simón Bolívar, “El Libertador,” led

the rebel forces in the South American wars

of independence to free Venezuela, Colombia,

Ecuador, Peru, Panama, and Bolivia. He was

the first President of Bolivia.

Colonialism – Upper PeruThe new colony called “Upper Peru,” (Bolivia) had

beenaneglectedpartoftheIncaEmpire.ThiscontinuedunderSpanishcolonialruleuntil1545whenlargesilverdepositswere found at Potosí nearly 13,800 feet abovesea level.19 That discovery transformed the backwaterintothewealthiestpartoftheSpanishempire.AlthoughtheSpanishcrownreceived20%ofthesilverextracted,itfueledtheentireregion’seconomy.Theremotelocationof Potosímeant that everything – food, tools, animals,andlabor–tosupportmininghadtobeimported.20 In 1548 the town of La Pazwas established on the traderoutebetweenthesilverminesandthecolonialcapitalatLima,Peru.By1650PotosíwasthelargestcityinSouth

America (120,000 to 160,000 people when London hadabout 400,000).21 Silver extracted from Potosí becamethe principal source of Spanish royal wealth for threehundredyears.

Independence The Spanish empire began to weaken when the

FrenchoccupiedSpainduringtheNapoleonicWars.AsSpanish royal authority weakened, two independencemovements sprangup in SouthAmerica. In thenorth,forces under Simón Bolívar fought the royalist armiesinVenezuela,Colombia,andEcuador.FromArgentina,JosédeSanMartínandBernardoO’Higgins led forcesacrosstheAndestofreeChile,andthenfoughtnorthtofreePeru.IndependenceinUpperPeruwasproclaimedin1809,but it took16yearsof struggle toestablish therepublic named for SimónBolívar, theGreat Liberator.Bolivia was established on 6 August 1825; however,independencedidnotbringstability.Bolivia’s futurewasmarredbypolitical turmoiland

military defeats. In 1867, Bolivia lost territory in thenorth to Brazil. During the War of the Pacific (1879-1883),BoliviaalliedwithPeruagainstChile.Theclashwaspromptedbyeconomics,overanunlikelysourceofrevenue, guano (thenitrate-rich excrement of seabirds,bats,andseals).25Chileprevailedon landandseaandoccupiedthePeruviancapital,Lima.26Bolivialostareasrich in natural resources, aswell as its national pride.Mostsignificantly,BolivialostaccesstothePacificOcean,makingitalandlockedcountry.27

InterimFrom 1884 until the 1930s Bolivia enjoyed relative

stability.Theeconomytookajumpastinreplacedsilverasthemajorexport.Worlddemandfosteredtheexpansionofrailwaystotransport thetintotheUnitedStatesandEurope.28 Bolivian intellectuals blamed Chile for itsdefeatintheWarofthePacific.Usingreversepsychology,theypromoted the need to create a national identity toovercome centuries of backwardness. Rival politicalpartiesworkedforpoliticalandeconomicmodernization.Thepoliticiansingovernment,electedbyasmall,literate,andSpanish-speakingelectoratereorganized,reequipped,and professionalized the disgraced armed forces. Theyprovidedstabilityandprosperityintothenextcentury.

10 Veritas

A legacy of loss. Since 1867 Bolivia has lost territory to Brazil, Chile, and Paraguay, almost equal to the present day country.Map by D. Telles.

This photo shows a Bolivian patrol during the Chaco War. Note the inhospitable terrain of cactus and thorn bushes during the dry season. During rainy season the area becomes a swamp.

The20thcenturywasmarkedwiththreegreatevents:theChacoWar,WorldWarII,andthe1952Revolution.TheChacoWarwasthelastterritoriallossforthecountry,but, more importantly it politicized ageneration,bothpoliticallyandmilitarily,toseekchange.WorldWarIIandtheneedfortinkepttheeconomymovingforward.The 1952 Bolivian Revolution causeddrastic political, social, and economicchanges. Most important, universalsuffrage promised the majority Indianpopulation more voice in governmentandmassivelandreformwasdecreedtoimprovelifeforthepoor.

The Chaco WarThe Chaco War with Paraguay was

foughttoregaintheChacoandgainaccessto the sea via the navigable ParaguayRiver. Both were needed for economicgrowthandforoilexploration.ControloftheParaguayRiverandtheChacoregionalso affected the production of yerba maté,Paraguay’smajorexport.29Aseriesof escalating border incidents were theimpetusforwar.ConvincedthatBolivia’slarger armycouldwin,PresidentDanielSalamancabrokediplomaticrelationsanddeclaredwaronParaguayin1932.On paper, the Bolivians had a huge

advantageovertheParaguayans.Boliviahadmore national resources, includingpopulation, and a larger Army, trainedby German expatriates. However, theArmywasfilledwithconscriptedandill-trainedIndiansfromtheAltiplano,mostof whom had never been out of theirvillages.RelocationtotheharshclimateoftheChacoresultedinenormousnon-battle casualties from sickness, hunger,anddehydration.LedbyformerGermanGeneralHansKundt,thearmylaunchedWorld War I style mass assaults thatproveddisastrous.A1,000-milelongroadwasthesolesupplylinefortheBolivians,furtherhamperingoperations.30Bolivianlosses were staggering: 65,000 of the250,000-manArmywerekilled,deserted,or perished in captivity.31 With apopulationofonly2million,Bolivianpercapita losses rivaled French and BritishlossesintheFirstWorldWar.32Paraguaysufferedaswell.Theylost36,000soldiersof140,000mobilized.33Afterthreeyearsoffighting theParaguayanarmy forcedtheBoliviansoutoftheChaco.

Vol. 4 No. 4 11

Bolivia during WWII Boliviadidnotprovide combat forces for

WWII, but it proved crucial to the Alliedvictory as a supplier of critically neededmaterials.WiththelossofAsiantinmarketsto the Japanese, Bolivia became the largestsupplier for the Allies. By 1945 Boliviaprovidedhalfoftheworld’stin.36TheUnitedStates and Great Britain also bought largequantitiesofoil,wolfram,lead,andbismuthforwartimeindustries.37Mineralswerenottheonlyitemsupplied;Boliviabecamealeadingsource of quinine to fight malaria. Whiletherewasavocalsympatheticgroupofpro-German Bolivians, the government signedthe“DeclarationoftheUnitedNations,”andjoinedtheAllieson27April1943.

Víctor Paz Estenssoro led the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR) during the 1952 Bolivian National Revolution. He served as president in 1952-1956, 1960-1964, and after re-election in 1964, was ousted by a coup. He was elected again and served from 1985-1989.

General Alfredo Ovando Candía was the Army commander who led the 1964 coup. He

and René Barrientos were co-presidents from 1964 to 1966.

Ovando became president in 1969, but he was overthrown by

a military coup.

The ChacoWarwas traumatic to Bolivia. The lossof territory and prestigewas yet another blow to thenational psyche. Bolivia lost 115,000 more squaremilesof territory,aboutafifthofthecountry.34 Itwasthe catalyst forpolitical change.Theveteransbecamethe “Chaco Generation” and pushed for political andmilitaryreformsforthenextthreedecades.35Thedefeat in theChacoset thestagefor the1952BolivianNationalRevolution.

The 1952 Bolivian National RevolutionThe Chaco War was a turning point for Bolivia.

Althoughlegallyademocracy,thepredominatelywhiteelectorateconstitutedonly5%ofthepopulation.Indianveterans returned to their villages without the righttovoteandlittle, ifany,politicalpower. In1941,VíctorPaz Estenssoro led the formation of the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR), the NationalistRevolutionary Movement. It grew in strength duringWorldWarIIandafterwardbyaligning itselfwiththeminers unions, the strongest in the country.38 In 1949theMNR staged a popular uprising that was quicklycrushedbythemilitary.VíctorPazEstenssoroandotherparty leadersfledintoexileanddevotedthemselvestoreorganizingforthenextthreeyears.39 On9April1952,anewsuccessfulMNRrevoltbecame

the Bolivian National Revolution. This was not abloodless coup d’état. Over 1,500 died bringing theMNR to power.40 Víctor Paz Estenssoro was quicklyelectedpresident.TheMNRimplementedwide-rangingreforms, including universal adult suffrage, massivelandreform,ruraleducation,andnationalizationofthetinmines.Thenationalgovernmentforthefirsttimeinthe country’s history worked to integrate the Indians(themajorityofthepopulation)intothenationalsocialstructure.Topreventamilitarycoupd’etat,theBolivianArmywasabolishedand themilitaryacademyclosed.Bothwerereinstatedwithin thefirst sixmonthsof theMNRadministration,butwithanewmission,topromotecivicactionthroughoutthecountry.41

The MNR stayed in power for an unprecedentedtwelveyears.42PazEstenssoro’svice-president,HernánSiles Zuazo, succeeded him in 1956. Paz Estenssorowas re-elected for a second time in 1960 and changed

theconstitutiontoenablehimself torunagainin1964.Afterhewonthe1964electionwith70%ofthevote,themilitarystagedacoup d’état.43

The 1964 CoupOn4November1964,theVicePresident,GeneralRené

Barrientos,andtheArmyCommander,GeneralAlfredoOvandoCandía,overthrewtheMNRgovernment.Thenew juntacalled itsactiona“restorative revolution” tostopMNRexcessesandeliminatecorruption.44Barrientosand Ovando ruled jointly in a military junta for twoyearsuntil2January1966,whenBarrientosresignedandranforpresident.Hewontheelectionwith54%ofthepopularvoteandtookofficeon6August1966. 45GeneralOvandocontinuedastheArmyCommander.46

ConclusionIn1967,Boliviaappearedreadyforchange.The1964

coupputthemilitarybackinpower,butafterthe1966election,theArmyreturnedtoitsbarracks.Threemajoreventsshapedthecountry:theWarofthePacificduringwhich Bolivia lost a mineral rich area, making it alandlocked country; the ChacoWar resulted inmoreterritoriallosses,butmoreimportantly,severelyreduced

12 Veritas

itsmanpowerfortwentyyears;andthe1952Revolutionredefinedthepolitical,social,andeconomiclandscape.InCheGuevara’sestimation,Bolivia,withitshistoryofinstability and a disenfranchised Indian population,wastheperfectbreedinggroundforrevolution.BoliviabecamehistestcaseforlaunchingrevolutionthroughoutSouthAmerica. 

Endnotes1 Waltraud Q. Morales, Bolivia: Land of Struggle (Boulder, CO: Westview

Press, 1992), 1; Robert J. Alexander,The Bolivian National Revolution (NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress,1958),3.

2 RobertJ.Alexander,Bolivia: Past, Present, and Future of Its Politics(NewYork:PraegerPress,1982),9;WaltraudQ.Morales,A Brief History of Bolivia(NewYork: Checkmark Books, 2004), xxi-xxii;Morales,Bolivia: Land of Struggle, 14-15;RexA.HudsonandDennisM.Hanratty, editors,Bolivia: A Country Study.(LibraryofCongress,Dec1989)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+bo0042),accessedon23September2008.

3 Morales,A Brief History of Bolivia,xxi-xxii;MargueriteA.Kistler,Bolivia(SanDiego,CA:LucentBooks,2004),12;LouisBarron,ed.,Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations(NewYork:HarperandRow,1965),19.

4 Kistler,Bolivia,14-16.5 Morales,Bolivia: Land of Struggle,15.6 Kistler,Bolivia,17-18.7 Morales,A Brief History of Bolivia,xxv;Kistler,Bolivia,19.8 Morales,Bolivia: Land of Struggle,15-16.9 Kistler,Bolivia,20.10 Alexander,Bolivia: Past, Present, and Future of Its Politics,12;Morales,Bolivia:

Land of Struggle,19.11 Thevegetationincludesawidevarietyofcactiandthemineral-rich Quebracho

tree.TheQuebrachotreeprovidesbothtannin(usedintanninghides)andaveryhardtimber,makingaprizedcommodity.TheetymologyofthenameisSpanish.Iitisaderivativefromquiebrahacha,meaning“ax-breaker.”

12 Kistler,Bolivia, 22;LouisBarron, ed.,Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations (NewYork:HarperandRow,1965),19.

13 Daniel James,Che Guevara (NewYork: Stein andDay, 1969), 214; RichardHarris,Death of a Revolutionary, Che Guevara’s Last Mission.(NewYork:W.W.NortonandCompany,1970),77.

14 James,Che Guevara, 275; ErnestoGuevara (with an introduction and casestudies by Brian Lovemen and Thomas M. Davies, Jr.), Che Guevara on Guerrilla Warfare(Lincoln,NE:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1985),343.

15 Morales,A Brief History of Bolivia,7;Thekingdomorempireis“Inca,”aftertherulerwhowasreferredtoas“TheInca.”ThelanguageandthepeopleareQuechua,whichisstillspokeninBoliviaandPeru.

16 Morales,A Brief History of Bolivia,16-19;DependingonthetextthisconflictiscalledtheIncaCivilWar,theIncaDynasticWar,theIncaWarofSuccession,ortheWaroftheTwoBrothers.

17 Morales,A Brief History of Bolivia,11-19and31.

18 Morales,A Brief History of Bolivia,16-17.19 Alexander,Bolivia: Past, Present, and Future of Its Politics,40.20 Herbert S. Klein,Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society, 2nd edition

(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1992),55.21 Morales,A Brief History of Bolivia,21-23;Alexander,Bolivia: Past, Present, and

Future of Its Politics,40.22 Morales,Bolivia: Land of Struggle,34.23 Morales,Bolivia: Land of Struggle,36; JefferyA.Cole.The Potosí Mita: 1573-

1700(Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,1985),1-3;Klein,Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society,54-55.

24 Alexander,Bolivia: Past, Present, and Future of Its Politics,41.25 TheWarofthePacific(1879-1883)isalsoknownastheSaltpeterWarorthe

GuanoWarbecauseoftheguanoandnitrates.Nitrateswereusedasfertilizerandamajorexplosive ingredient,whichmade thearidareaeconomicallyimportant. Later discoveries of copper and other minerals increased theeconomicvalueoftheregion.

26 RexA.HudsonandDennisM.Hanratty,Editedby,Bolivia: A Country Study.(LibraryofCongress,Dec1989),http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+bo0020),accessedon23September2008.

27 The Bolivians continue to call this the Litoral Department (Spanish for“littoral,”thecoast)anditremainsadeeplyemotionalissue.Popularbeliefattributesmuchofthecountry’sproblemstoitslandlockedstatus.

28 Alexander,Bolivia: Past, Present, and Future of Its Politics,53;Klein,Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society,40-41.

29 Yerba matéisanherbalteausedinthesouthernpartofLatinAmericaandwastheprimaryexportcropofParaguay.

30 EdwardA.Raymond,“PreviewintheChaco,”Field Artillery Journal,October1942,vol.32,no.10,794-795;“BloodinChaco,”Time,17July1933,accessedonlineathttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,753801,00.html

31 JamesDunkerley,Rebellion in the Veins: Political Struggle in Bolivia, 1952-82 (London:TheThetfordPress,1984),27.

32 Klein,Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society,194;RobertL.Scheina,Latin America’s Wars, Volume 2(Dulles,VA:Brassey’s,2003),103.

33 LeslieBethell,ed.,The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII: Latin America Since 1930: Spanish South America (Cambridge, United Kingdom:CambridgeUniversityPress,1991),234.

34 Bethell,The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII,518-519;RobertStuart Kain, “The Chaco Dispute and the Peace System,”Political Science Quarterly,September1935,Volume50,3:321.

35 Klein, Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society, 186; Scheina, Latin America’s Wars,103-104.

36 Bethell,The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII,525;Dunkerly,Rebellion in the Veins,10.

37 Bethell,The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII,526.38 Morales,A Brief History of Bolivia,117-118.39 Bethell,The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII,536-537;Morales,

A Brief History of Bolivia,132-133.40 Bethell,The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII,542;Morales,A

Brief History of Bolivia,140.41 Bethell, The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII, 542-544;

Alexander,The Bolivian National Revolution,146-150;Dunkerly,Rebellion in the Veins,49-51;Harris,Che Guevara’s Last Mission,63-64;Themilitaryacademyand other military functions were closed down for about eight weeks(Dunkerly,Rebellion in the Veins,49).

42 Bethell,The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII,551-552.43 Bethell,The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume VIII,556.44 Morales,A Brief History of Bolivia,167.45 Morales,A Brief History of Bolivia,171;Klein,Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-

Ethnic Society,194;Morales,Bolivia: Land of Struggle,88;Harris,Che Guevara’s Last Mission,64.

46 Dunkerly,Rebellion in the Veins,120-122.

Robert W. Jones, Jr. is an historian assigned to the USASOC History Office and is a Lieutenant Colonel in the U.S. Army. A graduate of the University of Washington, he earned his MA from Duke University and his MS from Troy State University. Current research interests include Special Forces in Vietnam 1960–1966, military government and civil affairs, special operations in World War II, Operation JUST CAUSE, and Operation ENDURING FREEDOM.

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