Memory and Cognition

Anthony ManderLancaster House Oldham

manderanthony@hotmail.com

Three stages of memory

EncodingPut in memory

StorageMaintain in memory

RetrievalRecover from memory

Memory

Short-Term Long-Term

Encoding Storage Retrieval RetrievalEncoding Storage

Addingmeaningfullconnections

Retrieval failuresInterference;Search and

activation models

Limited capacity

7chunks +/- 2displacementAnd decay

Consolidation

Role of hippocampus

acoustic

visual

Fades quickly

Memory

Short-Term

Encoding

acoustic

Fades quickly

Storage Retrieval

Limited capacity

7chunks +/- 2displacementAnd decay

visual

SRUOY YLERECNIS

SINCERELY YOURS

Memory

Long-Term(Explicit)

Encoding

Retrieval failuresInterference;Search and

activation modelsRole of

hippocampus

Storage Retrieval

Addingmeaningfullconnections

Consolidation

The Great Divide

Anterior Commisure

The anterior commissurea more primitive connection between hemispheres links unconcious areas only

The Sexual Brain

The INAH3Hypothalamic Nucleus2.5 x male/female

The Corpus Callosum A thick band of Axons- approx 80 millionwhich connect the brain cells inone hemisphere to those in theother. The two sides keep up aconstant communication viathis neural bridge

Different Cognitive StylesWomen• Score better then men on some language tests• Show a faster rate of language development• Have a lower risk of developmental dysphasia• Score better then men on some tests of social

judgement, empathy and co-operation• Are better at matching items• Are better at test that involve generating ideas

Early cognitive impairment [E C I]

This condition involves a loss of brain function that steadily progresses over the years, ending in Alzheimer’s disease or other forms of dementia. Affects around 500,000 Britons ???

Early cognitive impairment [E C I]

tests available, effective measures to prevent or postpone further impairment before the damage is done

Early cognitive impairment [E C I]

cognitive function testscomputerized cognitive function tests

Automation of Cognitive TestsAutomation of Cognitive Tests

• Is the only way to definitively assess attention and recognition memory

• Increases sensitivity• Rules out inter-rater reliability problems• Permits automatic collection of responses• Maximises integrity of data• Saves time and effort in reporting

Early cognitive impairment [E C I]

There are no prescription drugs as yet to treat ECI

Enhancement to memory with a ginkgo/ginseng combination

• Combination shown to selectively and significantly enhance ability to store and retrieve information in working and secondary memory. No effects on attention or speed of retrieval from memory

• Effects seen in 4 acute and chronic dosing trials conducted in UK, Holland and Sweden in healthy young and middle aged volunteers

Wesnes K, Faleni RA, Hefting NR, et al (1997). The cognitive, subjective and physical effects of a Ginkgo biloba/Panax ginseng combination in healthy volunteers with neurasthenic complaints. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 33, 677-683.

Wesnes KA, Ward T, McGinty A, Petrini O. (2000) The memory enhancing effects of a Ginkgo biloba/Panax ginseng combination in healthy middle aged volunteers. Psychopharmacology, 152: 353-361

Kennedy DO, Scholey AB and Wesnes KA (2001). Differential, dose dependent changes in cognitive performance following acute administration of a Ginkgo biloba / Panax ginseng combination to healthy young volunteers. Nutritional Neuroscience, Vol 4 : 339-412.

Kennedy DO, Scholey AB, Wesnes K (2002). Modulation of cognition and mood following administration of single doses of Ginkgo biloba, Ginseng and a Ginkgo/Ginseng combination to healthy young adults. Physiology & Behaviour 75: 1-13.

Early cognitive impairment [E C I]

EITHER avoid many of the factors that can potentially damage memory smoking, drinking, eating the wrong foodOR ENCOURAGE factors that are are good for memorydietary and nutritionaluse it or loose it

Early cognitive impairment [E C I]ways of alleviating or postponing age-related memory loss

all about keeping as much of your hippo-campus as possible

Oxford Project To Investigate Memory and Ageing (OPTIMA), where the cognitive function of hundreds of healthy and impaired volunteers has been intensively studied since the late Eighties

Early cognitive impairment [E C I]

By exercising and challenging your memory, you can postpone age-related memory loss.

Early cognitive impairment [E C I]

It’s this part of the brain that controls memory. While normal ageing involves shrinking of the hippocampus by 1% a year from our forties onwards, it can become as much as 15% for Alzheimer’s sufferers.

maintain a robust hippo-campus.

tango dancing as an activity which reduces the risk of developing Alzheimer’s by an astonishing 75% – the same being true of playing either chess or the piano. These, it seems, demand an unusual combination of multi-tasking-- mixing mental and physical activities, thereby helping to maintain a robust hippo-campus

Early cognitive impairment [E C I]

Testosterone body of evidence to suggest that men with low testosterone levels are more at risk of the disease

Early cognitive impairment [E C I]

homocysteine levels

high homocysteine levels normally only occur in people with low vitamin B levels

one in 10 people inherit a gene, MTHFR, that reduces the body’s ability to process homocysteine whatever the level of B vitamins

The New “Bad Boy”- Homocysteine

a decade ago, little interest in homocysteine. Now rivals elevated blood cholesterol as a major contributor to heart disease.

Stroke

cognitive function, alzheimer’s,dementia .

fractures

Homocysteine

Before 1993, most cases of high circulating homocysteine were thought to be of genetic origin

Homocysteine

Most mildly elevated homocysteine in elderly populations is linked to low vitamin B status.

The body requires folate , vitamin B 6, and vitamin B12 to convert homocysteine to other amino acids that aren’t toxic to the lining of blood vessels.

Blood folate levels appeared to have the most influence on homocysteine levels.

Homocysteine high levels relate to:

low vitamin B 6 a riboflavin (B2) intake, high alcohol intake high caffeine intake smoking hypertension

Homocysteine

Men and women who had blood homocysteine levels over 12 mmol/l were more than twice as likely to have experienced a heart attack or stroke.third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, NHANES III

Homocysteine

BUT- homocysteine not related to heart attack or stroke in pre-menopausal women , whereas the relationship was strong in men of the same age.

Conversely, the relationship faded among the older men and surfaced among postmenopausal women

Homocysteine

Estrogen helps keep homocysteine levels down. Pre menopausal women, those who use oral contraceptives, and pregnant women all have lower blood homocysteine than men and post menopausal women — except those who take estrogen replacement !!

Homocysteine

8,400 people ranging in age from 17 to over 70 years (NHANES III.)

higher estrogen status is associated with a decreased mean serum homocysteine concentration

Estrogen may explain the previously reported differences in homocysteine concentrations between males and females.

Homocysteine

association between memory loss and elevated homocysteine levelshigh folate levels appeared to protect from memory loss even if homocysteine levels are high

Homocysteine & BoneThe quarter of men whose homocysteine concentrations were highest were nearly four times as likely to later break a hip as were the quarter of men with lowest blood homocysteine.

Women with the most homocysteine were about twice as likely to break a hip as were women with the least ( Framingham Study.)

Men and women with the highest homocysteine concentrations were roughly twice as likely to have broken a hip or other bone frequently fractured in elderly people as were those with lower homocysteine

People with the highest and lowest homocysteine readings don’t have appreciably different bone densities, even though the high homocysteine group have more fractures. WHY?

effect on collagen - a possible explanation. In vitro studies indicate that homocysteine weakens the cross-linking between collagen fibers in bone, ligaments and tendons,

a robust hippocampus

maintain a robust hippo-campus.

tango dancing as an activity which reduces the risk of developing Alzheimer’s by an astonishing 75% – the same being true of playing either chess or the piano. These, it seems, demand an unusual combination of multi-tasking-- mixing mental and physical activities, thereby helping to maintain a robust hippo-campus