antartica systems wstewater treatment tarasenko

8/12/2019 Antartica Systems Wstewater Treatment Tarasenko

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WastewaterTreatment

inAntarctica

SergeyTarasenkoSupervisor:NeilGilbert

GCAS2008/2009


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Tableofcontent

Acronyms ...........................................................................................................................................3

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................4

1Basicprinciplesofwastewatertreatmentforsmallobjects .....................................................5

1.1Domesticwastewatercharacteristics....................................................................................5

1.2Characteristicsofmainmethodsofdomesticwastewatertreatment .............................5

1.3Designingoftreatmentfacilitiesforindividualsewagedisposalsystems...................11

2WastewatertreatmentinAntarctica..........................................................................................13

2.1ProblemsoftransferringtreatmenttechnologiestoAntarctica .....................................13

2.1.1RequirementsoftheProtocolonEnvironmentalProtectiontotheAntarcticTreaty/

Wastewaterqualitystandards ...................................................................................................13

2.1.2Geographicalsituation ......................................................................................................14

2.1.2.1Climaticconditions ....................................................................................................14

2.1.2.2Remotelocation..........................................................................................................16

2.1.2.3Absenceofqualifiedpersonnel ...................................................................................17

2.1.3Stationfacilities ................................................................................................................17

2.1.3.1Powergeneration .......................................................................................................17

2.1.3.2Watersupply..............................................................................................................18

2.1.4Wastewatercharacteristics...............................................................................................18

2.1.5Wastewaterqualitymonitoring........................................................................................20

2.2Reviewofusedtechnologies ...............................................................................................20

Conclusion........................................................................................................................................31

References.........................................................................................................................................32

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Acronyms

AEON AntarcticEnvironmentalOfficersNetwork

BOD BiologicalOxidationDemand

COD ChemicalOxidationDemand

COMNAP CouncilofManagersofNationalAntarcticPrograms

MARPOL InternationalConventionforthePreventionofPollutionfromShips

MBR MembraneBioreactor

PVC Polyvinylchloride

PVDV PolyvinylidenfluorideRBC RotatingBiologicalContactor

SCALOP StandingCommitteeonAntarcticLogisticsandOperations

SCAR ScientificCommitteeonAntarcticResearch

SS SuspendedSolids

UV Ultraviolet

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Introduction

Human wastes production is a necessary result of research and logistic activity in

Antarctica. Solid and liquid wastes disposal may lead to irreversible changes of the

Antarctic environment. This problem can partly be solved by application of efficient

methodsofwastewatertreatment.

Minimum requirements for sewage treatment and disposal are prescribed in The

Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty. Transferring treatment

technologies to Antarctica is not simple because of quite a number of reasons. The

principles guiding the design of the water disposal systems are firstly, to minimizeenvironmentalimpact;secondly,tomakerationallayoutforminimizinglandoccupation;

andthirdly,tooperatesafelyandreliablyandmakethesystemeasytomanage.

Thisprojectwillbrieflydiscussmainmethodsofdomesticwastewatertreatmentand

basic principles of sewage disposal for small objects. It also will describe problems of

transferring treatment technologies to Antarctica and review treatment plants that have

beeninstalledatresearchstations.

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1Basicprinciplesofwastewatertreatmentforsmallobjects

1.1DomesticwastewatercharacteristicsDomestic sewage consists of two main fluxes. The first one is household sewage

(greywater)whichincludeswastewaterfromwashbasins,kitchensinks,baths,showers,

laundrywashingetc.Thesecondoneisfecal(blackwater)fromtoiletsandurinals.Weight

offecesperoneadultpersonmakesabout1,500gperday(thatincludesabout1,250gof

urine).Amountofgreywaterdependsonhousingfacilities:from1540litersperdayper

person inpremiseswithoutcentralwatersupply,to100200 liters perday perperson in

premiseswithcentralwatersupplyorindividualwatersupply.Compositionofhousehold

andfecalsewageisverydifferent(table1),andsometimesitisexpedientnottocombineit

in one flux,but treat separately. Domestic sewage contains contaminants of mineral and

organic origin which canbe in nonsolute, solute and colloidal state. The major part of

organic contaminants is representedby proteins, fats, carbohydrates and products of its

degradation. Nonorganic contaminants consist of quartz sand, clay, and salt particles

which areformed inthe vitalprocesses ofthehuman.The last ones includephosphates,

hydrocarbonates,ammoniumsalts(productofureahydrolysis).Organicsubstancesmake

4558%ofthetotalweightofcontaminantsindomesticsewage[1,2].

Table1CharacteristicsofgreyandblackwastewaterCompound Unit Greywater Blackwater

BODtotal mgO2/l 100400 300600

CODtotal mgO2/l 200700 9001500

Totalnitrogen mgN/l 830 100300

Totalphosphorus mgP/l 27 2040

Potassium mgK/l 26 4090

1.2CharacteristicsofmainmethodsofdomesticwastewatertreatmentMethodsofsewagetreatmentcanbedivided intomechanical,physicochemicaland

biochemical. Treatment process leads to formation of sludge which undergoes

deactivation, disinfection, dehydration and deliquification. If discharge or reutilization

conditions require higher purification degree, then advanced treatment facilities canbe

installedafterthemaintreatmentplant.Aftertreatmentandbeforedischarge,wastewater

is disinfected with a view to destroy pathogenic microorganisms. Usually a combination

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of mechanical and biological treatment is used for treatment of domestic sewage.

Physicochemicaltreatmentisconsiderablylesscommon.

Mechanical sewage treatment is intended for trapping of nonsolute contaminants.

Mechanicaltreatmentfacilitiesincludebarscreens(toremovelargewaste),sandcatchers(toseparatemineralcontaminants,mostlysand),sedimentationtanks(toremovesinking

and floating contaminants (figure1)) and filters. For treatment of sewage with specific

contaminants, grease catchers, oil separators and resin retainers. Mechanical treatment

facilities reduce concentration of suspended substances for 4060%, which leads to

reductionofBODvaluefor2040%[1,2].

Figure1Sedimentationtanks(St.Petersburg,2006)

Biological sewage treatment methods arebased on activity of microorganisms which

mineralize solute organic compounds which serve as a nutrient source for such

microorganisms.Biologicaltreatmentplantscanbeconditionallydivided intotwotypes.

The first type includes plants where biological treatment process is carried out in

conditions similar to natural conditions. Plants of the second type provide similar

treatment in artificially created conditions, i.e. in aeration tanks andbiofilters. Biological

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treatment method is the most costeffective method, but it is applied only in certain

conditions.Therearefollowingrestrictions:

wastewater temperature mustbe above 610C (moreover, at temperature above

10C thebiological treatment method is certainly applied. At lower temperatures it isnecessary to perform an engineering and economical comparison with systems of

physicochemicalwastewatertreatment);

longbreaksinwastewaterinflow(aweekormore),becauseittakessometimefor

microorganismstogrowafterabreak(aboutonemonth);

presenceofhightoxiccontaminantsinthewater.

Biological treatment plants provide reduction of BOD contamination values for 80

95%[14].

Physicochemical sewage treatment methods are applied very rarely. Peculiarity of

physicochemical sewage treatment plants is that such plants canbe put into operation

very quickly. Treatment plants which apply physicochemical processes canbe divided

intoseparatorsanddestructors.Inplantsofthefirsttype,contaminantsareremovedfrom

the water in the form of strong solutions, sludges and sediments. In destructors,

contaminants are destroyed directly in the treated water, and destruction products also

remain in the water; at that, no secondary wastes of wastewater treatment are created.

Residential wastewater treatment plants apply such methods as flotation, coagulation,

sorption,ozonationwhichareusedondifferentstagesofwatertreatment.Expediencyof

application of those methods on treatment plants must be justified by technical and

economicassessment[1,2,58].

Flotation is one of the kinds of adsorptivebubble separation which principle is to

create floating agglomerates (flotation complexes) of contaminants with dispersed gas

phase and its following separation in the form of concentrated froth product (flotation

sludge).Flotationisusedforcleaningofwaterfromlightparticulatepollutants,mostlyof

organic origin, and also from solute surfactants. Flotation plants are used instead of

sedimentation tanks or clarification tanks with suspended sediment; flotation plants can

alsosubstitutemicrofilters.Alongwithremovalofmechanicalimpuritiesaswellassolute

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and colloidal contaminants, flotation treatment methods provide reduction of BOD and

CODvalues,andremovalofvolatilecomponents.Effectivenessofflotationprocessvaries

widely:from20to99%[1,2,59].

Coagulationprocessofwatertreatmentwithcoagulantssaltsofpolyvalentmetals.

Coagulation is understood as physicochemical agglomeration of finest colloidal and

dispersed particles under the influence of molecular attraction forces. 5060% of

residential sewage consist of contaminants which canbe classified as colloidal due to its

physicochemical properties; such contaminants do not sediment and cannotbe trapped

withregularfilters.Coagulationprovidesthefollowingtreatmentefficiency:COD78%,

BOD91.3%,suspendedsubstances98.8%[1,2,58].

Sorption equilibrium dynamic process of substance absorption from environment

byasolid,liquidorgas.Themajormethodusedinsewagetreatmentisabsorptionprocess

(substance absorptionby the surface of a solid sorbent. Sorption methods are mostly

effectiveforadvancedcleaningofsewagefromsoluteorganicsubstances[1,2,58].

Ozonation is a universal method for effective purification of sewage from different

kindsofcontaminants.Duetohighoxidizingcapacity,ozoneisusedbothfordisinfection

and destruction of hard oxidable organic (for example, surfactants) and nonorganic

compounds.Anadditionaleffectofwaterozonationisitsenrichmentwithsoluteoxygen.

Besides, application of ozonation as a destructive method does not lead to increase of

salinity, and contaminates water with reaction products to a small extent; the whole

processcanbeeasilyoperatedautomatically[1,2,58].

Advanced cleaning of sewage from suspended substances requires application of

differentfilters(filtrationofsewagereducescontentofsuspendedsubstancesfor5080%).

Advanced cleaning from solute organic substances is made with the help of sorption,

biosorption, ozonation and other plants. Advanced cleaning from nitrogen and

phosphoruscompoundscanbemadebyphysicochemicalandbiologicalmethods[1,2,5

8].

Disinfectionofsewageisthefinalstageoftreatmentbeforedischarge.Thepurposeof

disinfectionisdestructionofpathogenicmicroorganismsexistinginwastewater.

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The most common disinfection method is to treat water with chlorine (gaseous or

liquid)orsodiumhypochlorite,obtainedthroughelectrolysisofsaltbrine.Activechlorine

takesgermicidaleffect.Chlorinetreatmenthasanumberofdisadvantages:

chlorineisapotenttoxicsubstance;precise chlorine dosage is necessary (underdose of chlorine result in absence of

thenecessarygermicidaleffect;overdoseofchlorinehasanegativeeffectonhumanhealth

(iftreatedwaterisusedfordrinking));

chlorine mustbe thoroughly mixed with water; chlorine and water mustbe in

contactforasufficient(30minutesminimum)amountoftime;

itisnecessarytostoremassivesuppliesofchlorineintreatmentplants.

Therefore, application of chlorine requires special safety measures and precise

adherencetotheoperatingprocedure[1,2,10,11].

Wastewater canbe disinfectedby ozone. Ozonation killsbacteria a thousand times

fasterthanchlorinetreatment.Ozonationalsohasanumberofdisadvantages:

ozonetoxicitymakesitnecessarytopreventpenetrationofozoneinpremises;

complexprocessofozonepreparation(atmosphericairmustbededustedanddry;

ozonationplantsareenergyconsumingandrequiresefficientmaintenance);

necessitytoprovidespecialequipmentforintroductionofozoneandtherequired

timeforcontactbetweenozoneandwater[1,2,10,11].

Waterbornebacteria canbe destroyedby means of ultraviolet light treatment. This

process is carried out in special facilities, where relatively thin layer of water passes

sources of UVlight (quartzmercury or argonmercury lamps). Disadvantages of such

disinfectionmethodare:

dangerofcontaminationbymercuryusedinsuchlamps;

specialrequirementsfortreatedwater(itmustbetransparentandcharacterizedby

maximumpermeabilityforUVlight)[1,2].

Ultravioletlightdisinfectionhasthefollowingadvantages:

UVtreatedwaterdoesnotshowtoxicandmutageniccompounds;

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noadverseeffects in case of overtreatment, which considerably simplifies process

controlprocedures;

disinfection time makes 110 second in continuous flow mode (no necessity to

buildcontacttanks);

UVlight disinfection plants has low operation costs in comparison with

chlorinationandozonation(thereasoniscomparativelylowelectricpowerconsumption:

35timeslessthanozonation)[1,2,1012].

Apart from the listed disinfection methods, in the present time the following

disinfection methods arebeing studied: disinfection in magneticfield and disinfection with

electrochemicalactivationofwater[11,13].

Treatmentofsludgesofdifferenttypeswhichareformedintheprocessofmechanical,

biologicalandphysicochemicaltreatmentofwastewaterandcontainorganicandmineral

componentsiscarriedoutwithaviewtoobtainanendproductcharacterizedbyminimal

damagetoenvironmentorsuitableforindustrialutilization.Thisgoalcanbeachievedby

implementation of the three major processes in different sequence: dehydration,

stabilization,disinfection.Dependingonconditionsofgenerationandseparation,sludges

canbedividedintothefollowingtypes:primarysludges(coarsesludges;heavysludges;

floating sludges; raw sludges which havebeen separated from wastewater as a result of

mechanical treatment), and secondary sludges (raw sludges which havebeen separated

fromwastewaterasaresultofbiologicalorphysicochemicaltreatment;digestedsludges,

compacted sludges with humidity 9085%, dehydrated sludges with humidity 8040%,

dry sludges with humidity 540%). Heavy sludges are removedby sand catchers. Itscomposition includes sand and fragments of some minerals. For the purposes of design

calculations,theamountofremovedheavycontaminantsisacceptedas0.02l(3g)forone

person per day at humidity 60% andbulk weight 1.5t/m3. Amount of floating sludges

removedbygreasecatchersorfloatingup insedimentationtanks,makes2lathumidity

60% andbulk weight 0.6t/m3 for one person per year in domestic sewage systems. Raw

sludges from primary sedimentation tanks are characterized by considerable non

homogeneity and represent suspended sedimentation of grey or lightbrown color with

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sour smell. It quickly decays due to great amount of organic substances (about 70%).

Averagehumidityofrawsludgemakes9395%.Amountofrawsludgeforonepersonper

day is 2540g (0.50.8l). Activated sludge represents suspended sedimentation which

contains amorphous flakes, including microorganisms and protozoa with wastewater

bornecontaminantsadsorbedontheirsurface.Rawsludgequicklydecays intheprocess

ofstorageandcompaction.Averagehumidityofcompactedexcesssludgemakes9798%;

itsquantity2032g(0.70.11l)foronepersonperday.Contentoforganicsubstancesis

about 75%. Sludge canbe characterizedby highbacterial density (by one order higher

thanthatofwastewater)[2,14,15].

1.3DesigningoftreatmentfacilitiesforindividualsewagedisposalsystemsChoice of wastewater treatment methods and configuration of treatment plants

depends on many factors and presents a complex engineering and economical problem.

Configuration of a treatment plant should be chosen depending on properties and

quantity of influent wastewater, required degree of purification, method of sludge

treatmentandlocalconditions.

Estimationofrequiredpurificationdegreeshowsthenecessaryeffectforreductionof

contaminantsonatreatmentplant.

Treatment plants with capacity not exceeding 25m3 per day canbe classified as

individualtreatmentplants.Suchplantsaredesignedfortreatmentofwastewatercoming

fromdetachedhousesoragroupofbuildings.Normally,facilitiesdesignedfordisposalof

small amounts of wastewater can be characterized by high remoteness from well

developed transportation lines, weak construction base, high construction costs andabsence of skilled regular staff. Besides, difficulties in designing and construction of

treatmentfacilitiesforindividualsewagedisposalsystemsarealsoconnectedwiththefact

that here we deal with small amounts of wastewater which can be characterized by

irregular inflow and instability of contaminants concentration. These factors drastically

reduce operating efficiency of treatment facilities and demand increase of capacity of

treatmentfacilitiesonthedesignstage[1,1619].

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Costefficient treatment of small amounts of wastewater calls for application of

compacttreatmentfacilities.Suchfacilitiesshouldbeinstalledonoperationsiteasofone

pieceorofseparatebocksdeliveredbyauto,railorwatertransport.

Compact factorymade plants canbe divided into the following types according to

technological process: treatment facilities with activated sludge; treatment facilities with

biofilm;combinedtreatmentfacilitieswithactivatedsludgeandbiofilm;physicochemical

treatment facilities. For treatment of wastewater from settlements with temporary

residence of staff and for other objects with periodical presence of people it is

recommendedtousephysicochemicaltreatment.

At the present time the industry produces a number of different types of modular

treatmentplantsforindividualsewagedisposalsystems.Insomecasesitispossibletouse

shipsewagetreatmentplants(figure2).

Figure2UNEXBIOsewagetreatmentplant(RaumaRepola,Finland)

installedonboardr/vAkademikFedorov

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2WastewatertreatmentinAntarctica

2.1ProblemsoftransferringtreatmenttechnologiestoAntarctica2.1.1Requirements of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to theAntarctic

Treaty/WastewaterqualitystandardsIn accordance with Article1 of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the

Antarctic Treaty waste storage, disposal and removal from the Antarctic Treaty area, as

well as recycling and source reduction, shallbe essential considerations in the planning

andconductofactivitiesintheAntarcticTreatyarea.

TheProtocolrequirementsforwaste(wastewater)disposalareasfallows:

sewage and domestic liquid wastes, shall, to the maximum extent practicable,be

removedfromtheAntarcticTreatyareabythegeneratorofsuchwastes(Article2);

wastes not removed or disposed of shall notbe disposed of onto icefree areas or

intofreshwatersystems(Article4);

sewage, domestic liquid wastes and other liquid wastes not removed from the

Antarctic Treaty area in accordance with Article 2, shall, to the maximum extent

practicable,notbedisposedofontoseaice,iceshelvesorthegroundedicesheet,provided

that such wastes which aregeneratedby stations located inland on ice shelves or on the

grounded icesheet maybe disposed of in deep ice pits where such disposal is the only

practicableoption;suchpitsshallnotbelocatedonknowniceflowlineswhichterminate

aticefreeareasorinareasofhighablation(Article4);

sewageanddomesticliquidwastesmaybedischargeddirectlyintothesea,taking

intoaccounttheassimilativecapacityofthereceivingmarineenvironmentandprovidedthat:

(a)suchdischargeislocated,whereverpracticable,whereconditionsexistforinitial

dilutionandrapiddispersal;and

(b)largequantitiesofsuchwastes(generatedinastationwheretheaverageweekly

occupancyovertheaustralsummerisapproximately30individualsormore)shallbe

treatedatleastbymaceration;

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thebyproductofsewagetreatmentbytheRotaryBiologicalContactorprocessor

similar processes maybe disposed of into the sea provided that such disposal does not

adversely affect the local environment, and provided also that any such disposal at sea

shallbeinaccordancewithAnnexIVtotheProtocol(Article5)[20].

AtthesametimetheProtocoldoesnotmakespecificdemandsontreatedwastewater

quality.Forthereasonthatitisdifficulttodefineaprecisestandardofeffluentthatwould

beacceptablefordischargetotheAntarcticenvironmentitbecomesnecessarytoconsider

nominalstandardsforawastewatertreatmentplanttoachieve.Ontheotherhandtreated

watermightalsobeincompliancewithnationalorinternationalstandards(itisclearthat

while disposal system meets the requirements of the Protocol it may not comply withnational standards). It is obvious that there are significant differencesbetween countries

(table2).

Table2Nominaldesignedwastewaterqualitystandards[2128]Designedeffluentquality

CountryCOD,mg/l BOD5,mg/l SS,mg/l Fecalcolonbacillus,cfu/100ml

China(ZhongShan) 20 5 0 3

China(DomeA) 4 3 2

Germany 50 100 200India


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Table3MeantemperaturesindifferentareasofAntarctica1

Area Meansummertemperatures,C Meanwintertemperatures,C

Coast 0 1829

Plateau 40 68AntarcticPeninsula 9

Inconsiderationofweatherconditionstreatmentplantsaretobeenclosedinheated

buildingsdesignedtoprotectequipmentandwastewaterflowfromfreezingtemperatures

(figure3).

Figure3WastewatertreatmentplantbuildingatMcMurdostation(2008)

Freezingofpipesconnectingplantcomponentscanbeaseriousproblem.Asarule

wastewater pipelines need tobe heated (figure4). It also means that treated effluent

dischargeisusuallybestdoneintermittentlysoastominimisethechanceofoutfallpipes

freezingup.Thisinturnimpliesthatplantsneedtoincludeabuffertankinwhichtreated

effluentcanbestoreduntilthenextdischarge.

1SCARofficialwebsite(http://www.scar.org)

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Figure4HeatedwastewaterpipelineatProgressstation(2006)

Extremeconditionstogetherwithprolongedperiodofdarknessduringwintermean

that there are just several weeks in summer when conditions are good for outdoor

construction work. This time is needed for shipping of plant components to the selected

site,installation,andconnectionofpipesandutilities.

2.1.2.2RemotelocationRemotelocationofAntarcticstationmakestransportationandconstructionofplants

(especially in aggregate,but in some cases (for large plants) aggregate is needed) very

expensive and inconvenient. For convenience of transport and handling, and to protect

plant components during the rough weather characteristic of the southern ocean, it is

preferably to build plants inside containers (for instance New Zealanders opted to

constructwastewatertreatmentplants for ScottBase within ISO20containers; plantsfor

Novolazarevskaya station were also placed in containers (figure5)). Modular,

prefabricatedplantsthatcanbeeasilydisassembledforshippingandreadilyreassembled

on site are therefore virtually a necessity. Such plants can alsobe commissioned and

modifiedpriortoshipping,furtheralleviatingdemandsonthelimitedstaffavailableonsiteatresearchstations.Compactnessisnecessaryifplantsaretofitintocontainers.

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Theremotenessandisolationofplantsmeansthatsparepartsmaybeunavailablefor

long periods and therefore plants must incorporate a high level of redundancy for all

itemsofequipmentnotreadilyrepairableonsite.

Figure5WastewatertreatmentplantsatNovolazarevskayastation(2008)

2.1.2.3AbsenceofqualifiedpersonnelAbsenceofqualifiedpersonnelmustalsobeconsidered.Particularlyduringwinter,

plant operation is usually handled by staff who usually has numerous other

responsibilitiesandlacksadetailedunderstandingofwastewatertreatmentfundamentals

(for example the stations doctor monitored treatment process at Chilean Frei station

during2001season[29]).Thisimpliesthatahighlyautomatedcontrolsystemisdesirable,

yet it must stillbe possible to run the plant on manual control in the event of a control

systembreakdown.

2.1.3Stationfacilities2.1.3.1PowergenerationAlternative energy systems (solar energy or wind generators) seem tobe useful in

conditionsofAntarctica.However,powerisgenerallyprovidedbydieselgeneratorsand

energy is expensive in Antarctica,being derived from hydrocarbon fuels shipped in at

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highcostandstoredinheatedstoragetanks.Thereforewastewatertreatmentplantsneed

tohavelowenergyconsumption.

2.1.3.2WatersupplyWatersupply inthemajorityofcasess isprovidedbymeltingofsnow(wasteheat

from diesel generators canbe used to melt snow). Water supply systems may alsobe

based on pumping fresh water from aqueous depositsbelow ice or lakes. Desalting of

seawaterisanotherwayoffreshwaterproduction.

There are substantial differences in the consumption of water among stations. The

averagedailyfreshwaterconsumptionrangesfrom25to200litresperperson.This isat

least partly explained by differences in the sanitation and washing facilities among

stations. Stations may have lower water consumption if vacuum freeofflushing or

incineratortoiletsareinstalled.Waterproductionmayalsobesupplementedbyrecycling

ofgreywater.

2.1.4WastewatercharacteristicsTheamountofwastewateristheresultofwaterconsumption.Percapitawastewater

outputissimilartospecificfreshwaterconsumption.

Quantity of sewage in the first place depends on the stations staff number and it

shouldbenotedthatthenumberofpeopleoverwinteringonbasescanbeasfewas10%of

thepeaknumberpresentduringthesummerresupplyperiod(figure6).So,akeydesign

considerationatallplantsisthemarkedseasonalvariationinhydraulicloadingrates.

Most people atbases have similar work schedules so diurnal load fluctuations are

pronouncedandhavetobeallowedfor.Anotheraspectofimportanceisthatnumberson

stationstendtoalterstepwise,forexamplewhentheresupplyvesselarrives.Thismeans

thatplantshavetobeabletoadjustrapidlytotheloadchanges.Thisproblemisthemost

acuteforseasonalstations.

TherearequitelimiteddataforwastewatercompositionatAntarcticbases,butitis

recognised that content of organic contaminants tends tobe high (table4). This canbe

attributed to the fact that people working in Antarctica are well fed and have a high

calorificvaluefoodinputrichinfats;thereisalsoapredominanceofmales,whoproduce

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morewastesthanfemales.Itisalsopossiblethatthehigherorganiccontaminantscontent

atresearchstationsmightbecausedbyamoreconcentratedwastestream.Inadditionto

human waste, municipal wastewater in a typical city also contains grey water from

washingactivitiesand insomecaseswastewatermayalsobedilutedwithgroundwater

infiltrating into sewer lines. The addition of grey water and in some cases infiltrating

groundwatertothewastecomingfromhumancontributionwouldresultinalowerBOD

levelmeasuredintheinfluentatawastewatertreatmentfacility.Itwouldbeexpectedthat

the wastewater stream in most research stations in Antarctica is concentrated with little

dilutionfromwashwatersincewateruseisrestricted[24,2731].

Figure 6 Seasonal variations in wastewater amount and station staff number

(McMurdo station, USA)

Table4UntreatedwastewateranalysisdataCompound

CountryCOD,mg/l BOD5,mg/l SS,mg/l N ammonium,mg/l

McMurdo 159382 43187

Molodezhnaya 12002300 3500

ScottBase 700 700

Wasa 5800 3800 1100 2,3

Nominalinputlevelsusedindesigningtreatmentfacilitiesdifferbetweenstationsas

well(table5).

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Table5Designedwastewaterinputlevels[21,22,32]Designinputlevels

CountryCOD,mg/l BOD5,mg/l SS,mg/l Nammonium,mg/l

CzechRepublic 300 400 367

China(ZhongShan) 450 250 200 25

China(DomeA) 80120 3050 4060 5

Anadditionalcomplicationatcoastalstationsusingseawaterfortoiletflushingisthe

highsaltcontentofthewastewater(atScottbaseupto28%ofthesewageisseawater[24]).

2.1.5WastewaterqualitymonitoringWastewater quality monitoring is necessary to ensure the normal functioning of

treatment facilities. According to COMNAP/SCAR recommendations wastewater quality

is the one of parameters that should be included in environmental monitoring

programmes[33].

Permanent monitoring of influent and effluent quality is unrealizable in most cases

in the absence of qualified personnel or required facilities. Many countries carry out

occasionalmonitoring.

2.2ReviewofusedtechnologiesThereareabout60permanentandseasonalstationsintheAntarcticTreatyareawith

populationfrom10to1000persons(figure7).

Figure 7 Year-round / seasonal stations ratio (2009)

Review of wastewater disposal methods and used sewage treatment technologies are listed

below (table 6).

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Table6SewagetreatmenttechnologiesusedatAntarcticstationsName&statusof

stationCountry

Methodof

treatmentDescriptionofusedtechnology

Aboa Filnland Biological Greywaterfromwashingmachine,kitchen,dishwasherandshoweristreatedinbiologicalwastewatertreatmentplant.Urineiscollected

tobarrelsandbroughtawayfromAntarctica.Thereisnoblackwater

atthebase [31].

AmundsenScott

USA Notreatment Sewageisdisposeduntreatedintodeepicepits[31].

Arctowski Poland Mechanical Therearetwosewagetreatmentfacilitiesatthestation.Thefacilityatthemainbuildingislimitedprimarilytotreatingnonsolidwaste.

Greywaterfromthisfacilityisfiltered,heatedandbioenzyme

treated.Theliquidisthendischargedviathebeachsandandgravel

tothebay.Oneoftheoutbuildingshousedthemaintoiletfacilities,

showersandlaundry.Sewageandgreywaterfromthisbuilding

enteredaburiedseptictank.Theliquidwasdischargedviaaleach

fieldthroughthesandandgravelbeachtothebaywithout

monitoring.Thesolidsareperiodicallyremovedfromtheseptictank

andshippedtoPoland [29].

Artigas Uruguay Mechanical Thewastewaterisdischargedtosepticchambersfortreatment,andafterwardsstoredin200ldrumsforremovalfromAntarctica.The

sewagetreatmentisrunningthewholeyear[29,31].

ArturoPrat Chile Noinformation

Belgrano Argentina Mechanical Greywaterisrecycledforuseintoilettes;blackwateristreatedinseptictank.Effluentandsludgereleasedontoice[31].

Bellingshausen Russia Biological+

UVsterilisation

ThewastewatertreatmentplantEOS15wasusedatthestation.A

newbiologicalplantAstra20andaUVsteriliserforthestation

areunderconstruction(in2009/2010season).

Casey Australia Mechanical+

Biological+

UVsterilisation

TheplantusedatCaseyisaRotatingBiologicalContactortype

whichishousedinaheatedbuildingtoprovidetheenvironment

necessaryfortheplanttofunctioneffectively.ThedesignflowcapacityoftheRBCsystemsis5,000l/daywithamaximumflow

rateof6,000l/day.

Thesewageisfirstcollectedinastoragetankwhereitisretainedfor

aperiodofapproximately24hourstoallowsettlementanddigestion

totakeplace.ThesettledwastethenflowsthroughaBiorotorunit

comprisingpolypropylenediscbankswhicharepartiallyimmersedin

theeffluent.Thediscsareslowlyrotatedthroughtheairandwaste

wateralternately,causingabiccnasstograduallyformonthedisc

surfaceswhichassimilatenutrientsfromthewastewaterandoxygen

fromtheair.Thisprocessresultsinastagedreductionoftheorganic

impuritiesinthewastewaterasittravelspasteachdisc.During

1999/2000summeraUVsteriliserwasinstalledatCaseytosterilise

theeffluentbeforedischargeintothesea.Theeffluentismonitoredon

aregularbasisbythestationdoctortoensurethatitiswithinthestandardssetbyAustralianauthorities.Sedimentfromthewaste

treatmentplantsisremovedduringregularmaintenanceandstored

in200ldrums[35].

ComandanteFerraz Brazil Mechanical+

Biological

Thesewagetreatmentplanthasbeeninoperationsincetheaustral

summerof1995/96andisdesignedtoserveapopulationof50.

Theblackwater,afteraprimarytreatment,isdirectedtoanaerobic

filters,whereitundergoesasecondarytreatment.Attheanaerobic

filtersthewaterispurifiedagain,andthenitpassesthrough

filtrationdrains.Thetreatmentsystemforgreywatercollects

wastewaterfromshowersanddirectsthemtoaboxthatretainssolid

materials.Fromthisbox,thegreywaterpassesthroughanaerobic

filtersandfiltrationdrainsthatarenotconnectedtotheblackwater

system.Theblackandgreywatersfinaleffluentispipedtothelow

tidelineonbeach.Thesystemhasfoursepticcesspools,twoanaerobicfilters,twogreaseboxesandtwointerceptingboxes.To

avoidthesystemandcesspoolfreezing,athermalgirdlewasinstalled

alongthesystemandthesepticcesspool[36].

21


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Concordia France

Italy

Physicochemical ThestudyandthedevelopmentofwatertreatmentsystemsforConcordiahavebeenplacedundertheleadershipoftheEuropean

SpaceAgency.Allwastewaterstreams,includinggreywaterfrom

washing,andblackwaterconsistingoforganicwaste(foodscraps

fromthekitchenandrefectory)andexcrements,arecollectedbytwo

respectivenetworksundervacuumandtransferredtotwotreatment

systems.Greywaterundergoesa4steptreatmentprocess

ultrafiltration,nanofiltrationandtwostagesofreverseosmosis;black

wateristreatedbyananaerobicfermentationunit.Inordertominimizewasteproduction,thesludgefromthegrey

waterunitisretreatedbytheblackwatersystemandthewater

producedfromtheblackwatersystemistakenupbythegreywater

treatmentunit.Thesludgeissuingfromtheblackwaterfermenteur,

isfrozenandshippedbacktothecoasttobedriedandincinerated

[37].

Davis Australia Mechanical+

Biological

Allhumanwasteandwastewaterfromthenewstationcomplex

passesthroughtheWasteTreatmentBuilding,whereitreceives

primaryandsecondarytreatmentinatwostagerotatingbiological

contactor(RBC)beforedischargeoftheeffluentthroughanoutfall

intothesea[35,38].

DomeA China Physicochemical Upontheconsiderationofsmallamountofwaterconsumption,environmentalprotection,easymanagementandsimplificationof

treatmentfacilities,anegativepressurefreeofflushingsystemwill

beusedinthetoilettoreducethecapacityofblackwater.Thehuman

excrements(includingnightsoilandurine)willbepacked

automaticallyandshippedbacktoZhongShanStationfortreatment.

Thelowercontaminatedwastewaterthroughsuperfiltrationcanbe

turnedasintermediatewaterforcleaning,andthenthroughfurther

treatmentbyareverseosmosissystem,thetreatedwaterwillbe

recycledforsimplecleaningofclothesinthestation.Theresidual

waterafterfiltrationisroughlyabout70l/daywillbedischargedinto

theicepits.

TheDomeAStationwillbuildanintegratedcontainertypeof

sewagetreatmentsystem.Thesystemmainlyconsistsofsewage

tank,reactortank,outtankpumpvalveandfilters.Withoutspecial

attendee,itwilloperatecontinuouslyorintermittentlythenstopsatnight.Onepersonmightbeappointedtomakeroutineinspectionand

maintenance.Residualblackwatercomesfromsuperfilteringunit

andreverseosmosisunitwillflowintoacombinedrector,there

waterwillprecipitateandflocculateunderthefunctionofachemical,

theupperclearwaterinthiscombinedreactorwillflowbacktolow

pollutantwatertank.Thefilteringcorewillbechangedwhenthe

effectivenessdrops[22].

DomeFuji Japan Notreatment

Druzhnaya4 Russia Notreatment

DumontdUrville

France Notreatment UntreatedsewagehasbeenreleasedfromDumontdUrvillepermanentstationintoSouthernOceanformorethan40years.The

outfalldischargedthesewagedirectlyatthebaseofadeepshelfcliff

atapproximately50moftheseashore.Inwintertimethefrozen

sewageaccumulatedbetweentheoutfallandthelandfastice[39].

Escudero Chile Mechanical+

Biological+

Chlorine

sterilisation

Domesticsewagefromeachbuildingismacerated,thenpassed

throughananaerobicchamberandasettlementchamber.The

remainingliquidisfirstchlorinatedandthendechlorinatedbefore

beingpipedtothesea.ThesolidsarereturnedtoChile[40].

Esperanza Argentina Biological+

Chlorine

sterilisation

Thebaseoperatesabiologicalbasedsewagetreatmentplant.The

plantisinoperationonMondays,Wednesday,Fridayand

Saturdays.Theeffluentwateristreatedwithchlorinebeforebeing

dischargedintothemarineenvironment.Everythreemonths,the

sewagesludgeisremovedandplacedindrumsforstorageuntilitis

removedfromtheAntarcticTreatyArea.Onaverage,threedrumsof

sludgeareproducedeverythreemonths[31,41,42].

22


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Frei Chile Mechanical+

Biological+

Chlorine

sterilisation

Sewageandgreywateraretreatedinatwochamberedanaerobic

digestionsewagetreatmentplant.Thetreatedeffluentischlorinated

andthendechlorinatedpriortoitsdischargeintothesea.Thesludge

iscleanedoutonceayear,placedinametalorplasticdrumand

takenfordisposalinChile [29,40].

GabrieldeCastilla Spain Mechanical Thesewageistreatedinaseptictankburiedat0.5m,ithastwochambers,thefirst,wherethesewagegoesdirectlyfromthestation,

isforsedimentation,digestionandtostoremud,ithasafoambaffle

andatthetopatubtoremovethegasoutside.Fromthesecondchamber,tosedimentationoftheadditionalmud,goesanexittub

thatpoursthetreatedwatertoland.Each23yearsthetankmustbe

openedtoextractthemud.[40,41,]

GreatWall China Biological Thestationssewageandgreywaterareprocessedthroughabiologicaltreatmentplant.Sludgefromthetreatmentplantis

incineratedandthewaterisdischargeduntreatedintothetidalbasin

[21,43].

Halley UK Mechanical/

Biological

AtHalleyVgreywateristreatedbymaceration.Duringthe2005/06

seasonatthestationafurther850m3ofgreywaterwasdischargedto

adeepicepit.

AtHalleyVI,aMicrobacbioreactorsewagetreatmentplantwillbe

usedforthemainplatform.Thebiologicalsewageplantwillprovide

anexcellentgrowthenvironmentforbacteria,asthetankisfitted

witharigidPVCmatrixwithaninternalsurfacearea150times

largerthananytraditionalactivesludgeplantortank.Thetankwill

introducesomemodifiedbacteriathatwillreducetheamountof

sludgeproduced.Desludgingthetankwillberequiredonlyoncea

year.Treatedwastewaterwillbedischargedtotheice.Treatedsludge

willbeincineratedandashwillberemovedfromAntarctica[44,45].

JohannGregor

Mendel

Czech

RepublicMechanical Thewastewaterisonlysewagewaterfromthehygienicfacilitiesand

fromfoodpreparation.Therefore,itiscommonmunicipalwaste

water.Theprocessofmacerationwasrejectedbecausethestationhas

aseasonalcharacterandasmallerpersonnelthanthestatedmaterial

presumes.Theamountofliquidwasteswouldbesignificantlylower.

Theliquidwasteswouldbedischargeddirectlyintothesea[32].

JuanCarlosI Spain Biological+

Physicochemical

TheworkingprincipleofthesewagesystemusedontheSpanish

AntarcticstationJuanCarlosIisthebiologicaldigestionoftheorganicmatterrealizedbythebacteriaalreadyfoundintheresidual

water.

Attheendoftheseason1999/2000,thesystemconsisted,forall

wastewaters,oftwoconsecutiveseptictanksandanactivecarbon

filter.Thefirsttankisseparatedinthreedigestionandsedimentation

chambers.Leavingthefirsttank,theeffluentsaredirectedtothe

secondonethatconsistsoftwodigestionchambersandafterthattoa

thirdone,equippedwithabiologicalfilter.Finally,beforebeing

dischargedtothesea,thewaterpassesanactivecarbonfilterthat

reducessignificantlytheemissionoforganicmatterintheeffluent.

Duringthelonghistoryofthestationthesewagesystemhadtostand

someanomalies.Theincreasingnumberofthestationscrew

membersduringthelastfewseasonsproducedaraisingamountof

wastewaters,whichresultedinaninsufficientbacteriadigestionoftheorganicmatter.Becausethestationisonlyoccupiedduringthe

australsummerthebiologicalprocessesaredecreasedatthe

beginningoftheseasonbythemonthsofinactivity,makingit

difficulttostartthebiologicaldigestion.

Aseriesofimprovementsinthesewagesystemhavebeenintroduced

destinednotonlytoimproveitsperformancebutalsotoreducethe

timenecessaryforthebacterialactivation.

Theobtainedmeasurementsshowtheevolutionofthesystemforthe

lastsixcampaignswhichclearlydemonstratesthereductionofthe

totalsuspendedsolids(90%),theCOD(80%)andthenutrients(e.g.

nitrates93%)inthewastewaterdischargedtothesea[29,41,46].

Jubany Argentina Biological+

UVsterilisation

Greyandblackwatersaretreatedinbiologicaltreatmentplant;

effluentistreatedwithultravioletsterilizationbeforereleaseintothe

sea.SludgeisdehydratedandthenremovedfromAntarctica.ThesewagetreatmentplantisanAQUAMARSystem(Germany)[28,

29].

23


24/34

KingSejong Korea Biological+

Physicochemical

ThestationisequippedwithUNEXSimultan40sewagetreatment

system(RaumaRepola).Volumeofwastewaterisnomorethan

10m3perday.Typeoftreatment:aeration,settlingdown,chemical

&biological(38%FeCl3,10%NaOCl).Treatedwaterisdischarged

intopebblezoneintidalarea.Thesludgeisshippedoutof

Antarctica.Seawaterandbenthicenvironmentareannually

monitoredaroundthesewagetrap[47].

Kohnen Germany Notreatment

LawRacovita Australia

Romania

Notreatment

Leningradskaya Russia Notreatment

MacchuPicchu Peru Notreatment Allwastesareremovedoffsitetheareaof theAntarcticTreaty[48]

Maitri

India Mechanical+

Biological

Thestationisequippedwithincineratortoiletfacilities.Twomodules(fourtoilets)arelocatedinthesummerstationarea,andfivesingle

modulesarelocatedinthemainstationbuilding.Theincineration

temperatureis600C.Solidhumanwasteisincineratedonceaday.

TheashesarecollectedindrumsandtransportedoutoftheAntarctic

Treatyareaonceayear.

Thegreywaterisfedintoarotationalbiologicalcontractor.The

treatmentinvolvesthreestages:aprimarysettlingbasin,followedby

abiodigesterandafinalsettlementbasin.Thesettledwastematerial

isincinerated.Thetreatedeffluentistemporarilystoredinapond

closetothestationbuilding.Thetreatedeffluentissporadically

pumpedfromthesettlingpondintoatankandsubsequently

dischargedintoanicefreeareaapproximately1kmfromthestation.

Thereisnoregularanalysisofthetreatedeffluentduringwinter

(althoughitisanalysedduringthesummerseasonbythe

environmentalteam)andnomonitoringofpotentialimpactsis

conductedatthedischargepoint[49].

Maldonado Ecuador Noinformation.

Marambio Argentina Mechanical+

Biological+

Chlorine

sterilisation

Sewageanddomesticliquidwasteistreatedinamultistagesewage

treatmentplant.Thisissitedadjacenttothemaincomplex.The

plantmaceratesandsettlesoutsolids,thenaeratesandchlorinates

theeffluentbeforeitisdischargedjustovertheedgeoftheplateau

ontoicefreeground.Solidresidueisdrummedandremovedfromthe

TreatyArea[41].

MarioZucchelli Italy Biological+

Physicochemical

Asewagetreatmentplantofthebiologicaltypewasinstalledat

MarioZucchelli(TerraNova)stationduringtheconstructionofthebaseinthe1986/87season.Theplantwasdesignedfor4050people.

Thebodyofwaterwherethetreatedeffluentisdischargedhasbeen

underconstantmonitoringfromthethirdcampaignonwards:the

firstmonitoringwasthatfortheBODbiochemicaloxygendemand,

laterbroadenedtoincludeBOD,COD,nitrites,surfactants,oils,etc.

Themonitoringwasusedtoverifytheeffectivenessofthetreatment

andtoadjusttheprocess.Attheendoftheeightiesitwasclearthat

theplantwasbecominginsufficientfortheincreasingloadduetothe

enlargementoftheprogrammeandthelargernumberofpeople.A

newplantwasaddedinparallelwiththeold.Thenewplantisofa

physicochemicaltypeandafterafewyearsitwasconnectedinseries

withtheoldone.In1995/98acompletelynewplantwasinstalled.

TheexperiencewithsewagetreatmentatTerraNovaStationhas

beenpositive.Pollutioninthereceivingbodyofwaterislow,iskeptunderconstantsurveillanceandtheplantisadjustedtotheneedsin

asimpleway.Thesludgeresultingfromthetreatmentisretrograded

toItaly[5052].

24


25/34

Mawson Australia Biological RotatingBiologicalContactor(RBC)sewagetreatmentplanthasbeeninstalledandcommissionedatMawsonstation[35].

McMurdo USA Mechanical+

Biological+

Disinfection

Priorto2002,wastewatergeneratedfromMcMurdowasonly

treatedwithmacerationpriortodirectdischargeintheRossSea.The

UnitedStatesAntarcticProgrambeganprocessingwastewater

producedfromMcMurdoStationin2003.TheWastewater

TreatmentPlantusesconventionalmethodsofsolidsremoval

(clarification)andmicrobialdigestion.Thesystemiscapableoftreating495,900litresperdayofdomesticwastewater.Thefour

majortreatmentcomponentsareananoxiczone,anaerobiczone,

clarification,anddisinfection.Thesefourcomponentscomprisea

singletreatmenttrainattheplant.

Wastewaterissuppliedtotheplantfromthestationbygravityfeed

andispumpedfromlowerlayingareasbytwoliftstations.Thereare

twobyproductsoftreatment.Clearanddisinfectedeffluentreleased

toMcMurdoSoundandsettled,dewateredsludgeispackagedand

removedfromthecontinent [27,5357].

Mirny Russia Notreatment Untreatedwastewaterisdischargedintothesea.

Molodezhnaya

Russia Physicochemical/Notreatment

ThewastewatertreatmentplantEOS15wasmountedandstartedupatMolodezhnayabasein1988.EOS15conductedthe

electrochemicaltreatmentofsewagewaterbymeansofelectrolysisof

liquidmassesrunningtroughthespecialelectrodesaftermechanical

treatment.Asaresultofcommissioningtheoptimaloperational

regimeEOS15waschosentoprovideforthemaintenanceoftreated

sewageparametersinaccordancewiththeInternationalConvention

forthePreventionofMarinePollutionfromShipsMARPOL

1973/78.Thecontentofsuspendedmatterremainedatalevelof

77mg/1incomparisonwiththenormalvalueequalto100mg/1,coli

indexdidnotexceed900bodiesofcolibacillusin1mlagainstthe

normalvalue1000bodies/ml.Sludgeformingaftersewagetreatment

wasincinerated[30].

Neumayer

Germany

Biological+UVsterilisation

Duringtheseason1995/96asewagetreatmentplantwasinstalledat

NeumayerStation.Thisplantwasdesignedinawaythatitonly

requireselectricenergyandheatenergyofthestationtobeableto

clarifythewastewater.Theentiresystemofwastewaterandsludge

treatmentisinstalledina20ftcontainer.Thewasteheatofthediesel

generatorsisusedtokeepthecontaineratatemperatureof+15C

andtodrythesludge.Thesewageiscollectedinalevelregulated

tank.Thistankissituatedunderthecontainerforwatergeneration.

Itisusedformixingthedifferentwastewatersandtoevenoutpeak

timesofwastewaterinflow.Fromthattankwateristurnedoutbya

screwspindlepumpthroughapipetothesewagetreatmentplant

overadistanceofabout60m.Therethesewageispurifiedina

biologicalprocess.ThentheclarifiedwaterissterilizedbyUVrays

andpumpedthroughapipetothedumpintheshelficewhichis

locatedapproximately100mawayfromthestation.Thedewateringsystemforthesludgeconsistsofthereactiontank

andafiltermoduleequippedwithtwoseparateinlets.Arising

surplussludgewithadrysubstanceofabout2%isdrawnoff

periodicallyandpumpedintothereactiontankwhereitissterilised

byaddinghydratedlime.Afteradmixingofaflocculationpowderthe

surplussludgeisthickenedandthendewateredinsemipermeable

drainbags.Thedrainingwateriscollectedandledtotheinletofthe

sewagetreatmentplant.Duringthedewateringofthesludgevitiated

airisarising.Itisleddirectlyoutofthecontainerbyafan.Afterthe

drainbagshavedewateredforabout24hourstheyhaveadry

substanceofapproximately18%.Theyaredriedinadryingchamber

thatisheatedto+35Cbyusingthewasteheatofthediesel

generators.Resultingfromthisstepoftreatmentthesludgehasadry

substanceof40%.Nowitisinodorousandhasstoragestability.Thesludgecontainingthesolidresiduesofthepurificationprocessis

removedfromAntarctica[5860].

25


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Novolazarevskaya Russia Mechanical+

Physicochemical+

Ozonation

Greywateristreatedinsandfilters,carbonfilters,sterilisedbyozone

anddischargedintoicefreeareanearthestation.

OHiggins Chile Biological Thebaseemploysastateoftheartsewagetreatmentsystemandtreatsallsewageandgreywaterwiththeeffluentbeingdischarged

intothemarineenvironment[42].

Ohridski

BulgariaNotreatment

Sewageanddomesticliquidwastesaredischargedthroughaflexible

pipedirectlyintoasnowcoveredgullysome20mtothesideofthe

mainbuilding.Fromhere,itflowsbeneaththesnowtothebeachand

percolatesthroughtherocksintotheforeshore[29,41].

Orcadas Argentina Biological Greywaterisrecycledforuseintoilettes.Blackwateristreatedwithbiologicaltreatmentplant.Effluentandsludgearereleasedintosea

[31].

Palmer USA Mechanical Macerationistheonlytreatmentstep[31].

PrincessElisabeth Belgium Biological+

Disinfection

Itisplannedthatallgreywateristobetreatedwiththebio

membranereactor,ozonation,peroxideandchlorinetreatment[61].

Progress Russia Physicochemical ElectricchemicaltreatmentplantwasinuseatProgress.Itisplannedtoinstallanewphysicochemicalplantforthestation.

Rothera UK Biological+

UVsterilisation

Untreatedsewagehasbeenreleasedintotheseasincethebaseopened

in1976.InFebruary2003asubmergedaeratedbiologicalfilter

sewagetreatmentplant(HodgeSeparatorsLtd)wascommissionedat

Rothera.Theproducedsludgeispressed,dewateredandbaggedfor

shipmenttoUKfordisposal.Theeffluentwateristreatedunder

ultravioletlightanddischargedintothebay[41,42,44,62,63].

Russkaya Russia Notreatment

SanMartin Argentina Notreatment Greywaterpassesviaaseparatedischargepipedirectlytoasmallcovebehindthestation[41].

SANAEIV SouthAfrica

Biological+

Physicochemical

UVsterilisation

Abiologicalsewagetreatmentplant(RotatingBiologicalContactor)

hasbeeninstalledatSANAEIV.Sludgeisseparatedoutandis

transportedoutofAntarctica.Effluentsandgreywateraretreated

bybiofiltersandfilteredthroughacarbonfilter,asandfilteranda

UVfilterbeforebeingdischargedovertheVesleskarvetcliff.All

detergentsusedatthestationarebiodegradabletoavoiddamaging

thebiofilter.EffluentsmustmeetSouthAfricanstandardsfor

dischargeintofreshwater,andregularanalysisofeffluentsis

conductedtoensurecompliance.Noproblemshadbeenexperienced

inachievingthesestandards,althoughdiscolorationoftheeffluent

wassometimesaprobleminthesummerseasonduetothelimited

loadcapacityofthesystem[49,64].

ScottBase NewZealand

Biological AwastewatertreatmentplantforScottBasehasbeeninstalledandbecameoperationalinOctober2002.Theplantusescontactaeration

process.Thewastewateristreatedinachambercontainingplastic

meshonwhichgrowsabacterialbiofilm.Aerationisprovidedbyair

blownintothebottomofthechamberthroughfineholes.Wastesolids

aresettledoutassludgeanddewateredfordisposal.Disinfectionis

providedbyultravioletlight[23,24,65,66].

Signy UK Notreatment Sewageandgreywateraredischargedunmaceratedintothesea[44].

Soyuz Russia Notreatment

26


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Syowa Japan Biological Therearepresently49buildingsatSyowaStation.Passagewaysconnectthecentralbuilding,generationhouseandtwosleeping

lodgestoeachother.Otherstationbuildingsarelocatedapartto

minimizeproblemsofsnowdriftandvulnerabilityintheeventoffire.

Sewageandgreywaterfrommainbuildingsaretreatedbythe

biologicaltreatmentplant(contactaerationprocess)beforereleased

intotheocean.Otherbuildingsarenotconnectedtothesewage

systemyet.Thetreatmenthasstartedtooperateforapartoffacilities

sinceApril1999.Therefore,threekindsofsimpletoiletsareinstalledinsomebuildingswherepeoplework.

Twoofthetoiletsarecombustiontype,oneusinganelectricheater

andtheotherakeroseneburner.Thethird,andnewest,isa

biologicalprocessingtoilet.Thetoiletscollecthumanwastesina

smalltank(98liter)containingwoodenchips.Thetankscontents

arestirredbyabladeatregularintervals.Thetemperatureofthe

wasteandchipsinthetankiscontrolledbetween3045Cbyan

electricheater.Theintestinalbacteriaarenourishedbythewasteand

multiplyinthetank.Finallythebacteriafacilitatethedecomposition

ofthewasteintowaterandcarbondioxide.Thegasbyeproductsare

dischargedfromthetanktotheoutsideatmosphere.Thewooden

chipsneedtobereplacedeveryhalfayearbasedonamaximum

frequencyofusefor150timesperweek.Thetoiletsystemhasbeen

provedtobeeffectivebecauseitiscompact,doesnotuseanopenfire

andisenvironmentallysound,asitdoesnotrequiretheintroduction

ofspecialbacteriatoAntarctica[67,68].

Tor Norway Notreatment

Troll Norway Mechanical AcomposttoilethasbeeninstalledatTroll.Itwastastedduringseveralseasons.Atpresentelectricalincineratortoiletsareinuse.

Thereisnoblackwateratthestation.

Priorto2005,greywatergeneratedatthestationranthroughathree

chambermechanicalfilteringsystem.Afterthegreywaterwas

treatedinthefilteringsystemandwentthroughtheultravioletfilter

beforedischargingintothesoil.Treatedwastewaterwasexpectedto

reachneardrinkingwaterqualityandcouldinprinciplebereusedforcleaningpurposesandsuch.

Anewandimprovedwastewatertreatmentsystemdeliveredby

HacoASwasinstalledinFebruary2005.Thenewsystemensures

simplehandlingandmonitoringofdischargeandhassufficient

capacitytohandlethenormalpersonnelloadduringsummerseason.

Thetreatedwatercaninprinciplebereusedfornonconsumption

purposes,andinthismanneritispossibletoreducewater

production,thussavingbothenergyandlaborassociatedwiththe

meltingprocedures.Wastewaterisdischargedthroughaheated

pipingsysteminanicefreeareabehindthestation[25,69].

Vernadsky Ukraine Notreatment SewageandgreywateratFaradaystationweredischargedunmacerateddirectlyintothesea[44].WastewateratVernadskyis

dischargedbyconstantlycirculatingseawater[29,31].

Vicente Ecuador Noinformation

Vostok Russia Notreatment Untreatedwaterisdischargedtoadeepicepit.

Wasa Sweden Notreatment

Physicochemical

Awastewatertreatmentsystemwasinstalledin1991/92but

decommissionedin1996,asitdidnotfunctionproperly.In2005the

SwedishPolarResearchSecretariatinvestigateddifferenttechniques

forcleaninggreywaterforthestation.Threesystemsusingchemical

precipitateormembranewereunderevaluationforWasa.

Atpresenttimethegreywaterisnottreatedbyanymeansbut

dischargedthroughapipelinetoanicecoverareainthevicinityof

thestationfromwhereitultimatelydrainstothesea[31,64,70].

27


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Zhongshan China Biological ChineseAntarcticResearchExpeditionhasdecidedtoupgradethewastewatertreatmentplantatZhongShanStation.Thenewsewage

treatmentpantwilldividewasteintoblackwater(faces,urine,

kitchenwastewater)whichwillbetreatedsuchthattherewillbeno

disposaltotheoceanandgreywaterwhichwillbesterilizedand

dischargedtotheoceanbyasubmarinepipe.

Theselectedtreatmenttechnologyinvolvesnewmembrane

separationandintermediatewatercirculatingtechnology.This

technologyhasbeenverysuccessfulinChinaandhasbecomeapopularmethodoftreatment.Thetechnologyhasmanyadvantages

includingenergysavingsandoperatingatroomtemperature.The

newtreatmentsystemwillsignificantlyimproveoceanwaterquality

inthenearshoreandoceanwatersinthevicinityofthestation.

TheMembranebioreactorisarecentbutincreasinglyutilized

technologyfortreatingmunicipalandhighorganicindustrial

wastewaterbycombiningthehighlyefficientseparationtechnology

ofhollowfibermembraneswithinacompactactivatedsludgeprocess.

FlatplatPVDFbasedmembraneistheoptimumchoiceforsystem

designersandendusersalikeforcontinuousimmersioninactivated

sludge.Theliquidsolidseparationbymembranereplacesthe

conventionalsettlingprocessandeffectivelyremovessuspendedand

organicsolidsproducingbacteriatreewater.MBRallowsforthe

activatedsludgetobemaintainedatmuchhigherlevelsofmixed

liquorsuspendedsolidsthanconventionalsystemsandbecauseofthe

membraneinterface,bacteriaareretainedlongerwithintheactivated

sludgeenhancingthedecompositionoftheorganicmatter.The

Membranebioreactorisamodern,highlyeffectivewatertreatment

systemthatcandealwiththeeverincreasingdemandsofmunicipal

wastewaterqualityandincreasingtreatmentvolumes.The

Membranebioreactoriseasytooperate,automatic,modularbased

treatmentprocess.

Itwasproposedtoshipthetreatmentplanttothestationin

December2005andcommissiontheplantin2006[21].

Current practices range from use of sewage treatment plants at larger stations and

bases, storage in containers for disposal at home countries or at coastal stations, and

incineration.Containment,storage,andretrogradeofgreyandblackwateristhemethod

usedbythemajorityofprogramsforfieldandsmallstations[71].

The general situation canbe summarized as follows: wastewater from 32% of all

stations is discharged untreated, 63% of all stations are provided with some kind of

treatment(figure8).

Figure9 shows different treatment types ratio. Some countries active in Antarctica

have still made no move to take wastewater treatmentbeyond the minimum standards:

sewagesattwopermanentandoneseasonalstationsaretreatedonlybymaceration.The

Italians and the French opted to use complex physicochemical plants for Concordia

station. The Chinese made a similar choice for their seasonal DomeA station. In the

majorityofcases(26stations)biologicalwastewatertreatmentplantsareused.

28


29/34

Figure8Currenttreatmentsituationforall,permanentandseasonalstations

29


30/34

Figure9Differenttreatmenttypesratio

It is rather interesting that percentage of stations discharging untreated sewages

changed since 1990 [31, 58] (figure10). But these changes are not characterizedby any

tendency.It probably maybe explainedby changes intotal operated stations number or

stationsquantityinthestatistics.

Figure10Percentageofstationsdischarginguntreatedsewages

(1990,2005and2009)

30


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Conclusion

Analysisofsourcesrevealedalackofinformationaboutusedtechnologiesinofficial

reports submitted by the Parties within the scope of Antarctic Treaty Information

Exchange and Annual reports pursuant to Article 17 of the Protocol on Environmental

Protection to theAntarcticTreaty.As a rule thesereports merelycontain informationon

absenceorpresenceoftreatmentfacilities.Someinformationcanbefoundinreportsofthe

AntarcticinspectionsinaccordancewithArticleVIIoftheAntarcticTreatyandArticle14

oftheProtocolonEnvironmentalProtectiontotheAntarcticTreaty.Butitshouldbenoted

thatthisinformationisoftenratherdiscrepant.InitialandComprehensiveEnvironmental

Evaluations, SCALOP proceedings or AEON Workshop reports provide more detailedinformationaboutwastewatertreatment.

Inspiteofallpreviousattemptstogeneralizeexperienceofwastewatertreatmentin

Antarcticaavailabledata,unfortunately,isspotty.

Broad spectrum of used technologies (from maceration to membrane filtration)

indicates that there is no any unified approach to treatment type selection. In this

connection development of water quality standards in addition to requirements of the

Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty is exceptionally important.

Compiling of an accessible handbook on wastewater treatment in Antarctica would

probablybeofpracticalimportanceandhelpfulindecisionmaking.

31


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