Anthropology

• as early as the 1700’s, scientists have tried to figure out how/why plants and animals have changed over time eg. Spotted Moths

• basically, organisms change in relation to their environment

• the concept of Natural Selection is key to theories of evolutionary science

• Universe is approximately 15 billion years old• ‘Earth’ is approximately 5B years old• it was not even remotely as it is today• simply a grouping of gases, then rock particles,

then lavas, then solid masses when cooled• the universe of today is still expanding• imagine this process in reverse to go back to

the beginning of the earth’s formation

Earth’s life in steps

• *** imagine that each step you take is equal to one century

• *** your starting point is Times Square NY• 1 step – 100 years, Thomas Edison is alive and

in the middle of his 1100 patented inventions• 3 steps – NY is farmland• 7-10 steps – a native trail• 70 steps – no Natives at all

• 100 steps – Mastodon grazing the ground (similar to Woolly Mammoth)

• 150 steps (15,000 years) the end of the last ice age

• you would have to walk to the North Pole to get to the age of rocks

• you would have to walk around the entire world to get the age of the earth

Visualize your area

• 1000 years ago there were no cities in North America

• 10,000 years ago the glaciers have retreated to their relative current states

• 1 million years ago, glaciers cut through the landscape

• 100 million years ago, we are at the base of a sea

• before that, North America and Africa are still connected

• (studies of Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift)

• 1 Billion years ago at the base of a huge mountain range

• 4-5 billion years ago rocks still floating in space• prior to that a collection of gases circling the

sun

Stephen Hawking

• author of A Brief History of Time• very deep• in response to criticism from religious groups

he states• “Evolution and Science does not exclude the

possibility of a creator, it just lays into question what his/her work involved and when it took place”

Understanding vast concepts

• for many of us, our frames of reference tend to be associated with what we know first hand

• or at least have been trained to acknowledge as plausible

• understanding things that are outside of our own personal experience can be difficult for some

• examples include ‘Black Holes’• What are they?– negative mass?

• Speed of sound– 768mph (343m/s) at sea level and 20 degrees C

(lower at warmer temperatures and higher altitudes)

• Speed of light– 300,000km/s or 186,000mps– that’s 8 times around the world in one second

• only Superman can attain this

Significant milestones in Earth’s History

• earth formed approximately 15 billion years ago (bya)

• 1st forms of life, 4bya• 1.8 bya free oxygen available (not in H2O)• 450 mya, vertabrates• 345 mya winged insects• 280-225 mya reptiles• 205 mya flighted birds

• 65-135 mya, dinosaurs• 65 mya 1st primates• 2 mya 1st homonids• it is believed that our ancestors diverged from

apes about 6 mya• by 4 mya, there are recorded fossils of

‘upright’ beings

Taxonomy of Humans

• Kingdom Animalia• Phylum Chordata• Subphylum Vertebrata• Class Mammalia• Order Primate• Family Hominidae ( habitual species)• Genus Homo (tool making omnivore)• Species sapiens (brain size 1000-2000mL)• Subspecies sapiens

“Ape Man” Part 1

• Host: Walter Cronkite1. Where are some of the place that anthropologists

look in order to find artifacts of ancient peoples?2. Approximately how old is Lucy?3. Genetically, approximately what percentage difference

is there between humans and chimps?4. Bidpedal locomotion, the ability to walk on two legs,

began about how many years ago5. How specifically did the ability to use stone flakes as

tools help our early ancestors in the overall picture?

• ‘Lucy’ is estimated to be about 3.2 mya• genetic difference in % between – humans and chimp 1.7%– humans and gorillas 1.9%

Ape Man Part 1 review

• 4-5 mya, the start of our ancestors• 100,000 ya, Homo sapiens• anthropologists look in fire pits, graves, look at

bones and tools• look in caves, valleys, old river/lake beds for

artifacts• ancestors were nomadic because of the

changes in the environment and resource availability

• Raymond Dart discovered working in Tuang S.Africa discovered Australopithecus africanus

• showing bipedalism 3-5 mya

• Mary Leakey worked in Tanzania• discovered footprints in the sand preserved in

volcanic ash• carbon dating confirms that they were

approximately 3.5my old, confirming bipedalism at that time

• Homo habilis refers to ‘skilled, or dextrous’• their ability to use stone flakes greatly assisted

in meat eating• now able to cut meat and bone rather than

scavenging at the site for food• the availability of higher protein helped

greatly in brain development

• Natural Selection• is a problem solving process• those with good solutions survive• those without good solutions die off• 99% of all species that ever existed are now

extinct

Homonid HistoryTime Frame Name Height Weight

4.2mya Australopithicus anemensis (male/female) 5’1”/4’3” 112/73lbs

3.8-3.0mya Australopithicus afarensis 4’11”/3’5” 99/64lbs

3-2.3mya Australopithicus africanus 4’6”/3’9” 90/66lbs

2.6-1mya Australopithicus bosei 4’6”/4’1” 108/75lbs

2.0-1.2mya Australopithicus robustus 4’4”/3’7” 88/71lbs

**** Denotes ‘robust homonids’

Beginning of Homo

2.5-1.6mya Homo habilis (“handy man”) 4’4”/3’10” 82/71lbs

1.7mya-100tya Homo erectus (“upright”) 5’0”/5’3” 139/117lbs

800-100tya Archaic Homo sapiens 5’9”/5’2” 137/112lbs

100,000 ya Anatomically modern Homo sapiens (engaged in the earliest burials)

5’9”/5’3” 143/119lbs

Today Homo sapiens sapiens (?) Similar similar

***170,000-27,000 Homo neaderthalensis 5’5”/5”1” 185/176lbs

“Ape Man” Part 2• 1. ‘Racial’ differences and superficial differences in humans likely only

changed in the last _______________ years.• 2. Mitochondrial DNA is the way paleontologists trace our descent back

to one single ________________ and is called the _________ hypothesis.• 3. The process by which certain groups survive and others die off is

called _______________.• 4. What types of physical problems have we inherited because of

upright walking?• 5. Describe the ‘energy’ advantage discussed in regards to heat from

standing upright• 6. The 1st dominant piece of technology used by our ancestors was the

__________________ about 1.5 mya• 7. Why was fire so useful in our evolution?

Ape Man Part 2 review

• 4.5 mya our ancestors were on two legs• racial differences are superficial and likely

changed only in the last 100,000 years• Homo Erectus present around 1mya• Mitochondrial DNA – the ‘family name’ passed

on through the female line• ‘Eve’ Hypothesis dates Eve to about 200,000

years ago

• ‘Eve’ took over other homonid populations such as Neanderthal and Erectus (?)

• Either we all came from Eve or we merged with Erectus

• genetically we are virtually all the same• bipedalism before tools, tools before big

brains

• The Price of upright walking?• orthopedic problems such as back, neck and

knee pain• child birth problems• trees, food and cover begin disappearing as a

result of global climate changes• the result is the nomadic movement of

populations to different areas of the African continent or further north

• the changes in human motion my have (likely) were the result of social structures leading in part to selective traits

• in other words, those males who could better care for the mates and offspring (upright walkers) would be more popular and therefore receive mating preference

Bipedalism in Heat

• the advantages of bipedalism of significant importance in our evolutionary history

• biped have almost 40% less exposure to heat than quadrapeds

• therefore:– lower temperature– less sweat– less H20 loss

• also, air above the ground level is cooler and more free moving

• therefore:– heat lost due to convection– less sweating– less H20 loss

• early on, early ancestors were scavengers• carnivores can more easily adapt to different

environments• Why??• animal meat can be digested worldwide,

because of the consistency of amino acids in all animal flesh

• plant structure doesn’t allow for this

Fire’s Uses

• the use of fire is a significant innovation in our history

• ancestors now able to cook food• stay warm in colder temperatures and

environments• increased light – therefore ‘daylight hours’• scare off predators

Netbook usage

• *** either using netbooks or old textbook pages, complete notes on Raymond Dart, the Leakeys, Donald Johanson, Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey, Birute Galdikas

• Bios that outline their significant contributions to Anthropology

“Ape Man” Part 3• “It’s All in the Mind”1. The key difference in brain function between us and other animals is our

ability to ____________________2. Origins of language are likely around _______, about the time of what

homonids presence.3. Robust homonids living at the same time as Erectus were probably what

type of eaters?4. At 60,000ya, what 2 homonids were living together and competing for the

same ___________.5. What suggestions are given to explain why modern humans replaced

Neanderthals?6. What purpose did cave painting serve?7. Humans today are not perfect. In fact, the video suggests that evolution is

very __________________and solves problems as they arise.

Ape Man Part 3 review“All in the Mind”

• diverse language major advantage over any other species

• our language is also very complex• useful in warning predators, news of food• language for us is the ‘social glue’• 60,000ya, Neanderthals and H.sapiens were

living together, sharing/competing for the same resources

• Neanderthals eventually died off – why?• they were physically stronger than us• they were also hunters• they also had social groups that cared for the

injured and buried their dead• So why are they extinct, or are they?

• Neanderthal language was likely not as good as H. sapiens, probably as a result of their tongue placement in the mouth

• may have had slower/lower fertility rates• H. sapiens took over the caves, hunting grounds because

of sheer numbers advantage• ***likely/probable/unlikely some genetic mixing occurred

between the species• this suggestion is brought about by the observation that

some Southern Europeans have Neanderthal like features

• a survival advantage of only 2% by a competing species could lead to complete replacement in only 30 generations (1000yrs)

• a 0.5% advantage would take only 5000 yrs

• at any rate, the individual species Neanderthal disappeared around 35-40tya

• Cro Magnon – 30,000ya• also exibited symbolic behaviour such as art, jewellery• these behaviours indicate success• time available for these activities would previously have

been earmarked for basic survival needs• participation in these activities would increase the

thought processes of the brain• Remember: evolution is very short sighted

“Ape Man” Part 4

• 1. Cronkite argues that evolution is no longer a theory but rather a ___________________.

• 2. Two of the most prominent archaelogists in the field of evolution are Richard ________ and Donald ______________.

• 3. Problems in science arise when scientists try to find _________ to fit the ________ rather than the other way around

• 4. The largest hoax in archeological study was the 1912 ‘finding’ of ______________________.

• 5. The ‘Taung Baby’ was found by ___________.• 6. Why did Europeans and archeologists want to believe that

humans evolved from Asia rather than Africa?

Ape Man Part 4 review“Science and Fiction”

• evolution is scientifically sound fact• Leakey and Johanson, are leaders in the field

of human anthropology• - however, they disagree on the exact route of

our evolution• Neanderthals are likely one of our closest

relatives

• “Piltdown Man” (1912)• was a huge fake or fraud that set back human

origin studies over 40 years• P.M. was supposed to simply ‘speed up’ what

the British scientists were trying to prove• Raymond Dart’s find of the ‘Taung Baby’

finally discredited and exposed Piltdown as a fake in 1925

• the preconceived ideas and prejudices of the time made many people want to believe the human origins were in Asia

• it was a much more romantic idea than Africa• in 1948 a grown up version of ‘Taung’ was

found and research finally shifted to Africa again

• one certainty is that evolution is continuing and is the result of short term changes

What is the Future of the Human Species?

• 1. Extinction• - due to pressures on resources• - fossil record shows that every other species known

to man has gone extinct• 2. Divergent species formed• - isolation required, likely through colonization of other

planets• 3. We stay the same• - because we control the environment we live in• - because we now have a true international gene pool

Human Variation

• humans do vary in skin colour, body type, body shape etc.

• these variations however are not distinct and clear

• 75% of the genetic make up of all humans is the same

• ‘Race’ differences no longer (if ever) exist

Causes of Diversity

• physical differences develop as a response to climate, geography, and history of culture

• eg. over 10’s of thousands of years, the amount of ‘melanin’ or skin pigment changes according to climate

• dark skin is resistant to UV rays which is beneficial for protection in warm climates

• particularly in equatorial regions

• light skin absorbs more sunlight• less pigment allows for sunlight to be

absorbed for the production of Vitamin D• this is beneficial in polar and mid-latitude

regions of the world

• “Skin Deep” article

Brief Human History

• earliest fully modern humans (anatomically) about 100,000 ya

• 40,000 ya humans entered Australia• 15,000 ya (or 40,000) humans entered the

Americas• Journey of Mankind website• www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey

Similarities to Other Primates

• there are approximately 200 species of primates

• 1. The senses, we all • are visually dependant• see in colour• see true depth (stereoscopic, 3D)• have eyes enclosed in a bony socket

• 2. Locomotion• limbs are very flexible• hands and feet can grasp• opposable thumbs (pick up things easier)• 3. Intelligence• largest complex brains of all mammals• ability to acquire, store and process

information

• 4. Behaviour Patterns• primates are social creatures• live in groups• hunt/gather for the good of the group• raise “family” and maintain close ties

Differences from Other Primates

• 1. Senses• virtually the same • 2. Locomotion• we are bipedal (walk exclusively on two legs)• our muscles and skeleton are adapted to

upright walking

• 3. Intelligence• we are the most complex• have the largest neo-cortex (base of the brain)• 4. Behaviour• ours reflects cultural norms and values and

not so much instinct

Human Separation

• humans likely separated from African Apes between 5-6mya

• fossil evidence from 8mya and later and 4mya and younger

• Bonobo• likely separated from common chimp around

1.5mya• likely very close to us

• social structure has distinct jobs and status for males and females

• sex is often face to face• sex is not always male to female• they appear to be constantly sexually receptive,

indicating sex for pleasure as opposed to simply reproduce

• are significantly more bipedal than other primates excluding humans

Genetic Differences from other Primates

• Notable feature differences• 1. lack of body hair• 2. rounded cranium and flat face• 3. spinal cord at the base of the skull• 4. non-opposable big toe• 5. slow growth of brain• full size around 10 years compared to < 5yrs.

• 6. - lack of external tail• 7. - muscle attachment to levers

• Neoteny - is the study of ‘juvenile’ features in primates and how they relate to humans

• basically a comparison of species during their infancy

• shows how similar our facial features are during prepubesence with other primates

Processes of Evolution

• Mutations• random unpredictable changes in loci or and entire

chromosome (many loci)• may occur as a result of mechanical errors in

production of genetic code or from outside stimuli such as cosmic or nuclear radiation or chemical insecticides

• mutations are frequent (happening right now) however the only ones of lasting affect are the ones that occur on the sex chromosomes (23rd)

Genetic Mixing

• Gene Flow • when members of the same species, but

different populations interbreed, genes from each other are said to “flow” from on another and vise versa

• Genetic Drift • genetic changes within a population• splits in the genetic code (mutations or

responses to other environment pressures)