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Ann Anthl. 1981 18118Copyght 1981 by Annua Reviews Inc Al rgh reserved

MATERIALIST APPOACHESIN PREHISTORY

P L. Koh

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w shou b wrong in hinking ha a human soci fs on wha h suouningan is bs sui o rouc. ociy is a risonr ofracics ass on fm gnraiono gnraion an ar ony wi . T isorian as o insiga s obgin wi wn sing o scrib agricra racics in as.

G. Dub ( p 7)

f a h onia rwars of abanoning xcsi focs on h aaaionis

rogramm ar gra in. o no or a conci ofsair as aaaionsav ca for nonaai os no man noningib.

J ud and R C ntn ( p 7)

+9672

The concept materasm is laden with subtle and contradictor politicaland philosophical connoaions For some a maerialist approach suggestsrigorous emirical research or a highly inductive, as oosed to deductivemehodology; for others the term signies a hilosophical view o realiy

hat accords greaer causal weigh to a society'S behavior than to isthoughs, reections or jusicaions for its behavior. This essay uses heerms materialism and materiast appoaches in this later sense and aemps o show how dieen schools o maealism dominae conemporay reconsucions in rehiso he hisoical develomen omateralis inepeaions o hisoy i philosophy canno e revieweduce it to note hat he mode roots of materialist accounts of culturalevoluion extend back to he Enlighenment particularly o coishphilosophers such as erguson and Millar (65, pp 29-33 48-52), ad that

materialism became inextrcably linked with the idea of social progressdurng he nineeenh cenur wen undamenaly dieren maeralis

9846570/81/10158$01.

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schools, inuenc by the writings of Comte, Darwin, and Marx, emergedwhich shared ite in common save for the basic assumption that the realwas more nowabe than the ideal Awareness o the philosophical an

politica derences among these dierent schools is mportant or undersnng the stnctie oms o maealism that charactee contemporary archaeoogy.

Archaeoogy's association with aterialism is basic; by the ve natureo their data, archaeologists must at east beliee that the material remainso a past society allow or its rconstrution that the societys tangiblediscarded products proide suient information to reconstrut its atiities and history plausiby In other words, arhaeologsts onsiously orunonsiousy adopt the aterialist peise that there is a sigiant orre

lation between what a soiety produced and how it funtioned Correlationsare not equiaent to causes, and aceptane of this preise need not impyadherence to a conception of history that denies or minimizes the signicance o ides and beles. This essay, howeer, argues that contemporayanthropoogia archaeology impicitly or explicitly accepts some fom omateaism or trets as unamental the actiities peomed in a society.In the nal anaysis, what is imortant is wat psicay existe or watappened witn a utura syste, not wat was tougt or oneptuaie he exact relationship between mateials and ideas-specicaly,

whether or not the ater are treated as epiphenomenal to or in some wayinteractive with the ormer-aes greatly among ierent materialist approaches this essay hopes to explore and rtially evaluate the materialistapproaches currently domnating contemporary archaeology

HSTORCAL DEVELOPMENT OF MATERALSTMODLS

is to be expted materalist nteretations in arhaeolog are as old

as the discipline itself The Three Age system adopted by C Thomsen inthe early ninetnth century ordered history through a succession of technological innovations. Worssae's Pimev Aniquiies of Denmrk contains passages that stkingly eho the eologal emphases o ontemporaystudies and Nilsson raked soetie to disrete stage aording to theirmode of subsistene (8) Renfrew (150) recently has resurrected PittRivers' fasinatng esay on "he Evoution of uture in whih materal objts eove in a manner comparable to organi species (16) Perhapsmost impotant was the cose associaton between eeopments in geologyand in prehistoy throughout most o the nineteenth entuy de oletsepochs o prehistory (38, p 237) were consciously patteed on the geologictime scale and assum that prehistory advanced through uniesa stages

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MATERIAIST AROACHES

that were comparable to those that dened the histoy of the ath. Thebreakdown of this epocha or "chest of drawes intepretation of prehistor occurred as the result of discoveres that contradicted te mode and

culminated n the publication of Childe's Dawn f Epan Civiain.Other materiaist approaches gained favor in the st half of the twentietcentury, such as Foxs cological and Clarks onomic approaches Chide attempted to integrate Marxian concepts wth a functionaintepretaton of society that was derived paialy from Durkheim ;pp and tred to discover an order to history whie questioning the reaity of genera evoutionary formuae or aws of cutura evoution

New World archaeoogy deveoped in cose association wit institutions

such as the Smithsonian and the Peabody Museum of Havrd tat wereinterested in te natura histor of mn; atoug reements in metodsand dicultes in determining the seuence and duration of re-Coumbiandeveopments ed to a proiferation of regiona cutures and a preoccupation with chronoogy anthropoogsts suc s Steward ndBarh chided teir rchaeoogca confreres to adopt a moe comparative approach ultimatel grounded in an ecological interretation of culture Te eariest respondents to tis ca such as Taor or We& Piips cnnot be considered materists the forers conjunc

tive approach ecvel argued for functionaist beaviora epnationsthat were indebted to British social anthropology and the atter tworened concepts that were to promote hstorcal development intepretations of New World preistor owever te revoution aunched b Binford ended ts ambiguit b eplicitl accepting Wites narrowiarchaeological reassuringview of culure "as te etrasomatic meas ofadaption or the human organism p. 22)

Numerous schors have commented onrecent trends in rchaeolog such as the shift from a historcal to a comparative perspective or the widescae utilization of sstems models lss recognized is te unquestioning acceptance of a materialist interreation ofcuture his omission is paradoxical snce contemporary rchaeoloy isnothng if not tortuousl sefconscious moreover its rejection o grades ofreliability in achaeologica evidence and its adoption of a holisticsystemic perspective should have helpd free the discipline from its atefactual base and prcipitated idealist as well as mateiaist intepretations ofthe pst Instead eplanations that emphasize the role of idas or te

"symbolic subsystem are conspicuousy rare associated with achaeologists who ae considered oldfahioned or rectionary or ridicued as te ast gasp of a misguided humanmobstructing the advance o science

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hs reacton aanst nonexanatory east nterretatons s unerstandabe and arey justed Unquestonaby, any deast concets oreann rehstorc chane or stabty such as Pott's tautooous

stincton between nnovatn an consevn socetes, eseve thecensure they have receve However, other assessents as to the naturean otenta o archaeooca evence, such as Leachs eeant- e

ressnritcss bea ore careu scrutny On a orehlosohca eve, t ust be atte that the aterialst assuton thateooy ony reresents "ase conscousness or that the content o eass rreevant to the anner n whh vaues an bees are anuate orsoca ens reans oen to serous queston hs essay, whch ocuseson aterast aroaches, unortunatey cannot scuss the naequaces o

deast nterretatons o rehstory an ereynotes the ecne or assno these once ouar oes or unerstanin the ast

In orer to unerstan why aterast nterpretatons are so ouar, ts necessary to conser brey structura chanes wthn the sclineurn the ast years At the sae te, snce the theores or oes nany soca scence never eveo soey as the rouct o an evouton o

deas wthn a acuar dscne, t s essenta to trace the reecton obroaer conces o ate twenteth centuy Weste socety wthn theonant aterast oes n archaeooy or exae, historans o

archaeooy ; have shown how the ouar hyerusonst theories othe eary twenteth century, whch oen eenerate ntoscarcey suse racst accounts o natona sureacy, ceary reecterown coetton aon uoean natonstates an the se o ascso toay, the onant aterast moes stressn envronenta sanaeent (e or the nevtabty o onter ouaton rowth rror the dcutes o the onteorary wor as avance natonsattet to obtan scarce resources an contro the nubers o eoe resn on sacesh arth he New Archaeooy eere urn Aercasostutn hase when cence, stuate by ear, was cae uon tosove soca as we as technca robes It asse ts youth urn theyears o rotest aanst the Vetna war by nsstn uon the scnesreevance or exann ast an ossby rectn uture soca chane However, t s a curious act that whe other soca scences an

hstory, strony nuence by the cv rhts oveent an Vetna, wererescoven ther earer tratons an questonn the ossbty o arta, vaueree soca scence research, archaeoosts were avocatnveheentythe ostvst oas o hyothess testn an objectvty as thesalvaton o ther dscne Whe soca anthrooosts were wdennther sata an teora horzons acnowein ther scne'sunsavoy reaonsh to coonasm a rescoven hstory an

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93

Marx 3) archaeoogiss ere prsig he admirabe goas of reighei mehodooga sis ad sabishig geeazaios or "as ocra processes

Ths dspari deveopme ca be epaed paa b basc chages he as i hich archaeoogica research as codced. Sorces offdig shied o pblc agecies he ches of hich sppored scieico hmasc or hsoca iesgios Archaeoog's associaio ihara ad phsca sceces became mch cose h he wdescae adopo of echqes as dspesabe as radocarbo dag ad race eemeaases. robems sch as he beggs of domesicao ere addressed hic reqred acive coaboraio i specaiss from e a

ra sceces Tha hese probems coaed b heir ve are a srog

maeras compoe o bas s deabe h he ere rs ssemaca addresed afe ord ar IIs a more compcaed qeo hch par simp reeced he sae o oee a 8 O scoaborao occrrd oever mdiscipiar research qicbecame a sdardized procedre hich simaed ad osered ecoogcaierpreaos of he pas. chaeoog hch deeoped dg he e

eeh cer i assocao h ara scieces ike geoo reedo hem he mideieh cer o forge a e oe sophsicaedaraisic orderig of prehisor The adopio of daa processig echiqes ad empome of qaiaive mehods eise has profodieced he dscpe he sch mehods ma or ma o sed osppor a aras vie of cre he aep o specif qaave

he are of a probem mpes a eas e accepace of a agbecocree rea o cre a s capabe of saisica maipaio.

Archaeog parica i he Uied Saes has aas respodedseecve o deeomes i s sser or area disciie a

hropoog 0) Cra eoog or ecoogca ahropoog has ejoed

cosiderabe promiece drig he pas decade 3 8 4 9) ad isdigs ad ierare have bee ide ced b archaeoogiss The cra maeraism ha Harrs 5 ) ad hs coeages (eg 9) advocaehas ed chaeoog perhaps more ha a oher schoo is archaeoogica appa dobd ca be expaied b is rigoros ad cosiseadherece o a sraeg ha b deiio has maeia correaes. hropoogiss 22, 25, 205 20) ad ehohisoas 88) ho or o hebegigs of cvzao he Ne ord fom a more crica socia ahsorca perspecve have eced heir archaeoogca coeages simi

arl ssoogss eresed he recosrco of soca srcreparcarl he Soie schoo headed b iaoo 39) have heped archaeoogiss dersad he emergece of compex socie i SohesAsa 2, 93 2) Depedec heores of deveopme paricar he


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94 O

wod-system mode of Waerstein (3) and te "tota istry ofBraudend the hstorins of the scoo (176) are begnnng to be cited ine arcaeia ieraure (4, 4, 55). Fina expici Marxist ap

proacs t arcagy 56 9, 2, 8) ave appare that areinebt bt to Cide an t mre recent suctura Marxiss suc asGoeer (58, ) Teay (17) nd emn (51)

It aso is r nting ic appraces in antropog ave onysghty inuenc te couse f contempoy archaeoogy Spcicyte isipe as ar ir e perspectivs prvie b strucuraism cogntive or beavira and accturatina appracs , pp 2830) cuture an persnaity stuis ad sbic an ateticanthopoogy Their absenc simpy cnnot be epaind by the fact that

suc scs are s cosey assciate it te etic reait tat prouceste hd aefactua of rcaeoogy Smboic nd aesthetic ntrgy fr exampe are cnced dir it materias: eir stean cutura sinicance Lechtan 06) frcefuy rues tat tnogica systems c cmpete recnsucte ru te abratr anaysis of tifacts and beievs tat suc ssems encasuae a sar cuurcode that conveys mening But er ca arge as faen on ears deaf tothe sicance of distinctive cutura styes he descption of caeooica cutur r te eabratin f te sca native apprac nconstitut a majr fcus of arcaegica resarc; toa suc stuies aresiss s pariUarizing a unscientic Accepabe resrc as beenreeed Nonmateriaist approaches in anthrpoogy ave not been ntegrate int cntemporary arcaey, not because they strss intangibefetures of society tat o not fossiie nor because te aoption of tseappracs t te sen remains f rcae is icut rater, te ave

bn gnre smpy bause ty o not regrd cutue as man's e f se ematest perspective tat pervades te iscipine

o reated features of contemprar arcae mus be menint the nary universa acceptnce of a comprative evutionry perspective a sn, e qua iesrad utiiain f ssems eryic spakin e aptin f an euina r ssems apprac esnt imp te aceptan f a mateiaist inerpreatin f cuure Cuturescan evve fr a variety f rasns an epending upn nes tand/rpiospica and poitica beies idas can be invoke as primary agentsof cutura evutin t mst, it ca be argue tat evutinay studiesusuay strss e natura caracer f te prce te scribe te tsisat iv enu tie Pesis eve in Enisen is materiaist n in e bra sense ta it pstuates a sar uma nature exprienci a cn cue f eepmen e rebi f cuura evu

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tionism in archaeology (, 64) must be distinguished from materialistinterpreations pupoting to explain tis evolution That is, despite theistorcal association rom Morga to Wite of evolution wit materalism

tere is no necessary correspondence between tem (65, p 635), and severalo te most ardent proponents o te new, expanded multilinear evolution,suc as Renrew, cannot e considered mateialists

If one simply considers the utilization of systems theory in the socialsciences y arsons and his followers (77), it is obvious that there is nonecessay link etwen mateialism and systems analysis Most systemicmodels divide culture ritrarly into susystems, eac o wic y denition can upset te culture's sensitive omeostatic state and induce cangeAs already noted, it is paradoxical tat acceptance o a systemic ramework

of analysis has not led to a rejection of materialism in tat te latter explainsdevelopment prmarly as te product o changes tose spic susystems related to the societys materal or economic base In other words, soperasive as een te acceptance o ot systemic and materlist modelstat teir logcal incompatibility as een scarcely recognized It alsoshould be noted that even systems aderents such as Hill (76) now recognizetat societies may or may not seek some dened state o equilbrum, tatconict between social groups someow must e corporated into systemicmodels, and that all cange is not gradual but may be sudden and catastropic Suce it to add tat te assumption tat cultural chge is alwaysmltiactoal may tell us little more tan tat suc cange is a complexprocess

Accompanying the rse of materalist interretations in preistory asbeen ospodg dmpss on e iicance of aiaiiy anddierences among archaeological assemlages Studies (7, 67) ave properly crticied facile identications o pots wit peoples and questioned tevaldity o concepts as asic as te acaeologcal cultre Yet or our

purposes suc studies agan llustrate the materalist oentation o tediscipline specic cltural trait or syle cannot be explained on its ownterms as the product o a uniue historcal development but must e relatedto te materal ase or someow interpeted as adaptive in an evolutionarysense Even the varaility in Uper Palaeolitic assemblages that cannot

e explained functionally is considere evidence or te natual evolutionoHm saiens saiens and is successul response to adaptational stress;hmans, k monain sheep, evolved means of dening and mainaining

boundares "in a prerious periglacial enronment pp 7678 he

point is not to uestion te validity o Conkeys stimulating essay but toobserve how the argument is marshalled, te intelletual arena in which itis set e most elaborate cultural practices, suc s te rtual slaugter opigs n New Gunea [Rappapors study is cted approvngly], rere

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sen adapaons o he evonen sle and sols ae educed o heaeal ase One canno ague ha n s unwllngness o ad hepoance of achaeologcally deecale utura deences he dscpln

h eued o a naual epochal vson of phsoy copale o haadvanced y de Molle n he nneeenh cenuy o ophscepoducve avenues of nvesgaon n he nea fuue wll focus no onslaes u on deences n adapaon and wll ecognze-as ohChlde and Boas acnowledgedha culues also dene heselves nelaon o ohe culues and poduce he own hso

R PPRH

If s ganed ha aeals nepeaons donae conepoay econsucons of he pehsc pas also us e aded ha hesenepeaons assue a vaey of fos angng fo a cude deensn whch soees on espon o envonenal changes o neoaledeogaphc pessues o a sophscaed ecolog n whch culues conscously and selecvey adap o eeal sul he eande of hsessay wll evew deen aeals odels fo eplanng he pas andeploe he achaeolocal poenal of a powefl scacel apped ae

als appoach: hsocal o daleccal aeals We wll poceed n heclassc anne of he dscplne esalshg a polog of aealsschools and eveng he epeseave wos uc pgonholng ofcous s aay and can e sleadng. ew scholas' wos ae easlclassed, and he dvsons sepaang deen appoaches, such as culualaeals fo culual ecology o econoc fo hsocal aealsae sule and fequenl dcul o deene

he follown evew s hhl slecve and does no peend o ecoplee Maeals appoaches ae so uquous n achaeology ha nosngle evew could hope o e ncusve Moe speccally lagely cove he Englsh leaue pacula ha wen n he Unedas hs on s egale u eecs he auhos copeece andhe naue and lengh of hs evew I s paculal unounae ha spaceconseas peven a eaen of aeals appoaches n socalscouns especall he ve non uce o sa ha wh few oaleeepns ( 1), ahaeology n he ov non and psual hePeol's Repulc f Chna s doned y descpve conces he

epos ay o ay no aep o negae he culual and ecologcaleas h a convenonal evoluonay schea quesonal auedo Ma

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Cultural Materiaism

ILIS S 7

domi form of meriism i hropoogic rcheoog is ssocied ih he pproch popurized b Hrris 6 66) d his discipes

e.g. 64 6 ). hough oe m quibbe over he pprprieess ofhe djecive ra o chrcerize his pproch oe mus dmi hHrris hs bee expici d cosise i his deiio. or Hrris hesreg of cur meriism is bsed po he "pricipe of echoevirome d echoecoomic d o so demogrphic) deermiism

Thi rincile hld h imilr echnlgie lied imilr enirnmen end rce imilr rrngemen f lbr rdcin nd diribin nd h hee in c fh imir kind f ci gring, which jify nd crdine heirciiie by men f imir yem f le nd belief .... he rincile f echnenirnmen echn-ecnmic deerminim ign ririy he dy f he meia conditions of sociocutu if much as th picip of ntua tion aignsririy e dy f derenil rerdce cce (65 4)

oher ods he propeies of he ifrsucure or bse deermie hefeures of he superscure. ecuir idioscric cuur prcicessuch s zec cibism or Hid boos o ce cosumpio ui

me re o be expied b referece o he echoogic eviromeor demogrphic feures of he ssem i quesio. Exoic prcices re occide or he bizrre producs of ucorobe hisoric processbu re specic forms of dpio o fucioig cuur ssem hedicuies d imiios of his pproch hve bee discussed exesiveihe hropooic ierre 51 5 56) Here i is s worh oi

ho coso i se d subsce he pricipes of his sreg re ihhosecurre i coemporr rcheoog. Hrris's pproch is expicid sride) scieic 66 pp. 8) rigorous esig d fsicio ofhpoheses provide he o mes b hich hropoog c become geerizig omoheic discipie ess rigorous hisoric pproches re bes sof d ececic ors obscuris. Cuur meriism dopsssems ermioog d is coceed o o ih he reioship mogdiere subssems of he cuure bu so ih heir evouio over ime66 p. 47). The priori of eic rei over ei behvior is perfec

cogrue ih deiio of cuure s ms exrsomic mes ofdpio o his evirome he ides h peope crr roud i heirheds eive pih deiio 186)re ideque sice heseides c be redced d expied b he eic or exrsomic bae

Cuur meriis sudies boud i coemporr rcheoog. Thehigh successfu Tehuc Ve projec direced b McNeish 111112) ssumed d demosred domesicio i preoumbi


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98 L

Moamerca began n those zones where wild maize or teosnte could befound. Mcroenironments were dened, settlement pattes and their seasonal shis observed, and subsstence activtes reconstructed to dene the

culture hstory of the valley Explanaton, not descrpton, was the am ofthe study and shs from one phase to another were beleve to be trggereby some agent-or n MacNeish's dosyncratc use of the term-somesucient condition such as environmental change (Ajureado to Riego)or opulation ncrease I Rego to Coxcatan) () For the later phasessuch condtons may take the less tangble form of "ceremonal exchangesystems but these represent "new energy exendtures and are concewth "the transfer of emc nformaton (112 69). Evoluton is such anatural process that one can dene a seris of microenvironments for

Moameca, Peru, and te Near ast and show how the settlement pattesystem in ach ara passd through the same deVelopmental sequence inresponse to dentcal "sucient condtions (112 pp 2223)

The stus of Sandes ad Price lso are conceed ith the evolutonof culture n Mesoamerca; both adot an explictly cultural materalsttte it te oe e tecnolo icull tionagrculture (159, p 45), and the latter populaton growth and pressure(39 p 29; 4 p 62) as prime movers In ther semnal studyMee: e Evuin / Civizin (6pp 7-73)they expand

Steward's concet of a culture core by ostulating a series of ecologicalprincples goveg cultural eoluton ulture is "the complex of technus adative to the problems f suial in a pricular geogaphcalregon their model purpors to be n extension of Darwns pnciple ofnatural selecton to human socetes and s explctly based upon culturalmaterialist prncples What is sgncant s ntenscation of the mode ofproducton, whch s dened not n Marxian terms as the combination ofte oc and socil eltions o oduction, but a tecnoonomicregime progressive shis in this base are decsive and more mportant than

secondary varables responsble for change, such as trade becase theyalow more people to be fed and increase the carrying capacty of the system(139, p 215). Despite Mllons persuasve arguments and daa to the contrary (20) and convncng evdence for ntensve forms of agrculture n theMayan lowlands (8889)the State arose n hghland Mesoamerica as theproduct of increasingly complex water management systems Wittfogel sresurrected suitably attred n fashonable ecosystemc clothes

Although ls conscously supporve of cultural materialist conceptssuch as the emc/etc dstincton, countless other stdes emhasze thedetermnng role of the envronment for cultural develoment Plogs sophistcated demonstration (38) of a correlaton between environmentalfeatur and subsstence practces on the one hand, and features of sa

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MARIAIS APPROACS 99

oraao o he oher, or ueblo Ias shares a sla pespecean srus o culuralhsorcal eplanaons our "connecons irrga-on lan use cop pracces an emographyln envonmen vra-

on o socal organaonal erences beween Wse an EasePueblo an obae eplanaons base upon hsorical migraons no hearea emans useul synhess 144) o he eeopmen o clzaon nMesopoama eplcly aops an "ecolocal ew of culure 1, pp 17,112) he argues ha he echnology o he Near Ease alaeolhc wasa "mens of aapaon o he prevang ecologcal seng p ) an haagculure was nrouce bcause of s "aapve avanage p )Jochm bens o consruc hs general moel for he locaon an nconof selemens o huners a aherers by reconzn "ha he eploe

naural enroen s culurally ee 8 p 9) bu hen procees ass ac were unmporan. or any gven area ses can be locae anher uncon spece as long as one consers he relean enronmenaelemens of opography, veeaon, n anma rourc p 187) s anal eample, Isbells ur accoun o he orins of he Anean sae nosysemc erms acceps a more ri, neounconals perspece

Any osystem, including a human one is sef-regulating by vitue of its abity to adoptand remain n dieent states. In time it wi come to adopt the most stable statthat

in which the numr of siaiz paticipating eements and individuals is most constant. The most stable state one with the geatt divesity or number of selements that faciitate the most ecient use of avaiabe energy (82 p 305).

The maor problem o course s ha culurs o no es n he bes oall possble worls an ha by he ey presence represen a more or ssuccessul aapaon o any en enronmen Alhouh suably enche wh references o energy ows, carryng capaces, an regulaoylaws, such a suy auoloously escrbes he phenomena purpors oeplan.

A crue enronmenal eermnsm lurks behn many recen suese 1 89 161) ha can be classe as culura maeras Many ofhese are embellshe by he omnpresen an nevable conon o in-crease popuaon growh. The omcaon o plans n anmas oc-curr bause proe more oo or he ncrease number of peoplehaese a he en o he Plesocee 14, 2, 10, 170) A ew propo-nens o hs emographc moel 212, 21) reconze ha s unappealingor eer polcally faalisc bu are no eerre snce he processes o

hsory are neorable wheher one aops a Boserupan or Malhusnvew, he basc fac remans ha man mus ea or sare The ncreblemehooloca cules o esman prehsoric populaons an henear nsuperable problem of singusn cause from ec when popua


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ton canges can be detected are glossed over wt a seres of assumptonsa oscure e crculary te arguen Excellen cque (2, ,, 8, ) o pplan a e ndependent vaale n cultural evoluon

aveappeared wc make e obvu pon tat culure or clases wtnculural systems can curtal ter nubers by nsttutng a varety of brtcontrol tecnques and are ore lkely to do o wen tey perceve t to ben er e nere (c al 11) Appeal t e cumulave eec of

populaon grow over evoluonary me sould not dsguse e fac tapopulaton growt today as n te past was marked y frequent and some-tmes volent reversals and oscllaons tat ad profound sgncance forte sory specc areas al sould be mentoned tat bot arcaeologcal [eg Keltenar culture (192)] and etnograpc [eg. Cala

Indan (98)] counerexaples exs tat dcument dene, nnnucleaedconcentratons of people lvng at relatvely smple or a least preSate (89)levels of cultural development. More mportantly, t sould be recognedtat populaton growt models may attractve precsely because tey arepoltcally neutral f culture evolves prmarly as a reult of our nsatabledere elfprpagae we g a well llw te dvne njunctn oNoa and enoy ourselves Te comlety of development n te contemorary wold and e real prle, n aslute numers o people u te unequal dstruton of socally deermned wealt, are obscured by

references to an nnate uan tenency etelly xed by a "law ofculural evoluton

Some recent Brts wrtngs assue an even cruder aeralst approacSpeccally, e Brts Academy' Major esearc Proec on te EarlyHstory of Agrculture (7, 74), a proect wc as aceved several notable

advances n te developent of tecnques for te retreval of arcaeologcal rean, ae at nsg presrc beavr are bet gleanedo etlocal lteate and eate an alaeoecn ecluvelw s ubssence actvtes. For example ggs and Jarman argue tat

i i reling bere hw imlr mn f he cnce cnce nd een helngge f mch f nim eclg nd ehlg h f imle ecnmic [ n n b Shln h detng iue f blg (157)] The ehlgnce f errr nd hme rngec efll be lied mn Nr hd we cnceed mcl nl wh de f rime behir .(fr) mn whe lrge cr er mre relen mre d (75, 4 reh dd)

Unquesonably parallels beween lon prdes or wolf pack and palaeoltc

peoples may prove enlgtenng and ts project as orced arcaeologstsnerested n te begnnngs o ood producton to reexamne te conceptof domescaton and queson n parcular wen and ow e erdng of"wld anals rst began Ye e arcaeologcal record rom a leas

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Palalhc m nwa claly hw an laban f culu,nung m ky fcncun a cd n bura faynd m makng a my unparad n nm

w. Dnal f h nc n a mgu vacn a da nan f hy whch d human nvn-vn an cuua dvy; unm, h aac hy cmmndcan nly y qualy cu an maub u

Acagca ud my xcy gundd n Har' cu-ua maia agy hav ufuy qund h xanay vauf frmy ua agn f cang uch a cnqu mgan nhn nau f cc ahaga cuu Ty hav fcu an-n away fm h backgun n f uucua fau vaa-

n ha nguh acua cuu an fc u cn hw ucuu ada h nvnmna ng ncnan n -ductive particularly subsistence activities has sharpened our underanng f hic c an h nan und whch hy

a. v, xcuv fcu n maa fac uc a nvnmn, chnlgy, mgahy n v ng a wu backng n m hc ud. Tha , anay al a whwhand lumnang n h n ha hy hw u h m f a iclymaia aac; uh u h u unan b wacannb xand by fn ly a cy' maa ba. Hw-vh whch clam f y fa ig an nxb;hical c day, a n h a, a n aly cab (da an ann dy and a mhana n

cang n an xal nvnmn Th alccal nlay bwn cuu an nau, h mann n whch uu cncuy l an jcbac fau f h nvnmn a mu b aca. cgnn f cav a dnguhing fau f cnd ua maia

aach: culua clgy

ultural Ecology

cnmary acagca x (44; 81, 77; 166, . 5518, 4 ad a fm maam ha divd incay fm wk f Swad (17, 174. Dncn bwn a ba and uuc-u a uua c an l n fau ay a culu vwd a an nn ym, a cay human fm f aaan

a ba nvnmn wch nclu h culu. On u n-vdual c d cculua gua an cnuc gna-zan au nau f cuua c Fm a cuua cgcacv h analgy bwn blga an ulua vlun nxac

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snce culture depends upon the transmission of leaed behavior and is notconstrained by physical lws or oganic methods of iheritance.

Dierences with te cultural materalist approach o Harris are rea but

subtle, and nearly every archaeologst cultural materialst or not pays atleast lip servce to the prncples adumbrated above The major dicultyresides n the ambiguities surroudng Steward's dention of the cuturalcore:

Elsewhee I have oe the concept ofuu-the consteation of ftu whiche mot oly et to ubt it and onoi aangements. The oeinclud uh liil, and elus pae ae empiicaly detemin to cloy connt with th aangmnt (173, p 37)

If the cultural core include "social plitical, and reigious pattes orin ather pasage "fuctiall teelated thetic featur it ecpasse more than the tech-eirodem fatures that costitute etic r-it (65 pp. 6662 owever in actua practce the cultura cre usuaassme a recognzable materast form

I enera adherents of the ecolocal aroach ascribe an active role tote values of te culture wc is adapting t its environment. Thus lannery & Marcus (48) argue persuasivel that traditional subsistence practicesin the Oaxaca valley are not guided by a strategy of maximizing agricultural

output but are integrally linked to Zapotec beliefs. In the long run thebeliefs may be adaptively advantageous in that reources w be less easiyexhausted ad the societ will be less specialized and more capable ofresponding to unusua climatic condtions. Ford and his colleagues aopta sr substantivist perspective n their ethnobotanical studies (49) Forexample, Wetterstrom (199) argues that the Msilla phase people of theHuo Bolson nitially utilied introduced cultigens in ways consistent withcustmar practics f fd suti At rst aie ma have us as a relish not a staple and squash ma have bee colect for itsseeds not its es In fact such studies adopt a materialist perspective onlyin the broadt sense of the term and perhaps should be considered attempts at constructing a cognitive or symbolic archaeology.

Lnars impressive study, Adaptive Radiations in ehistoric Panama(0) is more representative of the cultural ecological approach. As te titlesuggests the movement of human groups into previously unoccupied areasis conceptualzed in biologcal terms espite a lkely shared hglandorigin the prehistoric ancestors to the Guaymi ndians of Chirqui andprovinces of weste Panama dered in subsistence practices settlement density, and genera level of ltical and social complexity; thesecutura dierences in tu are explained b reference to subtle ecologicaldistinctions tween the Pacic and aribbean littoral zones. he broader

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MAERIALIS APPROACHES 10

Pacc coasal plains o Chiriqi allow or greaer socal developmen.Wle he correlaion beween deveopmen and environmen "obvous,t s admt that the atter s no the ony acor promotn cha, and

n ohr wtns 10 109 Lars nsss that the "soa nate osubssne-raed pracc s pota ad admts ha h ssocaonbewn naural seing and cuural deveopmen s weakes for complexsocetes whch o some exen can oercome or mae liaons mposed by he envronmen

Sudes whch trace shs n h dsbuon o setements ovr tmruntly are explctly or mpctly ndbed o Steward and hs culturaecoloca appoach 2 Th suys o Adams n souh Mopoama1, 5, 6 cealy beray hs neua herage as we as revea an equay

proound deb o he enra Asan sudes o Latmore ( 102 Foreampe, n hs recent auhoave dscusson o settments aon hEupraes in he Nippur ar da concudes: ". he mos decsveacor w h ay d prdctby o h war suppy . Inhe ares ense, Mesopon cte can be vewed as an adapaon ohs perenna poblem o peridc, unprctble shorages (5, pp 24).

The hstocl acors n Adams's andscape assume not passve but actveroles, constany sh ther sratees o maxmze srtem an de

spe poena longerm loss and envonmenal degradaton The andscape ucuaes whn narow mts as natural and human orcescontnuay mody t, and cetan perena probems such s the nprdcabily o he waer supply and sainzaon always need o be solv. ates o selement vay s culures ad her chnolois, patculalywaer manaemen tecnqu, vov, but the set rmans relaveyconsn, and he nherenty abe and prrous nature o arcuurae on he Mesopoaman auva plan orces socees o respond or adapn lmed, paally predctabe ways

Numerous syhes 11 127 and oher secalzed studes n Nearase prehstoy share h ctve As a rsu o ethnoaphc darchaeologcal nvesgaons, Hoe (7 devsed a seres o criera basedupon he close symbotc reaoshp bewn herdes and ther anmas orocatng eary nomadc ses and dstngshng hem rom hose o hunersand gaherers (pp. 16264 omads are "no smply creaures o herphysca envronmen bu are ceary "eed by social and policacrcumsances (p 14 he aer, however, re unspec sce hey

cannot hep sove he archaeoca probm o documenn the bengs o pastoral nomadsm Sary, the poneeng nvestatons oole, Flanner, and eely in he Deh uran pain o souhwese ran 0were guided by ological conces The economy was largely euad wh


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susisence cices nd hei cnce ws ecve iy evidence fh dn f lcl ehisc cuniies he einl envinen Few cheliss dy wuld disee wih hei ecin ins

elie exlnins f culue chne nd hei elief h chne wsdul dive nd du f wh nd siuli lely inel he siey n uesin

As a maer ofprncple, w r lw t invk cttrhim r rcil chng t lnwht hnd in thwt Ai btwn 10nd 4 B.C. W fl tht chrginl dvlmnt mt b n in it wn light nd tht intl "dtiv chngw m n thn nt th chng tt mttd Ech f th htc rgnlclt f th r Et dvld t n t f bhv tt md t ltngth grzng nd rmng tnti th cgcl zn n whch it lvd. Th c

dttin dndd n ch gr' thnlgy, nd it cntct wth nghbrnggr wh hd drnt tchni t lv thr wn lgicl rblm. It mttrlittl tht l ccinlly brwd ntd -w t fm n th nt

vlly . 7 ii ddd).

his semen wrien in 96 n eldwk cnduced in 96 nd 963 n he ennin f he diic shif eclicl ineeinsfchelgicl d is imrn ecisely ecuse i is s elici ndecuse is en esnleness undesces he ervsive ccencef hei rnciple

As his cusry eview indices culul eclicl sudies in chely die cnsidely n heselves he s ecen ineeinsf he chelicl nd ehnhic d f he Oxc vlley emhsie h he sees usued y s elumin illes wee n inl in de cilis sense; Ads n he he hnd ineres hisselemen e d wihin me frmlis ecnmc esecive in

which esns cmee senuusly ve scce esuces nd erdicllydy hei envinen hey vee n veclive inl

lnds in hei ers sy live. Ye hese sudies n nly she cmninellecul herge unded in he wrins f Sewd nd shw esecf lcl vrin nd deil fequenly lckn in he me mechnicl

culul merlis ches discussed ve u ls e rmrlycnceed wih he elin f n his envinen he fundenllyadaiv eues culue esndinly hey e less cncee wihhe ccsinlly cciden nd euenly sudden nd cclysic vi

le evens nd cnuncues hisry which esul in culues elivelyunded lded hei envinen in ddiin such d

ins usully e seen s nil n he cuniy level wih ile inuiyin hei eecs n disinc sus clsses wihin he scieyhe culul eclicl ch hs eened chely in n un


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MARIALIS APPROACS 10

uestona postve ashon; new tpes o data retreved new technueshave rounded our reconstructons o the past on a much rmer and morerede ase t must e uestoned however whether ths new and near

unversa accepted at east n the nophone word) parad s asa-ncusve and sucent as ts adherents am One shoud attempt todetermne te proes o cutura eouton not drect soved anecooca approach Patcuar prehstorc arcaeoosts who stud theorns o the State or nvestate opex soetes shoud exane hstor docuented eapes o deveopment and asertan what addtonaactors esdes a cutures ever shtn or nconstant reaton to ts envronent nduc chane

Econoc Matrahe tems enmy and eg are oth derved rom the sae Gree root or oseo an car ii ovrain es oon teomr t dns housho tera or as so cutura nsttutereat whe the atter reers to a much expanded househod enompassnthe natura envronment; n ths sense eg s more ncusve and en-m more dret and ntmte assocated wth soa stuture andoranzaton n a ver thouhtu paper Coo 4 p 810) denes theeconoms enera contours as "a tra mediated ed o a humanpopuatons actvt n whch ts memers nteract wth ther phsca andsoca envronment n the cauated attempt to acure drect or ndrect a vn ts denton s accepted t s cear that the econompartcuar ts produtve actvtes ats as the nterae etween natureand utue throuh ts eono a cutue deerate anpuates tan

e phsca ojects o soca ends Reerence to enmi materiasm, onthe other hand popuar suests the wtns o arx and nes and thestrawman theo o economc determnsm unortunate ths common

sconcepton whch was reuent denounced the ounders o theaterast oncepton o hstor e 11, p 487) annot e revewed hereor our dscusson o econom aterast approahes n prehstor reerence s to those studes emphaszn a socets past technoo or reconstuctn ts exchane networs

CNOOGY n enera most contemporar archaeooca dscussons o cutura evouton have not emphaszed technooca deveopmentas a prmar or domnant aent o che A sharp contrast can e drawn

wth the roe technooca avances paed n the enera prehstorc reconstructons of Chde 24, 2 wt the tpca seconda o dependentstatus aorded to them toda Athouh a separate paper woud e re

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06 O

quired to explore the resons for his shi emphasis, it can be notedbriey that articles such as Binord's Post-Peistocene Adaptations 4)which dismiss tecnologically based expanations as vitalistic or tautolo

gous, prefe mechanical responses to the envonment, climatic change, oinexorable population growth as primary causa factors inucing change.However crude" or vulgarly materialist" explanations of social development based upon technological advane may be, they still stess factors thatare a ceation of society and somehow intimatey and complexly linked tosocial stuctue s such, they run counte to the current trend of intepreting cutural evolution as an entirely natua process, explained by geneallaws goveg the behavior of al lie foms

Although this theoretical shift i emphasis is rea physical analyses of

arifacts and ronstructions of ancient tnoogies abound in contemporay archaeology (eg 9 0 7 9 06) Most howeve simply ronstuct an ancient technology nd are ony angentially conceed with therelatonshp betwn technoogcal nnovaton and cultural evolution mpotant exceptions occu (4, 7 22 27 ) but it is noteworthy that in b tholoes ed to hetensication o ood dction

The wo o Tosi d his co 33 34 ) h attemted to reconstruct the entre range of thnoloicl activiti fomsubsistence practic to craft production at the third milennium site ofShahri Sokhta in easte ran Utilizing Marxian concepts, these investigations even have attemted to detemine the eative vaue of aw materilsand nished objects, based upon the labo-e nded to acquie o fashionthem Majo techoloical deveopments tng in incred control overplants and animals, re, or water do not smply represent an adaptation tothe envioment, but a tsoation of nate and man In osis ownwods: e transformation of nate requir the transformation of man,

that is to say that the tansfomation of rc is an eect of the socialoder and the amount of individus it cn p working togethe" 4)Eventlly, the society s ho to conto it hm eso a moeecient manner esuting n the emege of a complex, protouban"formation

Simlarly, Wriht and Johnsons investigations 7 209 20) into theoriins of the State pace primry emphis on the evolution of infoationtnsfe and prosing caabiliti Althoh thei terinoogy is opaque,thee organizational deveopments paby t pon technooic

changes that increase administative eciency and reduce costs he mhanisms fostering intraregional exchange nd he centralization of craft production ae le sec 209 p 3) bt it is the develoment of the

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MAERIALIS APPROACES 07

productive activities which nsitates changes the reglatory systemleading to new forms of socia contro

EXCNGE Numerous stu of prestoric excange and traing networks have appeared urng the last few years (e.g. 4, 0, 02, anmoels ave bn develope wich explain the se of complex societies anempires largely as a result of te eveopment of social institutions necessary to control and irect interregional rae an tribute (20, 42, 4, 97,98 As wit tecnologcal sies, te vast ajoity of stuies etailingpast exchange systems are not ed by any explicit mateialst paaig;rater, most (eg 9 coist of etaile empical investigations wicreconstuct excange attes og increasingly sopistcate tec

niques of trace eleent and structura analysesTe localition or uneven stibution of reources over te lnscape

omonly is interreted as h the stuls and deteinant of exchangepattes Cost is a irect retion of isance fro sorce ar, an terogressive allo in te istrbtion of excange mateals fro te natural sly zone is seen as a con ate of simle exchange systes (2,48 Such an explanation, of course may represent the most plausibleinterretation of a specic dstrbtional pate ( 5, 52, bt as a generoel it nobtly sip reaity. Te costs an ecniss for

excge ae never siply te prct of rorce avalabty, bt also teresult of social an olitical factors ipose uon te natural istrbution(67 For example, many invtigators (49 208 ave insisted upon analying local an long-isnce excange systes separately This distinction isuseful but not always straghtforwad, smply because local trade freuently functions witn a sc sociooitical unit, te bonaes ofwic may exten beyon some imeiately reonizable reional gograic uni. us, ost of te excange of materials along te InusValey and ito te subcontint n te third milennium may represent theredistribution of goods withn a politically nied "empire ad not tradebeten searate reorce ar [contrast (65 it (8]

iilaly, the reconstction of pattes of interaction based upon the limite, special pupose teo (90 of locational geogaphy yiel probleatic results Factos skewng obseved hierarcical settleent pattesfrom the predicted hexagonal clsterngs cannot explained solely byreference to pecliar environmenal features distorting the assumption of aunifom landscape such as the atercourses of sote Mesopotamia (84

these studies also must take accoun of social, political, an historicalfactors which eect the interacton between communties (69, p 22Even ignoing te rea problems of contempraneity n estimation of site


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se tat beset most settement patte data we pessmstcay can concudetat prestorc appcatons of ocatona modes ony drecty nform us n

e rare cases wen te t between observed and expeced settement pat

es s precse by teseves noncorrespondences eecvey do no e swy e ode as faed and deen arcaeoogca meods ms beused o expan te anomaes. As w smuaton modes 6 te rea

vae o ocaona and gravy modes s ndrec n a ey "encoragearcaeoogsts to consder more sysemacay e varabes nvoved nneracon 86 p 487

We earer studes 47 35 07 uncrtcay adoped Poanys concepts and eoreca perspecve of mnmng e roe o market excangen antuty more recent sudes 4 3 3 ave argued tat trade repre

sents a conscous economc actvty n wc te varous partcpants attempt to obtan an optma reu for er own goods Suc a perspectvesoud yed more credbe reconsructons of prestorc economes snce drecs e anayss o e eainsbeween excange paners and poen-

ay aows s o ndersand e oves sraeges and cacaons a r ane n ac w an enerae a an a-naton of prestoc excange networs s crtca for determnng reatonsbetween ctures or grops and casses wn a cure Unke ecoogcasdes wc focs on a cres reaonsp o s envronen e

anayss of excange paes s conceed w e reaons ensons andreatve power of groups wn a socey or beween a socety and ts rad-ng parners s suc anayses wc aemp o deene e economc

moves bend preso excange syses represen one eod foronstrctng a mateast approac conspcos by ts absence n coneporary arcaeoogy: soca maerasm

Hstora atrasme grea poca eos and actvs Gramsc fet a e basc mtaonof maerasm was te aemp o expan "every caon n pocs anddeoogy as an mmedae expresson of e matera or economcsructure 61 p 407 e beeved a ts fang wc e termedpmve nansm was overcome by arx n s concree poca andsoca sudes no n s ore aos genera works or anayses ocapas socey we exane The XVIh Bumaieor The Ci Wain Fane we see a arx anayze soca deveopens no by asocey's response o envronena and econoc condons b by e

conctng nerests of soca and poca groups erested n mantanngor extendng ter soca power Smary atoug expcty wrtten froma nonMarxst perspectve Webers usty famous anayses of te cty 15

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ATERIALIT APPRAE

and ancen socey (196) roceed alon remarkaby smar nes (46 55 62 ) and ms reec a sared academc rann and neres n esory of ea and soa nsons

or or roses hisoria merialism refers o a nonmeayscaaroac o reay a refses o searae dsnc oca economc anddeooca seres of tvity or o ake rd concea dsnconsbeween sbecs and obecs emaszes e eer-cann noneqbrm seen nare of soca fe A daecca or sorca maerasaroac acces a conca as oosed o consensa eoy of soceyn wc e conscos oca acons of soca ros or casses remancenra and aramon oweer rm or oosey rooed ey may be oer economc base In oer words e focs s on acy no on s

deooca jscaon nor een rmary on s reaon o economc reay Poca acy of corse ms be exaned by reference o erlvnt grop's blifs nd onomi onditions bt ths rltions tocoresondences are aways come and consany cann Unke earoac aocaed by Harrs and acy acceed by many conemoraryarcaeooss sorca maerasm does no consder deas eenomena o an ec reay or mere reecons of e nfrasrcre b reconzesa e beefs of a en ro once formaed candrn e corseof any soca rocessassme a fe of er ow and sbsanay eeca socey's rodce aces. Many acs wc are deoocay moaed can be exaned n sorca maeras erms as de o e neaoranzaona needs of e ro or ary camonn e deooy nqeson As an exame Gramsc 40 ces e famos beryconesed debae beween e ase nd Wese rsan rces onweer or no e Hoy Sr roceeded ony from e aer or from boe ae and e Son a conc wc ed o e scsm of 054 and adnmeros rofond economc conseences:

The two Churches, whose existence and whose conict is dependent on the stuctue andon the whole of history, pos questions which ae pinciples of distinction and intealohion fo each side, but it could have haen that eithe of the Chuches ould haveagued wha in fat was agued by the othe. The niple o distintion and ontwould have been uheld th sam, and it is this oblem of distntion and otthat onstituts th histoial oblm, and not th bann that happn to b hoistdby on sid o th oth.

Anloosly t bizrr prtis o Azt ritl nd not rt protindecences n e Mesoamercan de b e nea oranzaona needs

of zec ess yn o manan and exend er ower wn an exandn emresae or acaeooss e caene s o reconsrc econcn needs and sraees of ros wn comex socees or e

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1 10 KOHL

relations among derent "band and "triba soieties during Paaeolithicnd Early Nlthic tim. It shou not assm that socity s a who wpsivly aaptg to its nvomnt a/or thnological bas

Th pimy mphsis accor to soci politil institutions by thfathers of contemporary social scienc also shoud sober us for the simpereson that many of the most imporant rations, such as pattes of landonership, re not dity prered in the archaooica record. Childeovry strs th mpoc of tchnooc vopmn prisly bcus thy wr chaoclly rcovrab, his latr wtings, paticularly l vlu 28) sho a k aarness of th limtations ofarchalogical evence for th ronstrucon of socia institutions or threations, as oppose to the forces, of roduction Yt Chide ored largly

in a pr-"n, vn preradiocarbo ag an is sensibl pssimism hasbn supes or displacd by advnc i th discipin sinc his dathTh rliabl rconstuction of xchg systms, th thnoloical xmination of artfacts an the ronstruction of th stages of their production,th argsc rcovry of enviomntl subsistencrlat dat, anthe ocus on reional studi and settlemnt atte analsesall can bu to detere the presence an nature of cts an political activtisamong oups thin socities in ays that Chlde never deemed possible

For xamp, icroa ayses n th xamnation of debitage nd

senish objects ca alo us to econstruct aspects of or orgnization, th socia divsion olabor and stratication, and, hoever tentatively,abortime and vaue Nissen's perceptive nctional analysis (126) of thvopmnt of cylinder sea mnuacture and its relation to chaningrprntionl styl and mor impoy, to th volvig rquimntsof ly Sumia socity llos us to tt usiv juidical rlations suchas the prsence of coporat oup A ronstuction of th stags ofroduction o sot sto artacts ro e aa and hari ota andtr integration it oter developng "industres such as mtlurgyaos us to contrast th dvlopmnt of c prouction and th xtnt ndchaactr o socil stratication at to disictiv but roughly contmporous sit ast Ir (92)

If approached from a hstoical matlist psptiv, th lysis ofora and faunal remains can inform us as to the existence and nature ofdistinct class ithin a socity Her the problm is to identfy not hatth tol socity subsist upon, but what spc sgmnts or oups withit consumd A rprentative sampling sttgy rst wou hav to idntifydierent nctional areas or nighborhoods ithin a site and then devisearorat rover rocedur for ach area On conscious attmt atsuch a stud has bn undertaen b Masson and his coleagu (17) at

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AERIALI APPRAE 111

Altyndepe n Southe Tumenistan unfotunately thei suggetive esults ae somewhat vtated by elatvely unsophstcated eeval technques

Recent suvey wo Oaxaca 17) has shown that Monte lbn dd notdevelop gadually into the valey lagest and most impoant settlementbut appeaed suddeny pesumably the eult of politica conuet o successful establshment of a confedeation uniting the nhabitants of all egons o the valley Whle t may be unounate nd msldng to ee toths pocess and the natue o the settlement as an example o dsembddcaptal 202) it stll seems clea that the onaton o ts cty wch uledove and gealy inuenced Oaaca ad suoundng aeas o centuiesepesented a sudden and decisive poitical act it simply cannot bet e

explaned as the poduct of a smoothly unfolding nteal gowth. Theoetically smla eults emege om Bumels 2) nsghtul analyss o eiona ehe within the Valle f ei he ague peuasively thatthe poltcal domnance o enochttlnexcoco tnsom tadtonelations and maeting pattes amng local communitie in late tectimes. The unepted eults fom a sface suvey of Hueota fed heto conclude that the apd gowth and demands o the uban apital weemoe ctcal fo detemnng ntecommunty nteacton thn spalzedadaptatons to loal envonmentl condtons

In shot adopton o a hstocal maealst appoach n pehstoy dosnt nstitue an impssible deam Gups o lasse an be ientied andthei inteests plausibly onstted fom thei matea emains Maoevolutona studes 52 have appeaed whch fus attention on socetyand ts latent contadictions othes ) have stesed the consciousacqustve chaacte of eite behavo and cogently questoned the benetso unctons the actvity conveys upon the socety as a whole. e clculating activitie of politcal man can emee fom the aifacts and ecoacts o

achaeology sophsticated histoica mateiaist appoach t pehistoyshould mplement nt eplace the unuestioned advance achievedwthn the cultual ecologcal paadgm o n othe wods a poltcachaeology s needed to elaboate and mae moe mnngul the economcntepeaton o pehsto

Ritn that cultual evlution s a unue human pocess in whichthe paicpants actively modify its couse des not deny ou aimal natueno the fundamental impotance of omnpesent and pessing subsistenceneds t s obvous that conscious actvties cn nd fequently do have

unoeeen consequences that pooundly inuence the uthe developmento society. ut the dominant ecologcal paadgm ha too consstentlystesed the passve unecognzed featues o the evolutona pocess and

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11 L

nspred too many unbeevbe or bascay unnterestng and trte reconstructons o te past. e door as been e ope or a new empass,

arady apparent n te terature 77) on te bewdeng dvesty and

nexpcabe caracte o uman cutues a neoBoasa eacto sortmay ensue and repace our mutnear evoutonary modes uness weattempt to wrte prestory n terms amar to us rom our day ves.

"Me make te ow stoy wote Max at te begg o tth umaie " .not under ccumstances cosen by temseves . . .but drecty encountered gven and tansmtted rom te past. deaccepted ts smpe trut and reomuated t as te tte to s most amouspopua wo. Cotmpoay acaoogsts abo ud a aadgm soperasv tat ty u te sk o gorg t dbaty sectve ad

cacuatng eatues tat aso caacterze cutua evouton. oday oreampe our understandng o preoumban deveopent Mesoamerca s eptomzed by te story o ow maze made tse. atunoreseen canges n ts credby pastc pant prooudy atered te

couse o ew Word cvzato canot be doubted but te reasos wyma st td a t actvy actd wt t must mo comxtan current wsdom suggests Moreover te tempora dept provded by

arcaeoogca data not ony ets us reconstruct cutua evouton but asoaows us to understad aspcts o utu and te durabty o utuataitins tat etnogapes canot anayze. e pestorc ruers o

norte coasta Peru most key utzed covee abor on a arge scae orte costucton o pubc woks cetures not menna pro to teadvent o te Incas (1, 14). s arcaeoogcay attested act tes ustat socetes wtn a storcay teactng area adopt basc oganzatona prnces not soy as common soutons to natura probems butbecause tey ave been tested and proven to wor by earer socetes wtwc y a ama Rcous to a dast ttatot "gnus o a peope or te "om o a cvzatos ot ecessary to expants common and mportant penomenon a materasm senstve to te

contngences as we as te necesstes o stoca procsses aone wsuc.

ACKNOWLEDGENTS

Severa scoars suggested studes tat I soud ncude andor provdeduseu comments to a earer drat o ts artce. er ep s gateuy

acowdged. Patcuay I woud e to tak R McC. Adams K. C.Cag A. ma C. C. LamgKaovsky A. Smoy ad R Wgto t costuctv ad detad ctcsms A actua os o ack obaance n presentaton reman my soe responsbty

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AERALS AAES 3

Ltertre Cte

Adams R. McC. 96 La eag A Hsto of Settlemets onthe yl Plan. Chicago: Univ.

Chicago Press 82 dams R. McC. The Evolton ofUr Soe Chicago dine

3 dams, R McC 194 he Mesopotamian social landscape a view fromthe frontier See Ref 121 pp 122

4 dams R. McC. 194 nthropological persptives on ancient trade. CrrAtrool. 1:2398

dms R. McC 1981 Heartlan ofCtes. Chicago Univ. Chicago Press

6 Adams R. McC. Niss H. J 192The Urk Contse Chicago Univ.

Chicago Press 241 pp Asad T 9 Atroolo n theColonl Enconter London: thacaPrs

8 Asthaa S 98 rappa tra metals ad minerals a regional appach. In e Harappan Cvlaton A

Peetve G Possehl Inst. India Stud.In press

9 thes J S 19 Teoy building andthe study of evolutioary incoplex societies. See pp.

338410 Bett S Silverman M G. 99Ieolo n Evey Le A-

Neomrxst Thoght ne ofIeolo Te Soclole rbor Uiv Mich. Ps

11 Bath F 9 Ecologc adaptation andcultural chage in archaeology AmAt 1433839

12 Beale . W. 193 Ealy trade in highland Iran a view from a source area.orl Araeol 338

13 Binford L. R 192 rchaeology anthropology. In An ArceologclPersetve pp 22 Nw orkSemar

4 Binford L R 92 Post-pleistoceneS Re 3 42149

1 . R 19 or ng n Aaeolo New York cademic

1 Bisione R. Bulgarelli G. M. Consntini M Tosi M 94

discoveres ad methodological problems in the excavationsof Shari Sokhta Sistan. In SothAsa Arceolo ed. J. E.VaohuizeDe eeuw J. J J. Ubaghs

122 Leiden1 R. E. 98 Monte Aln, Set

tlement Patter at the Anent ZotecCtal ew ork cademic

8 rwood R J 94 Te Iraq Jamoproject. S Ref. 203 pp. 683

19 Bill R. . 191 ence an A-

ceolo MIT Press2 Bronson B 19 ealit famng cause and cosequece.

In olo an Socal Evo-lton S. Polgar pp. 38 Theague Mouton

2 Bmel E M 1980 Specializtionmarket exchange ad the ztec state aview from uexoa Crr Atl214}498

22 Calnek E E 19 he inteal stture of Tenochtitla Se Ref. 209, pp28302

23 Chang K C. 19 cient trade aeconomics or ology. See Ref. , 2124

24 Childe V G 193 Man Makes H-e ondon Watts

2 Childe V G. 942 at ee Hto aondsworth: Penguin

26 Childe V G 1946 otlan efore theScot London: Methuen

2 Childe V. G. 194 Hto London:Cobbett

28 Childe V. G. 9 Sol EvoltonNew ork Schuman

29 Childe V. G. 98 Vaedictio lInst Archaeol Un onon 11830 Clark J. G. D. 92 ehtorc E

e Te Econom s LodoMethuen

31 Ce M. D 194 Coments on ProSas' papr Chfdom to st po-lticl evolution at Kain uyGuatemaa. See Ref 24 pp 912

32 Cohe M. 9 Te F Crss ehsto New aven: ale Univ. Pss

33 Conkey M. 98 Style nd inforatio cultural evolutio toward a pre

dictive model for the pallithic. SeeRe 14 pp 186

34 Cook S. 93 coomic athropoogyproblems in theory method and analyse In ank ofSocal an Cltral

e J Hoigma ppChicago Rand McNally

3 COgl G L. 19 n cause and nsequec of aiet ad modepulatio chang. Am Athro 02

36 Cwgill G. 19 Populationsure as a no-explanatio. In

stes n rceolo an ologcal anthpolo a symposm . . CSwlund Am Ant 02 Mem 3,pp. 123

3 Cule P 194 Th ot Cvla

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tion Te Sto of the Cic Ma.New York Harr & Row

38. Daniel, G 1976. A Hundred and FYea ofAhaeoo. Cambridge: Harvrd Uv Prs

39. Diakono, I. M. 1969. AncentMesopotam Sonomc HstoMoscow Nauka

Downg, T E., Gibson, M. 1974. Irr-gation Iact on Sie. Unv Antrol. ap 25, Tucson

41 . Duby, G 1974. Te Eary Gwth oftheEuroean Economy ondon: Weidenfed & Ncoson

42. Earle . K. 1977. Economc and Salanation of a m ChiefdoTe Haelea Dtct Kaua'i HaiUniv. Mich Mus ntroo Pap 6

43. Eare, T K Erion, J E. 1977. Ex-change Systes n Pehto. NewYork Acdemc

Fagan, B. 1978. In the egnnng AnIntducton to Ahaeolo ostonLite B

45. Fairservis W. A. 197. Te Tresholdof Civiaion. New Yok Scbne's

. Fe, I 1977. Te anent ctrom Fsel e oag to Mx Wer ad ond o Stu S H

30-2747. K V. 1974.

he Olm adthe valley o Oaxca a mel for interregional iteracton in Formative tim.In Te Re and Fa ofiilaton, .C. C. amrg-Karovsky, I A. Sablo,pp. 6-83. Menlo Park:Cmming

48. Fannery, K V, Marcus, 1976. Formatve Oand the Zapot cosmoA Sc :374-83

49. Ford, R. I. 1978. Te Nature and StatusofEthnobotany. Uiv Mich. Mus Anthrol ap 67 Arbor

0. Fk, A D. On, J S Weme, T

A. 1978. Te Seah for Ancent nWston DC Smitsonian51 . Fiman, J 1974. Marxism, structr

alsm ad vulgar maem Man9 9

2. Frima, J., Rowlands, M. J. 1977.Te Euion ofSial Syte n-don Duckworth

3 Fox 192 Te enal ofBrtanf Natl. Mus. Wa

54. Frtz, J. M., F. 1970. he natreof eplnaon. A Antiq. 3(4)12

Gddes A. 1971. aptalm and Mod-e Sa T London: CambrdgeUnv. Prs

6. Gma, A 197. Bron age dynamcsin southt Sain. Diaec Anth130719

57 . Gilman, A. 1981. Socia traticaton inronze Age Euro. Cur AnthL22 :In rs

58. Godeler, M. 1972. ationa and Ir-ationa in Economic New YorkMonthl Rev rs9. Godeier, M 1977. epectes nMat Anthpolo CambrdgeCambrdge Unv. Prs

. Goud, S J. Lewontin R 1979. Tespandres o San Marco ad the anglossian aradigm a cique o the adapationist programme Poc Soondon Ser. B 2081-98

1. Gramsci A. 1971. Selectons fm theon Noteo New York Int. ub.

62. Hamond, F. W. 1978. The contrbutionof simuation to the stud of archaogical rocs. In Simulaton Studies inAhaeolo ed. I. Hodder, pp. 1-11 .ndon Cambdge Uv rs

63. Hardesty, D. . 1977. oogca Anthpolo New York Wiley

64. Her, M 1977. he oocal bassor Azt A EthnoL4:117-3

. Hr 198 Te Re oAnth-logca eo Ne York rowel

Hr 1979 ultua atealhe Ste for a Scence of Cuture.

New York Radom House67. Harrison, R. I. Gilman, A 1977 Traebetwn the Maghreb and Iberia. In Ancient Eue and the MediteaneanStudies esented n Honour of HughHencken V Markotc, pp. 90-1.Warmister & hiips

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preistory, and Euroan cition. Man73125-30

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73. E S 1972. ae in onoicCambdge: Cambridge

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MATERIALIS APPROACHES 1 15

Albuquerque: Unv N MexPre

77. Hodder, I. 17 Smple correlaton between ai culture nd iety areiew In Spaal anaon ofCulure, I. odder pp. 24. ondon: Dckoh

7. Hodg H 76. tacs n Inucon o arly Maeral an cnol-o London: Baker

7. Hole 7. Patora nomam nte Iran In ploraions in h-noarchaeolo, ed R. A Gould, pp.8 Albuuerue: Unv N MexPre

0. Hoe F, Flannery K V Nly, J A6. Preitoy nd un elogy of

the De Lur plan n arly vllageqenc from Khzta Iran Mem-oirs No Ann Arbor Unv Mc.Mu. Anto.

. Hole, P, Heer, . PArchaeolo. Ne York olt Rnehar & Wton

2. Ibel, W A 98. Envronmental perturbaton nd te origin of te Anden Re 4 pp 04

. Jhm M 176. unerGaererSub-sisence an Settlemen: PeiciveMol. New ork Acadec

84 Jonon G A 9 A tt of e utlty of centl place theory n archaeology In Man Settlemen, an Urban- P J Uco R. Tingha, GW Dbleby pp 76. LndonDckorth

. Jonon G A 17 oal changean arly Sae Developmen in Souh Irn Univ Mch M. Antropol Pp

86. Johnon G. A. 77. Apt of reonal anly n arcaeology. nn.Rev. n 670

7. Johnon G. A 7. Informatonourc and te development of dion-makng organzaton S Re14, pp. 2

. Katz F 72. e Ancien mericanCivilaion Ne York Praeger

. Kng T 7. Don't tat beat tebnd? Noegran polcl oganzton n pretoc entrl Clforna e Rf 4 pp 48

Kejn, . S. 77 paoraa of thoretca archaeology u nrol.1812

1 Kol P L 17 Te aralogy oftrade Dialec nh 1)40

2 Koh, P . 177. A note on choteaefac ro ha o. anW 11

. Koh P. L 7. he baance of traden othte Aa the thd lennu [B] ur nhpo 1)49

4. Ko P . 7. he orld onomyof Wt Aa n te thrd mlennum In Souh Asian rchaeolo ed M Tade, pp 5 Napl 1tUnv Oent

. Kolchn, B. A 7. Ocerki ek-nologi Drevneikh Postv. -cow Nak

6 Kot, C P 17. nhlo exploion of uman Divei. NeYork: Radom oe

7. Kraer C 177. Pot and pepl. eeRef , pp 112

8. or, 2 adook o te dan of aoa Bur m hnoBulL 7

. LmbergKrovky, C. C . Dlmun ateay to mmortalty Near. Su In pr

LambergKarlovky 9. Aerword In B g of nralsia: Recen Sovie Dcovees, P .Koh Ne York: har In pr

0 LambergKarlovky . , Sablo A 19. nin ivaon an ra.Albqerqe Unv N. Me Pr

02. Lattmore, . Inner Asian Fnie of ina Boton: Beacon

0. Lec E. 9. oncding adds. Ine Explanaion of Culure Change

Mels in Peho . Rrepp. 7672. Pttbgh Unv Pttburg P

. Leach E 77. A ve ro te bidge. Ref 7 pp 676

05. Leack, E. 19. Introdcton In eOrigin of e Family ean he Sae Engel NeInt Pub! Ne Word Paerback

06.Lhtm H 7 Style

m

tnologyoe ary thougt In MaerialCulure: Sle, Oanaion, an Dynamics of ecnolo . H Lhtman R Merrll pp 20. t. Paul:Wt

07 Leone M 72 Iu n antroo achalog. In Conempo Ar-caolo M. Lne, pp 1427.Cane out. nv. Pr

0. Ln F 174 n e m ofproducion in t pical siei Preent at Am Antropol. s Meet

ymp.: Marxt Approach to Archaeoogy In nupt0. na, 17. Coment to par

y E B. Ro Re p. 20. Lin O. F, Rnere A. 0.

ap Raaon n Peo an

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1 1 1 R S 1972 The ehis-to o the Tehuaan Vaey Vo Ex-avations and Reonnaiane Austin:Univ ex Press112 MacNis R S 1978 e Scene oAhaeolo? Bmont Duxbuy

11 Mamdan, M 1972 The Myth oation ont Fami aste andin an ndian Vage. New YorkMonthy Rv Press

1 14 Mafo L. 1981 Ca forst to slrmountain: on mtaors of gowt inry Syran society Se Rf 155 Inress

1 15 Ma K Engs 1969 SeetedWork, VoL MoscowNauk

1 16 Masson, V M 1976 Ekonomika i sot-siaani sti drenikh obshhest Leningrad Nauk

1 17 Masson V M Kiyatkna T P 1981Man at te dawn of urbaniation SRf 1 n rss

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120 Mion R 1973 Urbanation atTeotihuaan Mexio Vo The

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12 Mosly M E 197 he MaritmeFoundation o Andean iiationCambdge Cummings

1 Mosy, M 19 restoric prncis of lar organation th MochVally Pu Am Antiq 0(2)19196

125 Murra J V Morris, 1976 yntcoral tradtion admnstrative recordsand archaoogy in th Andes ordArhaeo 7267-79

126 Nissn H J 1977 Ass of the dvlopment of eary ses n Seasand Seaings in Anent Near East M Gibson R D Biggs pp 1 52Maibu Undna

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tion agrcutur in Mopotamia nobems in Eonomi and Soia Arhaeoo G dG Siekng HLongwo K E Wson p 1096London Duckwot

128 Olov, B S 1980 Ecoogcal antropoogy Ann Re Anth 9257

129 Paock, P; S 1977 Potte andEar ommere harateration and

Trade in Roman and Later eramisNw York Academic10 Pfir J E 1977 e Emeence o

Soie A ehto o the Estabhment New York McGrawi

11 Piggott S 1959 Approah to Arhaeo-o Havad Univ Prss

12 Piggott S Ancient Eupe mthe Beginnings o Agriuture to assi-a Antiqui. icago Adin

1 Pipo M 197 Micodng atShari Soka t makng and us ofth lthic dhads n South Asian Ar-haeoo d N Hammond 1 1929 London uckwor

1 Pipeo M 1978 gaveyard n Laitta Buiatta de Deserto Saato 178. Vnice izzo ditice

15 Pirseira J W 1975 ormatieMesoamerian Exhange Ner ithSpeca Reerene to the Vaey oaa niv Mic Mus. AntropoMem No 7 Ann Arbor

136 Pittivrs A L 1975 Te evoution of cutur o R ns! G. B79 520

17 og 1977 xaining cange SR 76 pp 17571 8 Pog 1978 Te Kersn bdge an

ecoogica and arcaeoogica accountS Ref 15 972

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opmnt of owand cssic Maa civiiation n The Rise and Fa oiva-tion d J. A Sabo LambrKarosky pp 849 Menlo ParkCummings

13 Rdman L 1973 Reerc and teoy cunt an introuction n Researh and in uentArheoo d C L Rman 520 Nw York Wiey

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127 17012 Rnfrw C Dixon Cann J R

1966 Obidian nd aly ultur onact in t Na East ehs. Soc.272

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1 Rowlands M J 1971 T arcaolog

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world sss thor and its rlvancfor ld World prhistor B Archaeo

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19 Sands W T 1977 Rsorc utilation and political volution in tTuacan Vall S R 76 pp218

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