Anthropology 330Anthropology 330

Economic SystemsEconomic Systems

What is an Economic System?What is an Economic System?

DEFINITION: An economic system is the DEFINITION: An economic system is the abstract, learned, shared abstract, learned, shared rules/templates/patterns for: rules/templates/patterns for:

Managing resources Managing resources Organizing labor Organizing labor Producing goods and services Producing goods and services Distributing goods and servicesDistributing goods and services

Economic AnthropologyEconomic Anthropology

EconomicsEconomics focuses on production, focuses on production, distribution, and consumption within the distribution, and consumption within the industrialized world.industrialized world.

Economic anthropologyEconomic anthropology studies production, studies production, distribution, and consumption comparatively distribution, and consumption comparatively in all societies of the world, industrialized and in all societies of the world, industrialized and non-industrialized.non-industrialized.

What Resources?What Resources?

1. Identifying what resources are present.1. Identifying what resources are present.

What resources are present? What resources are present? Which resources that are present are Which resources that are present are

recognized as resources?recognized as resources?

Geographical Location of ResourcesGeographical Location of Resources

2. Identifying where resources are located. 2. Identifying where resources are located. Single ecological zones Single ecological zones Multiple ecological zonesMultiple ecological zones

Temporal Availability of ResourcesTemporal Availability of Resources

3. Societies must determine when resources 3. Societies must determine when resources are availableare available

Tropical zones and year round availabilityTropical zones and year round availability Temperate zones and seasonable availabilityTemperate zones and seasonable availability

Control Over ResourcesControl Over Resources

4. Societies must 4. Societies must determine who determine who controls resources controls resources

Personal ownershipPersonal ownership Use rightsUse rights Conditions of Conditions of

ownershipownership Kin group control Kin group control

over resourcesover resources Supernatural Supernatural

resource controlresource control No ownershipNo ownership

Pastoralists and ResourcesPastoralists and Resources

Because this group Because this group of East African of East African pastoralists treats pastoralists treats land as belonging to land as belonging to everyone in the everyone in the society, you are not society, you are not likely to find any likely to find any “No Trespassing” “No Trespassing” signs here.signs here.

Kikuyu and ResourcesKikuyu and Resources

Lineage ownership of Lineage ownership of landland

Sub-clan use rightsSub-clan use rights Multiple plot Multiple plot

cultivationcultivation British colonial British colonial

interventionintervention Homesteads vs Homesteads vs

“villagization”“villagization”

Religion and Food ProductionReligion and Food Production

In Hindu India the cow is sacred and never killed for In Hindu India the cow is sacred and never killed for food.food.

Mbuti Pygmies Believe That the Forest They Live in Is a Supernatural Being

What Are the Ways in Which Societies What Are the Ways in Which Societies Organize Labor(I)?Organize Labor(I)?

There are five general ways in which societies There are five general ways in which societies organize labor organize labor

By age and gender (universal in all cultures). By age and gender (universal in all cultures). By part-time economic specialization By part-time economic specialization By full-time economic specialization By full-time economic specialization By industrialization By industrialization By castesBy castes

Age and Gender Role SpecializationAge and Gender Role Specialization

Organizing labor by age and genderOrganizing labor by age and gender

Children do not do the same jobs as adults; Children do not do the same jobs as adults; the elderly do not do the same jobs as middle-the elderly do not do the same jobs as middle-aged adults. aged adults.

Men and women do not do the same jobs and Men and women do not do the same jobs and do not have the same responsibilities.do not have the same responsibilities.

Age and gender division of labor is universal.Age and gender division of labor is universal.

Gender SpecializationGender Specialization

WomenWomen usually usually MenMen usually usuallytend crops, tend crops, hunt and fish,hunt and fish,gather wild foods, gather wild foods, build houses,build houses,care for children, care for children, clear land for farmingclear land for farmingprepare food, prepare food, herd large animals herd large animals clean house, clean house, trap small animals, andtrap small animals, andfetch water, and fetch water, and serve as political and serve as political and collect cooking fuel. collect cooking fuel. religious leaders.religious leaders.

Modernization and Child LaborModernization and Child Labor When do children start working?When do children start working?

• Traditional SocietiesTraditional Societies

• Developing societiesDeveloping societies

• Developed societiesDeveloped societies

Chores vs Labor?Chores vs Labor?

• Traditional societiesTraditional societies

• Developing societiesDeveloping societies

• Developed societiesDeveloped societies

Child Work through Chores

Some Chore Comparisons

From the Six Cultures Study done in the 1960’s in traditional societies

Child LaborChild Labor These Pakistani children These Pakistani children

are working full time in are working full time in an embroidery shop for an embroidery shop for pennies a day rather than pennies a day rather than going to school.going to school.

According to the According to the International Labor International Labor Organization, there were Organization, there were 246 million children 246 million children between the ages of 5 and between the ages of 5 and 17 in the workforce 17 in the workforce worldwide in 2002.worldwide in 2002.

Take a Look at Child Labor

http://www.childlaborphotoproject.org/childlabor.html

http://www.un.org/Photos/chilwork.htm

http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/gallery/credits.html

Durkheim and Division of LaborDurkheim and Division of Labor

Two types of societiesTwo types of societies

Mechanical solidarity - societies with a Mechanical solidarity - societies with a minimum of labor specialization where minimum of labor specialization where family units are relatively subsistence family units are relatively subsistence independent.independent.

Organic solidarity - highly specialized Organic solidarity - highly specialized societies, solidarity is based on mutual societies, solidarity is based on mutual interdependence.interdependence.

Economic Specialization Economic Specialization

Three Types of Open-System SpecializationThree Types of Open-System Specialization

Part-time economic specialization. Part-time economic specialization. Family produces own subsistence and also produces some Family produces own subsistence and also produces some goods for tradegoods for trade

Full-time economic specialization.Full-time economic specialization.Family produces 1 type of good or service and trades for Family produces 1 type of good or service and trades for subsistencesubsistence

IndustrializationIndustrializationFamily contributes only 1 small part of goods or service Family contributes only 1 small part of goods or service production and trades for subsistenceproduction and trades for subsistence

Economic Economic SpecializationSpecialization

The closed-system The closed-system specializationspecialization

CastesCastes

Full-time economic Full-time economic specialization into which a specialization into which a person is born and which a person is born and which a person cannot change. (Eg. person cannot change. (Eg. Indian traditional society)Indian traditional society)

Top = Brahmin casteTop = Brahmin caste

Bottom = Untouchable casteBottom = Untouchable caste

What Are the Ways in Which Societies What Are the Ways in Which Societies Approach Production (I)?Approach Production (I)?

There are two general ways of analyzing There are two general ways of analyzing production techniques cross-culturally. production techniques cross-culturally.

Technology Technology Work PatternsWork Patterns

What Are the Ways in Which What Are the Ways in Which Production Is Approached (II)?Production Is Approached (II)?

TechnologyTechnology

DEFINITION: The tools and skills needed to DEFINITION: The tools and skills needed to produce goods and services. produce goods and services.

Studying the technology of a society requires Studying the technology of a society requires identifying the tools, whether they be axes, plows, identifying the tools, whether they be axes, plows, tractors, factories or computers, that are used to tractors, factories or computers, that are used to produce goods and services. The tools are no good produce goods and services. The tools are no good without the skills to use them, so it is necessary to without the skills to use them, so it is necessary to identify those skills as well.identify those skills as well.

Work PatternsWork Patterns

DEFINITION: The ways in which work is DEFINITION: The ways in which work is organized around cultural values and world organized around cultural values and world view. view.

Two examples of contrasting work patterns are Two examples of contrasting work patterns are time oriented Vs task oriented work patterns time oriented Vs task oriented work patterns

and and social Vs individual work patterns.social Vs individual work patterns.

What Are the Ways in Which What Are the Ways in Which Production Is Approached (IV)?Production Is Approached (IV)?

In societies like ours, In societies like ours, worked is measured by worked is measured by how long a person how long a person works and is centered works and is centered on hours and minutes. on hours and minutes. Work begins at a given Work begins at a given time and ends at a time and ends at a given time, regardless given time, regardless of whether the task is of whether the task is finished or not. finished or not.

Time Oriented Vs Task OrientedTime Oriented Vs Task Oriented

In many societies, time In many societies, time is not a factor in how is not a factor in how work is done. In these work is done. In these societies, people attack societies, people attack a task and work until a task and work until that task is finished. At that task is finished. At that time they are free that time they are free to do something else. to do something else.

What Are the Ways in Which What Are the Ways in Which Production Is Approached (V)?Production Is Approached (V)?

Individual Work Vs Individual Work Vs

In societies like ours, In societies like ours, worked is usually worked is usually considered an individual considered an individual task. Work is done task. Work is done individually and is individually and is assessed as the assessed as the responsibility of the responsibility of the individual. People are individual. People are frequently scolded and frequently scolded and penalized for socializing penalized for socializing on the job. on the job.

Social WorkSocial Work

In many societies, In many societies, work is a social activity work is a social activity that provides an that provides an opportunity to be opportunity to be together and socialize together and socialize while accomplishing a while accomplishing a task. People look task. People look forward to work forward to work differently because of differently because of the social contact that the social contact that is expected.is expected.

What Are the Ways in Which What Are the Ways in Which Distribution Is Approached ?Distribution Is Approached ?

There are three general ways in which There are three general ways in which societies distribute goods and services cross-societies distribute goods and services cross-culturally. culturally.

Reciprocity Reciprocity Redistribution Redistribution Market SystemMarket System

ReciprocityReciprocity

DEFINITION: DEFINITION: Exchange in egalitarian societies that is not based a Exchange in egalitarian societies that is not based a

general purpose money.general purpose money.There are two kinds of reciprocity: There are two kinds of reciprocity: Generalized reciprocity Generalized reciprocity Balanced reciprocity Balanced reciprocity When people cheat in a reciprocal relationship, it is When people cheat in a reciprocal relationship, it is

called called Negative reciprocityNegative reciprocity

Generalized ReciprocityGeneralized Reciprocity

DEFINITION: DEFINITION:

Sharing what you have without immediate Sharing what you have without immediate repayment, but with the underlying repayment, but with the underlying assumption that others will share what they assumption that others will share what they have with you.have with you.

Eg. Barn-raising in farm communitiesEg. Barn-raising in farm communities

Balanced ReciprocityBalanced Reciprocity

DEFINITION: DEFINITION:

The trading at a single point in time of goods or The trading at a single point in time of goods or services of relatively equal value. This is services of relatively equal value. This is sometimes also known as barter.sometimes also known as barter.

Eg. Barter as when a doctor is paid in chickens Eg. Barter as when a doctor is paid in chickens for medical carefor medical care

Kula RingKula Ring

A form of A form of reciprocal reciprocal trading found trading found among the among the Trobriand Trobriand Islanders Islanders involving the use involving the use of white shell of white shell necklaces and red necklaces and red shell bracelets.shell bracelets.

BridewealthBridewealth

The transfer of goods The transfer of goods from the groom’s from the groom’s lineage to the bride’s lineage to the bride’s lineage to legitimize lineage to legitimize marriage.marriage.

Father examining bride Father examining bride wealth/price being presented by the wealth/price being presented by the groom’s family for his daughter’s groom’s family for his daughter’s weddingwedding

Negative ReciprocityNegative Reciprocity

DEFINITION: DEFINITION:

Cheating in in either generalized or balanced Cheating in in either generalized or balanced reciprocity, so that the cheater gains more reciprocity, so that the cheater gains more than he/she gives back.than he/she gives back.

RedistributionRedistribution

DEFINITION: DEFINITION: The collection of surplus by the high status The collection of surplus by the high status

leader of a group, who then arranges for a leader of a group, who then arranges for a feast or other regional celebration in which feast or other regional celebration in which the surplus is used and given away. the surplus is used and given away. Redistribution usually happens in ranked Redistribution usually happens in ranked societies, where there are at least two social societies, where there are at least two social classes, the chief’s and everyone else’s.classes, the chief’s and everyone else’s.

Eg. Samoan redistribution, Income taxesEg. Samoan redistribution, Income taxes

Big Men/big WomenBig Men/big Women

Self-made leaders, Self-made leaders, found widely in found widely in Melanesia and New Melanesia and New Guinea, who convince Guinea, who convince their followers to their followers to contribute excess food contribute excess food to provide feasts for the to provide feasts for the followers of other big followers of other big men or big women.men or big women.

PotlatchPotlatch

A form of competitive A form of competitive giveaway found among giveaway found among Native Americans from Native Americans from the Northwest Coast the Northwest Coast that serves as a that serves as a mechanism for both mechanism for both achieving social status achieving social status and distributing goods.and distributing goods.

Market SystemMarket System

DEFINITION: DEFINITION: A distribution system that depends on a A distribution system that depends on a

general purpose money, economic general purpose money, economic specialization and the production of large specialization and the production of large surpluses of all kinds of food through surpluses of all kinds of food through some form of agriculture.some form of agriculture.

Monetary SystemMonetary System

General purpose money or General purpose money or currencycurrency

Used to quantify exchanges Used to quantify exchanges Translates one kind of good or Translates one kind of good or

service into othersservice into others

Study GuideStudy Guide

Economic System RedistributionManaging resources PotlatchOrganizing labor Big Men and WomenProduction Market systemTechnology Money/currencyWork patterns OwnershipDistribution Age/gender role tasksGeneralized reciprocity Part-time specializationBalanced reciprocity Full-time specializationKula Ring IndustrializationBridewealth/Dowry CastesNegative reciprocity