A N N U A L R E P O R T 1 9 9 6A N N U A L R E P O R T 1 9 9 6

P H O T O V O L T A I C S

S P E C I A LR E S E A R C H

C E N T R E

U N S W

THE UNIVERSITY OFNEW SOUTH WALES

The Photovoltaics Special Research Centre is a

Special Research Centre

of the Australian Research Council

P H O T O V O L T A I C S

S P E C I A L

R E S E A R C H C E N T R E

U N S W

A N N U A L R E P O R T

1 9 9 6

Photovoltaics Special Research Centre

School of Electrical Engineering

University of New South Wales

Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia

Tel +61 2 9385 4018 Fax +61 2 9662 4240

1996 HIGHLIGHTS 4

DIRECTOR’S REPORT 6

CENTRE ORGANIZATION 8

CENTRE FACILITIES 10

RESEARCH STRATEGY 12

DEVICE RESEARCH REPORTS 13

HIGH EFFICIENCY SILICON SOLAR CELLS 13

THEORY AND THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS 15

BURIED CONTACT SOLAR CELLS 18

ROOF TILE PROJECT 21

SYSTEMS RESEARCH REPORTS 22

POWER SYSTEM INTERACTION AND ECONOMICS 22

REMOTE AREA POWER SUPPLY (RAPS) AND GRID

CONNECTED SYSTEMS 24

INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES 24

EDUCATION AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS 26

UNIVERSITY COURSES 26

EXTERNAL RELATIONS 26

THE 1996 WORLD SOLAR CHALLENGE 27

OPEN DAY 28

DESIGN ASSISTANCE DIVISION 29

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER 30

CONTRACTS, PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES

AND AWARDS 32

BUSINESS DEVELOPMENTS 32

PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES 33

AWARDS 33

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CENTRE FINANCES 34

1996 PUBLICATIONS 36

THESES 36

BOOKS, BOOK CHAPTERS 36

REFEREED JOURNALS 36

CONFERENCE PAPERS AND REPORTS 37

PUBLICATIONS IN PRESS 39

APPENDIX A

CENTRE ADVISORY COMMITTEE 41

APPENDIX B

CENTRE PERSONNEL 42

4

Honda Wins 1996 World Solar Challenge

The Centre supplied the cells to the Honda Dream

which won the triennial international solar car race

across Australia. The car covered the 3,000 km course

from Darwin to Adelaide at an average speed of 90

km/hour. The estimated power advantage over the

second placed car was 40%, due largely to the use of

the Centre’s record-breaking cells.

A New World Record for a PhotovoltaicModule

An energy conversion efficiency of 22.7% was

confirmed at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque,

for a 800 cm2 module using the Centre’s high

performance cells. This is the highest efficiency ever

measured internationally for any photovoltaic module of

any design.

A New World Record for a Moderate Area Cell

Cells designed for solar car racing improved the

efficiency record for moderate area 22 cm2 cells to

23.7%, the highest ever for a photovoltaic cell of any

type of this size and close to the Centre’s world record

of 24.0% for a smaller area 4 cm2 laboratory cell.

Pacific SolarAhead ofSchedule

Pacific Solar Pty. Ltd., a spin-off company

from the Centre established to commercialize the

Centre’s thin film multilayer cell technology,

completed all first year milestones ahead of

schedule. Pacific Solar is a $64 million joint

venture between the University and Pacific

Power, a leading Australian electric utility.

Licensee Becomes Europe’s Largest

BP Solar, first to commercialize the Centre’s

buried contact bulk cell technology, became

Europe’s largest solar cell manufacturer during

1996, with most European sales now consisting

of the improved product.

5

Centre Launches Improved Simulator

During an invited plenary session paper at the

25th IEEE PV Specialists Conference in Washington, the

Centre launched PC1D (Version 4), a Windows-based

personal computer program for analyzing solar cells and

related semiconductor devices. This version is likely to

follow on from earlier versions as the world’s most

widely used solar cell simulator.

1996

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A/Professor Paul Basore Chairs IEEEConference

Associate Centre Director, Associate Professor Paul

Basore, commenced his term as Chair of the 26th IEEE

Photovoltaic Specialists Conference to be held in Los

Angeles in 1997. This is the longest running and most

prestigious international conference for solar cell device

specialists.

Two New Systems for Little Bay

Two new commercial photovoltaic arrays were

connected to the grid at the Centre’s test site at Little

Bay: a tracking array using BP Solar’s buried contact

modules, and an amorphous silicon array using Canon

cells. These supplement standard BP Solar and Solarex

arrays installed two years ago, which were two of the

earliest grid-connected photovoltaic systems in New

South Wales.

Centre Favourably Reviewed by ARC

The Centre underwent its triennial review by the

Australian Research Council in March and was assessed

very favourably. The review committee were impressed

with the Centre’s level of success with its research

activities, as well as its leadership and team spirit. The

committee were also impressed with the proportion of

women who are involved in all aspects of the Centre

and the positive research training the Centre provides.

As a result of the review, the Centre also rearranged its

name slightly in July.

6

The Photovoltaics Special Research Centreat the University of New South Wales (UNSW)was established in 1990 to develop photovoltaictechnology into a sustainable power generationoption for the future. Photovoltaic or “solar” cellsconvert sunlight directly into electricity usingquantum-mechanical interactions between thislight and electrons in the semiconductor materialused to make the cell.

If this technology is to displace less

environmentally desirable coal-fired and nuclear power

plants, the cost of photovoltaics must be reduced, the

energy conversion efficiency improved and new

applications for the cells developed.

The UNSW Photovoltaics Special Research Centre is

at the forefront of international efforts in addressing

these three key areas. The 1996 year covered by this

report was again a year during which the Centre

demonstrated major achievements across all three of

these areas.

High Efficiency Solar Cells

The huge lead the Centre now holds internationally

in terms of cell efficiency was demonstrated in a very

visible way during the 1996 World Solar Challenge, the

solar car race over the 3,000 km course from Darwin to

Adelaide. The Centre supplied three of the top cars with

cells for this race through Unisearch Ltd., the

University’s commercial arm.

While making the cells for these cars, the Centre

set several new world marks for cell performance. These

included a new efficiency record of 23.7% for a

moderate area (22 cm2) solar cell of any type and a new

record of 22.7% for a 800 cm2 photovoltaic module. The

good news is that there still seems to be plenty of

scope for further improvement in both these figures!

The winning car, the Honda Dream, averaged 90

km/hour over the race, a new race record, powered by

UNSW cells assembled into the highest performance

solar array ever assembled.

Low Cost Commercial Cells

The Centre’s high performance, low cost buried

contact cell technology continued to increase its share

of the international market with licensee, BP Solar,

Europe’s largest solar cell manufacturer, now using this

technology in most of the company’s product sold in Europe.

Closer to home, a “spin-off” company from the

Centre, Pacific Solar Pty. Ltd., entered its second year of

operation after meeting all first year milestones ahead

of schedule. Pacific Solar is a $64 million joint venture

between Pacific Power, a leading local utility, and

Unisearch Ltd. The new company was established to

commercialize the Centre’s low cost thin-film multilayer

cell technology and expects to have product on the

market by the year 2001.

7

New Cell Applications

The Centre was early to recognize the potential of

the distributed, grid-connected use of photovoltaics

and has been a proponent of this use since the Centre’s

foundation. During the year, substantial progress was

made with local electricity distributors offering

customers the option for grid-connected residential

systems for the first time. The Centre continued to play

a leading role in promoting this use with Project

Scientist, Ted Spooner, drafting guidelines for the

inverters required for grid-connection of such systems

through a committee process under the auspices of the

Electricity Supply Association of Australia.

With the support from the photovoltaic industry,

local utilities, and governmental bodies, the Centre also

commenced a study aimed at identifying the most

appropriate building integrated photovoltaic products,

potential market size and product characteristics

required to reach cost-effectiveness in various markets.

Other Highlights

The Centre had its major triennial review in March

with a very positive outcome, with the Review

Committee commenting extremely favourably on

virtually every aspect of the Centre’s operations. The

Committee was particularly impressed by the

competence and enthusiasm of students and researchers

affiliated with the Centre. The Committee made special

mention of the number and quality of female students

and researchers involved in a traditionally male-

dominated engineering field and the overall cohesion

and focus of Centre activities.

As a result of this very positive review, the

Centre’s funding under the Australian Research Council’s

Special Research Centres Scheme has been approved for

the 1997-1999 triennium, after which the Centre will

continue to operate independently of this scheme.

Professor Martin A. Green,

Director.

DIR

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PROF. MARTIN GREEN

A/PROF. PAUL BASOREDR ALISTAIR SPROULA/PROF. STUART WENHAM

BULK DEVICES THIN FILM CELLS SYSTEMS

A/PROF. HUGH OUTHRED

The Photovoltaics Special Research Centre was

established at the University of New South Wales at the

end of 1990.

The founding sponsors were the Australian

Research Council, under its Special Research Centres

Scheme, and Pacific Power. The Special Research Centre

grant provides core facilities, infrastructure and seeding

funds for researchers affiliated with the Centre who are

eligible to apply for external grants for specific projects

falling within the Centre’s range of interest.

The Centre’s broad aims are to acceleratethe development of photovoltaics as a sustainableenergy source for large scale use and to strengthenAustralia’s already strong base in photovoltaicresearch, manufacturing and applications.

The Centre is organized around a three-stranded

research strategy shown diagrammatically in Figure 1.

The first strand of activity involves incremental

improvements to present bulk silicon technology, the

second is concerned with longer term research into thin

film technology and the third involves applications-

orientated systems research.

Centre Director is Professor Martin A. Green.

Associate Directors, Associate Professors Stuart R.

Wenham and Hugh R. Outhred, are responsible for bulk

device and systems research respectively with Associate

Director, Associate Professor Paul Basore and Dr. Alistair

B. Sproul responsible for the Centre’s thin film cell

program. Professor Basore has special responsibilities

for the multilayer thin film commercialization program

being conducted in conjunction with Pacific Solar, while

Dr. Sproul has responsibility for associated research

issues as well as for the Centre’s other thin-film

activities.

The detailed functional organization of the Centre

is shown in Figure 2. Each of the nearly 100 staff and

postgraduate students affiliated either full- or part-time

with the Centre are involved with one or more of the

sub-areas represented on this chart (a complete staff

listing is given in Appendix B). Sub-area managers are

responsible for the day-to-day operations of the units as

indicated.

The Centre administratively is located within the

School of Electrical Engineering. Academic staff within

the Centre are mostly affiliated either with the

Electronics or the Power Departments within the School.

The Centre Advisory Committee provides

independent expertise to advise the Director and senior

Centre staff on research directions and provides general

feedback on the Centre’s operations and plans. The

membership is drawn from major Centre sponsors, the

University and Unisearch. Associate membership is

drawn from local manufacturers, industry associations

and other major research groups. Membership is

reviewed periodically with present membership shown in

Appendix A. The Committee normally meets annually.

Figure 1: Research Strands

9

PHOTOVOLTAICSSPECIAL RESEARCH CENTREDIRECTOR: MARTIN GREEN

Associate Directors:Paul Basore, Hugh Outhred,

Stuart Wenham

ADVISORYCOMMITTEE

BUSINESS MANAGERDavid Jordan

BULKDEVICES

Stuart Wenham

CHARACTERIZATION

DEVICE SIMULATIONGernot Heiser

HIGH EFFICIENCYRESEARCH

Jianhua Zhao

LASERGROOVED CELLS

ChristianaHonsberg

THIN FILM CELLSAlistair Sproul

THIN FILMRESEARCH

COMMERCIALIZION

MULTILAYEREDCELLS

Paul Basore

BULK DEVICESDavid Jordan

LASER GROOVEDPILOT PLANT

ROOFTILEPROJECT

SOLAR CARARRAY

INVERTERTECHNOLOGY

SYSTEMSRESEARCH

Hugh Outhred

INSTITUTIONALISSUES

Muriel Watt

INTERCONNECTIONISSUES

John Kaye

RAPS &APPLICATIONSTed Spooner

LABORATORYOPERATIONSMark Silver

EXTERNAL RELATIONSDavid Roche

ADMINISTRATIVESUPPORT

Jenny Hansen

Figure 2:Functional organization of Centre

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SYSTEMDEMONSTRATIONRobert Largent

DESIGNASSISTANCEDIVISION

10

The Centre’s three major work areas are thePhotovoltaics Research Laboratory, the DeviceCharacterization Area and the Power ElectronicsLaboratory. Systems work is also undertaken atthe Little Bay Research Facility.

Photovoltaics Research Laboratory

The Centre boasts the largest and most

sophisticated bulk silicon solar cell research facility in

Australia and possibly internationally. Laboratory space

of 430 m2 is located on 4 floors of the School of

Electrical Engineering Building and is serviced with

filtered and conditioned air, appropriate cooling water,

processing gas, de-ionized water supply, chemical fume

cupboards and exhaust. There is an additional 474 m2

area immediately adjacent to the laboratories for the

accommodation of staff, research students and

laboratory support facilities. Off site, areas of 200 m2

are used for the storage of chemicals and equipment

spare parts.

The laboratory is furnished with a range of

processing and characterisation equipment including 37

diffusion furnaces, 5 vacuum deposition systems, 3 laser

scribing machines, ellipsometer, microwave carrier

lifetime system, rapid thermal annealer, four point

resistivity probe, quartz tube washer, silver, nickel and

copper plating units, infrared and visible wavelength

microscopes, 3 wafer mask aligners, spin on diffusion

system, automated photoresist dual track coater,

photoresist spinner and a laboratory system control and

data acquisition monitoring system.

Laboratory facilities are available for the growth

of silicon films on both silicon and foreign substrates.

Related services are also available through the Plasma

Processing and Department of Electronics laboratories

which are partly supported by the Centre. Additional

facilities available in the latter laboratories include ion

implantation, reactive ion etching, electron beam and

sputter deposition systems, wafer prober and bonders

and computer aided design for mask layout. Additional

equipment is available on the University campus, which

is commonly used for cell work. Included in this

category are electron microscopes, X-ray diffraction,

surface analysis and photoluminescence equipment.

A computer network of 43 PCs, 4 Macintosh, 1 Unix

workstation and 1 Unix computer server support the

device laboratory, simulation and Centre administrative

activities. Another 20 PCs are dedicated for the

computer control of laboratory equipment.

The device laboratories, Characterisation Area and

adjacent facilities operate 24 hours per day, 365 days

per year and are developed and maintained by the

Laboratory Development and Operations Team. The

Team, under the leadership of Laboratory Manager, Mark

Silver, is comprised of 8 full time and 13 part time

employees which include Electrical, Mechanical and

Industrial Design engineers and technicians, Physicist,

Computer and Network Manager and administrative

staff. In 1996 the team trained 8 new part time

members, mostly final year undergraduate engineering

students, to provide assistance with facilities support

for the production of cells for the 1996 World Solar

Challenge.

Photovoltaic Research Laboratory

Reception & Device Characterisation Laboratory

Silicon Thin Film Laboratory

Power Electrics Laboratory

Centre Office

Workshop and Accommodation

10m

Layout of the Centre within the ElectricalEngineering Building

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Device Characterization Area

Space in the basement of the Electrical

Engineering building was made available to the Centre

by the University in 1995. The space contains a

reception area, a seminar room, offices for Centre staff

interacting with the public and industry, including the

Business Manager, External Relations Manager and

Design Assistance Division Manager, computer

workstations for the device modelling activities of the

Centre, and the Device Characterization Area.

The Device Characterization Area houses

characterization equipment including “Dark Star”, the

Centre’s station for temperature controlled dark current-

voltage measurements, the Centre’s Fourier Transform

Infrared Spectroscopy system, photoconductance decay

equipment, infrared microscope and equipment for

spectral response measurement.

Power Electronics Laboratory

This 40 m2 laboratory is equipped with a range

of power supplies for heavy current testing of DC-DC

converters and inverters including a 60 V battery

bank for remote area power supply testing. A range

of test equipment is available including: high

frequency oscilloscopes; true RMS meters up to 2

MHz response; current probes up to 1000 A; Data

6000 waveform analyzer; and all the usual small

metering equipment. The laboratory also has a

number of microprocessor/microcontroller

development systems which include TMS 320C25,

8097 and 80C196 systems which are particularly

suited to power electronic applications. IBM-PC

compatibles provide analysis software and printed

circuit design and plotting systems. The laboratory

also has access to programming facilities for a large

range of programmable logic arrays.

Little Bay Facility

Little Bay is the site of the University’s Solar

Energy Research Facility. A 4 kilowatt commercial

photovoltaic array on an adjustable frame was installed

at this site in 1994. An additional array of 4 X 85 Watt

BP Solar “Saturn” modules, using the Centre’s buried

contact cell technology, was installed on a tracking

frame during 1996, with a further 1kW array of Canon

amorphous silicon solar cell panels due to be installed

at the end of the year.

The Centre occupies a section of the new building

at this location and is involved in both grid-connected

and stand-alone system experiments on site. This is

also proving to be an ideal location for testing, training

and certification activities in the photovoltaic systems

area.

1 km

LITTLEBAYFACILITY

PORTBOTANY

BAY STREETFACILITY

BOTANYBAY

KINGSFORD SMITHAIRPORT

KENSINGTON SITE

CBD

SYDNEY HARBOUR

SYDNEY

Location Map

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The challenge facing photovoltaics is toreduce solar cell device costs whilst increasingenergy conversion efficiency. To meet thischallenge, the Centre is embarking upon a cross-fertilizing matrix of research activities in the areasof devices and systems. The first strand of theseactivities is aimed at incremental improvements tothe present bulk silicon technology. This strandinvolves both improved solar cell devices and thedevelopment of module designs to get the best fromsuch improved devices. A second research strandis aimed at quantum improvements, particularlyin cost terms, through the development of thin filmtechnology. The first strand involves short tomedium term objectives, whilst the second hasmedium to longer term goals. The third strandinvolves photovoltaic systems research.

The bulk silicon cell research strand itself

incorporates two main areas of activity. One area

pushes at the leading edge of energy conversion

efficiency, with little regard for ultimate device cost.

The purpose is to identify, understand and overcome

present energy conversion efficiency limitations. The

second area seeks to incorporate new knowledge,

gained in the first area, into devices that are currently

commercially relevant. This first strand of research

builds on past achievements, particularly the

development of the highest ever efficiency silicon cells

and the development and commercialization of the

buried contact solar cell technology, now the most

successfully commercialized new solar cell technology

over the last 15 years.

The thin-film silicon research strand aims

ultimately at the goal of making photovoltaics cost

competitive with large-scale, non-renewable power

generation technology. Like the first, this second

strand incorporates two main areas of activity. One

area, technically the most difficult, is aimed at

producing high quality thin films of polycrystalline

silicon supported on inexpensive sub- or superstrates,

preferably a superstrate of glass. This work recognizes

the relatively high cost of bulk silicon substrates and

aims to replace them and the cost they represent. The

second area is aimed at developing devices for

fabrication into the thin films. This effort has

benefited significantly from the work undertaken in the

first strand of research on bulk devices.

A third strand of research is aimed at systems

development with the aim of promoting the

acceptability of photovoltaic devices by investigating

balance of systems (BOS) issues and of exploring ways

to improve the cost-effectiveness of photovoltaics in its

major applications. The most important applications

are considered to be remote area power supply (RAPS)

in the near term and grid-connected arrays in the

longer term, including urban residential systems.

Accordingly, the systems program includes activities in

the areas of Power System Interaction and Economics,

Remote Area Power Supply with associated Power

Processing and Institutional Issues.

The following sections present research reports

describing progress in implementing this research

strategy. The subdivision of material for each of these

reports reflects the functional organization of the

Centre as detailed in Figure 2.

13 DEV

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High Efficiency Silicon SolarCellsSenior Project Scientist: Dr. Jianhua Zhao (project

leader)

University Staff: Prof. Martin Green,

A/Prof. Stuart Wenham

Visiting Fellow: P. Altermatt

Researchers: Dr. A. Wang, Dr. Jianmin Xu,

G.C. Zhang, Fei Yun, Yinghui

Tang

Production Staff: Amal Khouri, Susan Ghaemi,

Seyed Ghozati, Hamid Reza

Mehruarz, Masoudeh Ahmadi-

Dexfouly, Jaffa Haji Babei,

Fengming Zhang, Zuliang Chen,

Ting Zhang, Ji Shi, Jinning Yuan,

Samad Alipour, Hanwu Hu,

Junhu Du, Ebrahim Abbaspour-

Sani, Bo Chen

Graduate Students: Mark Keevers (PhD)

The major objective in 1996 for the high

efficiency group was to fabricate a large quantity of

large area PERL cells, as shown in Figure 3, for the 1996

World Solar Challenge (WSC) solar car race. The 24.0%

efficiency small area research PERL cells were re-

designed into 22 cm2 large area cells. A long and

narrow cell layout of 6.2 x 3.8 cm2 was chosen to allow

shorter and narrower grid lines, as shown in Figure 4.

This design allows two cells to be produced from one

100 mm diameter wafer. Figure 5: ‘Brickwork’ shingling arrangement.

Figure 6: The busbar of a shingled cell is isolatedby a thick layer of SiO2.

n+ n

p-silicon

thin oxide (~200 ≈)

oxiderear contact

finger “inverted” pyramids

p+p+

p+

double layerantireflectioncoating

Figure 3: Passivated Emitter, Rear Locally-diffused(PERL) cell with double layer antireflection coating.

Figure 4: Front metal layout of 21.6cm2 (designatedillumination area) PERL cell.

The cells were designed for use in brickwork

shingled arrays as shown in Figure 5. This completely

eliminated the metal busbar shading and resistance

loss. The busbar was designed on thick oxide as shown

in Figure 6. This reduced the busbar contribution to the

cell saturation current density. This design also

considerably reduced the edge recombination loss and

finger resistance loss.

finger busbar

n+ emitter

p-Si

2

p+

rear metal

SiO

14

Some new equipment was installed to reduce the

bottlenecks for the production. Some of the old

equipment was also modified to handle the high

throughput required. New processing personnel were

trained for this production. Two work shifts were used

throughout production. A production throughput of

1,000 cells per week (500 wafers per week) was

maintained for most of production, which is equivalent

to about one car’s array of cells per month.

Almost 20,000 PERL cells were fabricated in 1996,

with cell efficiency ranging up to 24%. Figure 7 shows

the cell efficiency distributions after each month of

production. The earlier months show a reasonably wide

distribution, owing to the inexperience of the newly

trained processing personnel and some other minor

problems associated with high throughput production.

Nevertheless, most cells made during these months had

efficiencies of >22%, which is higher than for any cell

previously available in commercial quantities. The

distributions for July and August show that, after

accumulating sufficient production experience, the

overall cell performance improved to give >60% of cells

with efficiencies >23%.

The energy conversion efficiency of a typical cell

fabricated late in the production process was measured

as 23.7% at Sandia National Laboratories under

standard test conditions (1 kWm-2, AM1.5G spectrum, at

25ºC). This was the highest efficiency ever reported for

a scribed silicon cell. A one-square-foot flat-plate

module made from 40 such cells fabricated early in the

production process and having an average efficiency of

just over 23%, has demonstrated a record efficiency of

22.7%. This is the highest efficiency ever reported for

a large area photovoltaic module made on any material.

A stock of cells with higher performance is expected to

produce another module with efficiency over 23% in the

near future.

Honda’s Dream and Aisin Seiki’s Aisol III were two

vehicles using these PERL cells, and were placed first

and third, respectively, in the 1996 WSC. Honda also

set a new record for the race by reaching Adelaide in

four days with an impressive average speed of 89.76

km/h over the 3010 km course. Aurora Vehicle

Association’s Aurora 101 was the third vehicle using the

PERL cells and was also highly regarded before the WSC

race. Unfortunately, it was forced to withdraw at 4th

place from the race due to mechanical failures, although

it had demonstrated a very high speed at the

beginning of the race.

After the 1996 WSC, the high efficiency

group returned to its normal research programs.

Two new areas have been investigated: PERL

cells on Cz and poly-crystalline silicon

substrates. The PERL cells on Cz substrates had

low performances of around 19-20% efficiency.

However, the preliminary experiments of PERL

cells on poly-silicon substrates have

demonstrated a record high open-circuit

voltage of 645 mV and a near record efficiency

of 18.1% as tested at Sandia National

Laboratories. This performance is expected to

improve to over 19% with further experiments.

FebruaryMarch

AprilMay

JuneJuly

August

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

freq

uenc

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efficiency (%)

month

21.0

22.6

22.4

22.220

.4

22.0

21.6

21.4

21.2

23.6

23.8

23.4

23.2

23.0

22.821

.820.8

20.6

20.2

20.0

24.0

Figure 7: Distribution of PERL cell efficiencies after eachmonth of production.

15

Theory and Thin Film SolarCellsUniversity Staff: Prof. Martin Green, A/Prof.

Stuart Wenham, A/Prof. Paul

Basore, Dr. Gernot Heiser,

Research Fellow: Pietro Altermatt

Postdoctoral Fellows: Dr. Alistair Sproul (project

leader), Dr. Stephen Robinson,

Dr. Patrick Campbell

Graduate Students: Matthew Boreland, Donald

Clugston, Sean Edmiston, Susie

Ghaemi, Mark Keevers, Linda

Koschier, Andreas Stephens,

David Thorp, (all PhD), Kazuo

Omaki, Om Kumar Harsh

(Masters)

Research Assistants: Andreas Lambertz,

Volker Henninger

Visiting Students: Frank Geelhaar (PhD), Axel

Neisser (Diplomarbeit)

The main work over the past year has been in the

areas of

1) Numerical Modelling of silicon solar cells

2) Characterisation of devices and material

3) Thin silicon solar cell device fabrication

4) Growth of thin film layers

A major infrastructure development during 1996

was the consolidation of characterisation equipment in

the Characterisation Area located in the basement of

the Electrical Engineering building. The equipment now

fully operational in this area includes : I-V test station,

Cary-5 Spectrophotometer (UV-VIS-NIR), Spectral

response system, Zero Field Time of Flight,

Photoconductance decay, FT-IR. The Characterisation

Area provides staff and students with a major research

facility allowing the characterisation of optical and

electronic properties of semiconductor materials and

devices. Particular emphasis is on the characterisation

of thin film polycrystalline silicon, in addition to

characterisation of conventional wafer based silicon

technologies. Additionally, a large amount of external,

contracted characterisation work is undertaken. In

particular, many of the staff within the Centre work with

Pacific Solar in the area of characterisation and

modelling of thin polycrystalline silicon solar cells.

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Additional facilities that are used by the Theory

and Thin Film group include a wide range of Electron

Microscope techniques (Scanning and Transmission

Electron Microscopy) and other surface analysis

techniques which are available either at UNSW or at

other institutions. In particular the Electron Beam

Induced Current (EBIC) mode of the SEM has proved to

be an invaluable tool for diagnosing solar cell materials

and devices. X ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)

(located within the School of Chemistry) has been

useful for the chemical analysis of thin dielectric layers

such as Si3N4. For samples requiring chemical analysis

at the parts per million level, use has been made of the

Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometer located at the

Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation

(ANSTO) at Lucas Heights.

NUMERICAL MODELLING OF SILICON SOLARCELLS

Over the past few years, significant effort has

been invested in the area of numerical modelling of

silicon solar cells within the Centre. This recognises the

importance that numerical simulation has to play in

guiding research into improving existing and developing

new device structures.

PC1D for Windows: PC1D is a valuable modelling

program which allows the simulation of a wide range of

semiconductor devices with a one-dimensional

structure. Assoc. Professor Paul Basore, who joined the

Centre in late 1995, developed the program over a

number of years. A very valuable area of work during

1996 has been the completion of the conversion of

PC1D to operate under a Windows environment. The

program now features greater capacity and improved

convergence compared to the previous MS-DOS version,

as well as a vastly improved and more convenient user

interface. It is already being used by over 50 research

institutions world-wide.

As heavily-doped thin film devices become

increasingly important for photovoltaic research,

additional physical effects must be considered. Two

such effects were investigated in 1996 and incorporated

into PC1D for Windows, so that the simulations can be

used in the analysis and design of these new types of

cells. The effects included are free carrier absorption

and field enhanced recombination, both of which

become increasingly important for the accurate

modelling of heavily doped solar cells.

16

Multilayer Cell Modelling: Detailed analytical models

of the multilayer structure have been completed during

1996. The model combines both analytical and

numerical models to develop an improved understanding

of this device structure. Importantly for the modelling

of multilayer cells the model includes a more accurate

description of recombination within junction depletion

regions. This analytical model has been closely

compared with a complete numerical simulation using

DESSIS and found to be highly accurate. Utilising the

analytical model, it is possible to rapidly explore

different device configurations by varying parameters

such as layer thickness and doping level and predicting

efficiencies as a function of the material properties (for

example bulk lifetime, surface recombination, and light

trapping effectiveness). This has allowed optimum

device configurations for multilayer cells to be

determined.

Rear floating junction (PERF) cells: Investigations of

the surface passivation effects of rear floating junctions

have been completed. Based on cells made by Ximing

Dai and with the help of a simulation approach of

Gernot Heiser, the cause of specific shoulders that are

observed in the I-V curve of such cells were explained.

This led to a detailed understanding of the internal

operation of these cells and we are confident of

manipulating these efficiency reducing shoulders in

double sided buried contact cells. From this work it

follows that the rear oxidised surface can be regarded as

a field-induced floating junction.

LIGHT TRAPPING

Significant work has continued in the area of light

trapping due to it’s importance in the area of thin

silicon solar cells. Following on from promising

theoretical studies of geometric textures, work began in

1996 to experimentally implement some of these

structures using glass substrates. The texture is formed

in the glass, before deposition of the film, by

embossing between the annealing and softening points

of the glass substrate. For best light trapping, the

topography of the front and rear surfaces of the silicon

film needs to be conformal. Hence, the film thickness

must be well under half the texture periodicity. A

texture period of 10-20 microns is aimed for, assuming

a film 5 microns thick, given that the best light

trapping is achieved with a minimum period. A

hydraulic press has been developed and nearly

constructed, with the help of Damian Muzi. The press

includes temperature controlled heating and a system

for isolating the heated pressing tool/glass system in

an inert atmosphere to control the chemistry of the

glass and patterning tool surfaces. The most

demanding task has been to develop a way to

accurately form the texture on the patterning tool. The

most promising method found is by angled etching in a

reactive plasma. This work is continuing into 1997. In

order to measure the effectiveness of different light

trapping schemes, significant use has been made of the

UV-VIS-NIR spectrophotometer.

SHUNT LOCATION

For multilayer cells one potential problem is that

the cell is more susceptible to shunting effects due to

the increased number of junctions. That is, “ohmic”

conduction paths across the p-n junctions could be

introduced during device manufacture, particularly at

grain boundaries. At present there is a wide range of

techniques for diagnosing shunts in polycrystalline solar

cells. Many methods are presently used, based on the

idea that when a shunted cell is reverse biased, the

current that flows crowds through the shunt, heating

the local area. Thermal methods are then used to

locate the position of the shunt using such techniques

as IR imaging or other thermal detection techniques.

However, in order to study such problems in fine grain

polycrystalline silicon we have developed a technique

which has greatly improved resolution in comparison to

other methods. Instead of looking at the thermal

gradients developed in a reverse biased cell, the new

method uses an Atomic Force Microscope to detect

gradients in the electric field due to the current

crowding to accurately locate the shunt with sub micron

resolution. Some initial experiments have been

undertaken using a device which has been deliberately

shunted with ~ 10 X 10 µm squares of Al which have

been driven through a p-n junction fabricated on a

single crystal wafer. The results are shown in Figure 8.

The potential drop into the Al square is clearly visible

and shows that this approach has excellent resolution

capabilities. The Centre and a consortium of users in

conjunction with the UNSW Electron Microscope Unit

have funds allocated to purchase an AFM in early 1997.

This system will significantly enhance the surface

analysis capabilities available to the Centre.

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Figure 8: Topographic (left) and surface potentialimage (right) of a deliberately shunted single crystalp-n junction device. (Image courtesy of KevinKjoller, Digital Instruments).

THIN FILMS

Devices: In conjunction with the theoretical work

being carried out in the area of grain boundary

recombination, methods have been developed for

assessing the strength of recombination in thin silicon

layers. Multilayer devices have been fabricated by

depositing alternating layers of p and n silicon onto

large grained polycrystalline substrates using high

temperature epitaxy. Shown in Figure 9 is an EBIC

image of a 5 layer multijunction device fabricated in

this way. The sample has been cleaved and is viewed at

about a 45 degree angle to the top surface. In an EBIC

image, regions with a low recombination rates appear

lighter, while high recombination regions appear darker.

From the figure, the high collection probability of the

junction regions are evidenced by the horizontal white

bands. The dark line across the device is a grain

boundary which shows significant recombination

activity. Interestingly the edge on view shows

that the grain boundary recombination at internal

regions of the device is limited, due to the good

collection probability of the multijunction design,

as predicted theoretically. Additionally this work

has led to the refinement of the EBIC technique

for imaging devices with grains of the order of

microns. By utilising lower energy probe beams

(i.e., less than 10 keV) it is possible to

dramatically improve the resolution of the

technique for examining thin polycrystalline

silicon layers.

Silicon layer growth: Projects in the growth area

have been predominantly in the area of Liquid Phase

Epitaxy growth and Laser Crystallisation of silicon films.

crystallised sample. The sample has been defect etched

to expose the grain boundaries and hence allow the

determination of the grain size of the material. To date

this technique has been capable of producing grains

with a maximum dimension of approximately 0.5

micron. Further work is aimed at increasing this grain

size and at fabricating solar cells using such material.

Figure 9 : Electron Beam Induced Current (EBIC)image of a 5 layer multijunction cell grown on apolycrystalline silicon substrate. (Image courtesy ofDr Tom Puzzer).

A promising technique for the formation of thin

polycrystalline silicon films is via laser crystallisation of

amorphous silicon films deposited on glass substrates.

This project has been initiated in conjunction with Prof

Jim Piper at Macquarie University. The laser facilities at

Macquarie Uni have allowed the demonstration of the

feasibility of copper vapour lasers (CVL) for

crystallisation work. Shown in Figure 10 is a Field

Emission Secondary Electron image of a laser

Figure 10: FESEM image of a laser crystallisedamorphous silicon sample. (Image courtesy ofMatt Boreland).

18

Figure 11: (b) Double-sided BC solar cell usingfloating junction for rear surface passivation.

Figure 11: (a) New simplified BC solar cell usingtitanium dioxide as a front surface coating.

Buried Contact Solar CellsUniversity Staff: Prof. Martin Green, Dr.

Christiana Honsberg (ProjectLeader), A/Prof. StuartWenham

Researcher: Ximing Dai, Ting Zhang (fromOct.), Hamid Rezah Mehrvarz(from Oct.), Ying Hing Tang,Sean Edmiston (from May),Alan Fung, Amal Khouri (fromOct.), Keith MacIntosh (fromOct.)

Graduate Students: Fei Yun (PhD), Seyed Ghozati(PhD), Linda Koschier (PhD),Marc Molitor (equivalentMasters), Bernard Vogl(Masters)

Undergraduate Students: Anthony Poon, Wai Man Choi,Goran Ronanic, Alex Ho,Mathew Woods

The overall aim of the buried contact group is to

develop new solar cell structures and processing

sequences based on the buried contact (BC) technology

which provide increases in solar cell efficiency and

reductions in the cost of photovoltaics. Work in 1996

focused in two key areas:

(1) The development of a simplified processing

sequence for buried contact solar cells. The new

processing sequence uses titanium dioxide,

already used in commercial solar cell production,

in a novel way to simplify the previous buried

contact process. The new processing sequence

has essentially identical efficiencies to present

Generation I BC solar cells already licensed and in

production, but the costs are significantly reduced

and the processing sequence is similar to a screen

printed processing sequence. The new solar cell

structure is shown in Figure 11 (a).

(2) Development of higher efficiency buried contact

solar cells by improving the rear surface

passivation. The double-sided buried contact

solar cell uses floating junction passivation, thus

allowing higher open-circuit voltages and higher

efficiency. Work in 1996 focused on measuring

and eliminating parasitic shunt resistance in

floating junction passivation to allow the double-

sided BC solar cell structure to reach its full

potential.

plated metal(buried contact)

p-type

oxide

p+

metal

TiO2

n+

plated metalp-type

oxide

n++n+

oxide

p+

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SIMPLIFIED BURIED CONTACT SOLAR CELLSTRUCTURE

The Generation I buried contact technology

developed at the Photovoltaics Special Research Centre

has become the most successfully commercialized new

solar cell structure in the last decade, with over 2MW of

cells produced and 8 licensees, including many of the

world’s largest manufacturers. Although costing from

these licensees indicates that the buried contact cells

have a similar $/W cost and higher efficiency, one

potential problem in moving from a screen printed

process to the buried contact process is the significant

difference between the two processing sequences,

which requires both modifications to a production line

and new equipment. Consequently, a new simplified

process is under development which maintains the same

efficiency as the successful Generation I structure but

has a processing sequence similar to that of commercial

screen printed solar cells. A comparison of the new

processing sequence and the commercial processing

sequence is shown in Table 1.

Screen printed cells Simplified BC Process

--------------- Groove formation

Clean/Etch/Texture Clean/Etch/Texture

Emitter diffusion Emitter & groove diffusion

Rear metal/fire Rear metal/fire

Front metal/fire ---------------

AR coating AR coating

--------------- Electroless metal plating

Edge isolation Edge isolation

A key feature of the new processing sequence is the use

of titanium dioxide (TiO2) as a partial replacement for

the oxide on the top surface of the solar cell. TiO2 on

the top surface allows greater flexibility in the

processing sequence since the thickness of the front

surface oxide does not need to be precisely specified

and also because it does not need to be significantly

thicker than the oxide in the groove. Work in 1996 has

focused on developing and optimizing the masking

capabilities of the TiO2 layer. Plating results show that

even without any oxide under the TiO2, wafers still plate

uniformly and completely. Importantly, the metal

plating in this process initiates at the bottom of the

grooves rather than at the top, introducing the

potential for reduced reflection, more controlled metal

plating and lower saturation currents from the groove

region. A photograph of the plating in a wafer with the

surface covered by TiO2 is shown at various stages in

Figures 12(a) and 12(b). In addition to the successful

plating, other results have shown that a thin oxide-

covered surface covered by TiO2 (such as that which will

be on the surfaces of the simplified buried contact

cells) still provides good surface passivation. Devices

with thin oxides covered with TiO2 reached voltages of

655 mV, representing a good voltage on relatively thin

wafers (250 (µm) and an aluminum-sintered rear

surface.

Table 1: Comparison of the processing sequence forconventional screen printed solar cells and the newsimplified buried contact processing sequence.

Figure 12: SEM photographs of two differentgroove geometries showing plating intiiatingat the bottom of the groove. (a) Deep groovewith metal plating filling the bottom of thegroove but not covering the surface. (b)shallower groove in early stages of plating.

(a)

(b)

DOUBLE-SIDED BURIED CONTACT SOLARCELLS

The key aim in the double-sided BC solar cell work

is to improve the rear surface passivation by using a

floating junction. 1996 provided a number of key

successes in regards to the all-important rear surface

passivation of the devices as well as the collection

efficiency. Briefly, these successes include:

• Developing techniques to achieve good rear

surface passivation using a floating junction, with

high Voc and simultaneously achieving high FFs,

culminating in demonstration of highest measured

Voc (720 mV) on a silicon solar cell.

• Hybrid buried contact solar cell structures with

voltages in excess of 695 mV.

• Applying techniques to a double sided cell

structure, and measuring efficiencies of 19% and

demonstration of good rear surface passivation (Voc

= 670 mV and FF = 80%).

• Demonstrating high rear collection efficiencies

(achieving the same as model predictions).

• Development of techniques to measure the effect

of the shunt resistance of an un-contacted rear

layer.

Floating junction

passivation used in the

double-sided BC solar cell

shown in Figure 11(b) has

been shown to passivate the

rear surface better than oxide

passivation. However, in order

to achieve such good

passivation, the effect of a

shunt between the rear

floating layer and the rear

contact needs to be

minimised. Modelling work in

1996 indicates that there are

two methods by which the effects of the parasitic rear

shunt can be eliminated. The first way is to increase

the sheet resistance in the rear floating junction layer.

The higher sheet resistance causes a larger voltage drop

across the floating layer, effectively isolating the

shunted region from the remainder

of the floating junction. Using

these techniques, floating junction passivation has

shown exceptionally high voltages up to 720 mV, which

is the highest open circuit voltage ever for a silicon

solar cell. These devices simultaneously have high fill

factors (FFs) of greater than 80%, a key feature since, if

the shunting mechanism is active, it will degrade the FF

in high Voc devices. Increasing the rear sheet resistivity

in buried contact hybrid structures has also yielded high

open circuit voltages in excess of 695 mV, again with

FFs in excess of 80%. These hybrid structures also allow

an ideal mechanism for comparing different types of

rear surface passivation methods, and indicate that the

floating junction does out-perform oxide passivation.

Moreover, these techniques have also been applied to

the conventional double-sided buried contact solar cell,

and voltages in excess of 670mV with FFs in excess of

80% have also been achieved. The absence of a shunt

resistance can be demonstrated using EBIC (electron-

beam induced current) scans of the rear surface with

and without light bias. In the presence of a parasitic

shunt, the rear surface of the device displays severe

non-uniformities, centered around the rear grid, while a

device with a well-passivated rear shows a uniform EBIC

scan. Figure 13 compares the EBIC scans of previous

devices, with the parasitic shunt active, with the new

devices which have minimized the effect of the shunt.

Figure 13: (a) EBIC scan of a double-sided BC solarcell without minimisation of the parasitic rearshunt. (b) Double-sided BC solar cell using lighterdoping in the rear floating junction to minimise theeffect of the shunt. In both (a) and (b) thered/purple areas indicate high current collection, thegreen/yellow moderate current collection and theblue areas low current collection. The lines whichcan be seen in both (a) and (b) are the rear gridpattern.

(a) (b)

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such as roof tiles, thereby reducing the mounting costs.

Previously it has not been possible to combine

concentration with building mounting, as the

concentrators need to track the sun or are too bulky.

Recently the Centre has devised a roof tile that uses a

new slim-line static concentrator design that obtains the

cost benefits from concentration whilst being thin enough

to fit within the dimensions of an ordinary roof tile.

As shown in Figure 14, only one quarter of the

module is covered with solar cells, the other three-

quarters consist of non-imaging refractive concentrating

lenses to focus light onto the cells. Despite the factor

of four reduction in the number of cells required, the

output power from the array is only 15% lower. The

potential for significant cost reduction in the electricity

generated therefore exists. The high level of

performance is achieved by using bifacial solar cells

developed at the Centre, which are able to convert light

incident on either surface in combination with

optimised optical design, achieved by extensive

computer modelling. The computer modelling has

shown that the photovoltaic roof tiles, unlike tracking

concentrators, are able to concentrate light from a wide

range of angles. Thus, the photovoltaic roof tile is able

to operate in cloudy climates with a high degree of

diffuse radiation, where traditional tracking

concentrator designs would be unsuitable. Extensive

computer design work has enabled an increase in

concentration from 2.7:1 to 3.5:1 with only a small

reduction in the percentage of light reaching the solar

cells. While further computer simulations are being

pursued, it is not expected that the concentration ratio

will be significantly increased. These models have been

used to develop “proof-of-concept” prototypes which

have confirmed the computer simulations. Research

into manufacturing techniques for the production model

of the tile is proceeding.

The second technique for minimizing the effect of

the parasitic shunt resistance is especially suited to

bifacial solar cells for use in static concentrators.

Modelling indicates that the power dissipated by the

parasitic rear shunt falls as rear illumination increases.

Modelling results using a two-dimensional simulator

DESSIS show that at 3X concentration (at which the

bifacial solar cells in a static concentrator would be

operated), the power lost in the shunt resistance is not

the efficiency limiting loss mechanism.

Experimental techniques verify the above modelling

results to show that the effect of the shunt is minimal

even under one sun operation. Bifacial solar cells need

high collection efficiency when measured from the rear

of the device. Modelling indicates that, for the substrate

resistivities presently used, this ratio can be up to 88%.

Measured values of the rear Jsc/front Jsc are at 86%,

indicating a close match between measured and

modelled current collection from the rear of these devices.

While the high open circuit voltages, FFs and rear-

illuminated short circuit currents measured from

experimental devices indicate that the effect of the

shunt has been reduced, a more accurate method of

measuring the shunt resistance must also be developed

to allow comparisons between device structures and to

allow optimization. Such a technique has been

developed in 1996, based on measuring the solar cell at

a variety of illumination levels from the front and rear

of the solar cell. For the first time, this allows a

numerical indication of the value of the shunt

resistance in the solar cell.

Roof Tile ProjectUniversity Staff: Michael Dickenson, Prof. Martin

Green, A/Prof. Stuart Wenham

Unisearch Staff: David Jordan

Project Staff: Robert Largent (project leader),Fabio Barone, Nicholas Shaw,Sergei Varlamov

Graduate Students: David Wang

The cost of current commercial solar modules is

dominated by the solar cells, with the cost of the

starting wafers comprising over 40% of the total

module cost. By concentrating light onto the solar

cells, fewer wafers are used, giving the potential for

cost reduction in the power produced. Another method

for achieving large cost reductions is to mount the

photovoltaic cells directly into building components

Figure 14: Principles of the slim-line staticlight concentrating module.

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Power System Interaction andEconomicsUniversity Staff: Dr. John Kaye, A/Prof. Hugh

Outhred, Ted Spooner

Project Staff: Dr. Muriel Watt

Graduate Students: Dean Travers (PhD), IainMacGill (PhD), Dorothy Remmer(PhD)

Visiting Adviser: Prof. Bent Sørensen (Universityof Roskilde, Denmark)

Interaction with Large Thermal Generators

This project examines the interaction between

fluctuations in energy available from photovoltaic

generators and the operational constraints of large

generators. Initially the emphasis has been on ramp

rate constraints which are typical of large coal fired

generators. A new approach to characterising the

economic dispatch of generators with ramping

constraints and costs has been developed and is being

tested. It is intended that various stochastic models of

fluctuations in photovoltaic energy availability will be

examined using this software. The objective will then

be to characterise those attributes of the random

fluctuations in photovoltaic energy availability which

are important to power systems operations.

A new general algorithm, Constructive Dynamic

Programming, has now been developed and tested. In

initial studies we have been able to examine costs and

constraints imposed by ramp rates in the presence of

significant quantities of photovoltaic energy. A more

complete study is now under way.

Distributed Effects

This project examines the impacts of significant

quantities of grid-connected, distributed photovoltaic

generation, such as would result from the utilisation of

a large proportion of roof spaces in a given distribution

area. Early analysis indicated that energy storage and

other distributed sources of electrical energy would

significantly impact the value and operation of such

photovoltaic systems.

In addition to explicit storage such as grid-

connected batteries, other forms of inter-temporal

shifting of energy, such as implicit storage in end-use

applications would be important. In this project, we

are developing tools to assess the impacts of

distributed generation on the design of distribution

systems, the design requirements of the communication

and computer systems to support distributed operation,

and the operations of controllable elements, such as

storage. We have developed a genetic algorithm to

optimise the operation of distributed storage. Initial

results indicate that this approach is particularly suited

to this application and will lead to practical operating

schedules.

Australian Solar High Schools Project

The objectives of this project are to familiarise the

decision makers of the future with the use of

photovoltaics as an important energy option and to

enhance educational opportunities. Secondary

objectives include the collection of research data and

the promotion of engineering as a career. As a first

step, a PV power station has been installed at Fort

Street High School in Petersham in co-operation with

energyAustralia. Other installations are planned. Each

power station installation will consist of a roof-top PV

panel, an inverter which interfaces it to the grid and a

data logger which is networked to the school’s

computer system and to an on-line display, showing the

current generation level and the accumulated energy

generation.

A “virtual power station” concept is also being

developed whereby schools without a power station

installation can have access to data from Little Bay via

the World-Wide Web.

Educational materials are now being developed to

integrate information on the PV power stations into a

wide range of curriculum areas including science,

mathematics, computer studies, geography, engineering

and design studies.

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Supply Options for New and RemoteConsumers

This new project examines the problems

associated with choosing energy supply options for new

and remote consumers. In particular, it aims to develop

a methodology that properly accounts for risk in

choosing between various technologies, such as

reticulated supply and PV-based remote area power

supply systems. Uncertainty in long term demand for

energy and in future costs will play an important role in

altering the balance between these types of

technologies and it is the objective of this project to

use rigorous decision analysis techniques to facilitate

optimal decisions.

SITE SELECTION AND EVALUATION FOR

ROOFTOP PHOTOVOLTAIC GENERATION

University Staff: John Kaye

Energy Australia: Phil McKee

Students: Rachel O’Brien, Nicole Ghiotto

In this joint project with energyAustralia, we have

developed and tested a sampling methodology for

studying the site-specific values of roof top renewable

energy systems. The initial emphasis has been on

residential PV. The approach is to randomly select a

small number of sites within the area under study and

to assess the value of each of these as a potential

generator location. We have looked at several

determinants of value, including roof geometry (slope,

orientation and size), solar geometry (impacts of

overshadowing from proximate objects such as trees and

other houses) and the effect of local generation on

reducing losses in the 415 V distribution feeder. From

these data, we have been able to impute statistical

distributions of value for the entire area. These curves

can be used for siting demonstration projects for

highest value and for assessing the total renewable

energy potential of an area. Initial survey results for

Randwick have demonstrated dramatic variations in site

values, thus suggesting that selection is a sensitive

activity.

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INVESTIGATION OF UTILITY INTERCONNECTED

POWER SYSTEMS ISSUES

University Staff: Prof. Ian Morrison

Graduate Student: Dave Gilbert (PhD)

Interconnection issues relating to utility

connected dispersed energy systems have been gaining

an increasing amount of attention in recent years, with

the evolving competitive electricity industry showing

keen interest in local generation from renewables and

other small scale options. The object of this research

was twofold; to clarify expected problems due to grid

connected residential PV systems and to establish

countermeasures for these problems.

Operational, control and protection problems

which may occur due to the introduction of these new

types of sources were identified and their unique

characteristics examined. This information was used to

develop a range of useful countermeasures which can be

easily tested, without the need to place personnel or

expensive equipment at risk. These include: a novel

linear real-time causal digital filtering technique, which

eliminates both magnitude and phase delays on the

output; a new type of fault detection, based on the use

of a multitude of non-linear L-filters (order statistical

filters); and incorporation of an adaptive protective

relaying methodology into models of grid connected

renewable energy sources, to provide improved relay

selectivity and sensitivity, thereby reducing the

potential of a fire or electrical safety hazards.

This work has been taken into account during the

recent development of renewable energy

interconnection procedures and guidelines, which will

eventually form the basis of uniform Australian

standards.

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Remote Area Power Supply(RAPS) and Grid ConnectedSystemsUniversity Staff: A/Prof. Hugh Outhred, Dr. John

Kaye Ted Spooner, Dr. KevanDaly,

Project Staff: Rob Largent, Dr Muriel Watt

Little Bay

Little Bay solar energy research facility

(approximately 10 minutes drive from the main

University campus) has been operating a grid connected

PV system for over two years. The initial installation at

the facility included a 3.8 kW array, battery systems and

inverter connected to the local grid. Currently the

systems at Little Bay are being re-structured and

expanded. A further 1kW array has been installed and is

now grid connected. The existing 3.8 kW array is being

re-connected to allow flexible series / parallelling for

testing of system components. A new 2.5 kW inverter is

now connected to 1/2 of the 3.8 kW array and is grid

connected without batteries, thus allowing maximum

power point tracking of the array.

The testing facilities are expanding. A high

quality Voltec PM3000A harmonic analyser has been

added and extensive harmonic testing of inverter

equipment was carried out during 1996 under a research

contract for AESIRB. A high speed data acquisition

system was also commissioned for protection testing of

grid connected inverters.

The longer term objective is to make Little Bay a

comprehensive test site for RAPS and grid connected

systems and their component parts.

RAPS Workshop

During 1996 a workshop was prepared and

presented to industry on design of Remote Area

Power Supply Systems and a survey of system

components carried out.

Display Systems

EnergyAustralia installed a number of

demonstration PV systems and the Centre

designed and constructed electronic display

panels showing power output and accumulated energy

for these systems.

Protection / Grid Interconnection Issues

A major breakthrough was achieved in the drafting

of national grid connection guidelines for inverter

equipment that simplify and standardise the connection

procedure for inverter - grid connected renewable

energy systems in Australia. The guidelines have been

drafted by Mr Ted Spooner through a committee process

under the auspices of the Electricity Supply Association

of Australia (ESAA). The guidelines will shortly be

released for industry comment through (ESAA).

Institutional IssuesUniversity Staff: Dr. John Kaye

Project Staff: Dr. Muriel Watt, Iain MacGill,Dean Travers, Mark Ellis

ENERGY ISSUES FOR LOCAL GOVERNMENT

A study was undertaken of the legal and administrative

involvement of

local government

associations (LGAs)

in the installation

of RAPS and other

renewable energy

systems around

Australia, with the

aim of identifying

impediments and

developing

supportive

strategies. The

study was funded

25

by the Commonwealth Government Department of

Primary Industries and Energy.

The study involved:

* a survey of all local governments in Australia

* analysis of local government legislation

* analysis of electricity distribution legislation

* case studies involving RAPS customers and local

government

* a review of selected local government

development and planning controls.

The study found that the majority of LGAs are

largely unaware of the energy implications of their

policies and practices. Only 31% of those surveyed

have policies, controls or guidelines concerning RAPS,

Solar Water Heaters or Energy Efficiency. Very few LGAs

currently make energy related information available to

their residents. The majority of LGAs recognise that

they would benefit from further access to information

on energy related topics.

The study report recommended the following:

Local Government

* Local Government representation be required for

energy decision making.

* An energy information service be established for

local government.

* Energy policy guidelines, which could be

customised to suit individual LGAs, be developed.

* Local Governments, or regional groups, be assisted

in training Energy Officers.

* Local Governments be assisted in developing

targets and implementing strategies incorporating

renewable energy use for greenhouse gas

abatement.

State Government

* State Departments responsible for Local

Government appoint Energy Officers.

* Legislative changes be made to ensure that energy

supply provisions cannot be interpreted to

preclude RAPS systems or other renewable energy

sources.

Commonwealth Government

* Provide energy information and advisory services

to local government and extend the use of

initiatives such as NatHERS, the Renewable Energy

Promotion Program and the Energy Technology

Information Program.

* Provide support for the development of national

standards or codes of practice for energy efficient

housing, RAPS systems and other renewable

energy technologies.

The Centre is assisting local and state

governments with implementation of several of these

recommendations.

PV IN BUILDINGS

The use of photovoltaics as an integral part of the

building is one of the fastest growing PV markets in

Europe and the US. The reasons for this include

environmental, technical, architectural and social aims.

In Australia, despite a solar resource advantage,

there are a number of differences which impact on the

potential for integrating PV into buildings. These

include differences in latitude, and hence sun angle,

climate, electricity prices, network characteristics and

management, building load profiles and peak demand,

land availability, energy self sufficiency and energy

policies.

With funding from the State Energy Research &

Development Fund, Pacific Power and Pacific Solar, the

Centre is developing a methodology for identifying the

most appropriate building integrated PV products and

applications for different locations and building types.

The methodology involves assessment and ranking of

different PV in building products by their expected

performance in each of a number of markets, defined by

building types and climatic regions. Results will

presented in terms of energy output and energy value.

Calculations will be made of potential market size and

of PV product characteristics required to reach cost

effectiveness in the various markets.

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University CoursesLecturers: Prof. Martin. Green,

Dr. Christiana Honsberg,Dr. Rodica Ramerl

A/Prof. S.R. Wenham

The University of New South Wales offers a range

of undergraduate and postgraduate courses within

Electrical Engineering relating to Photovoltaics. In

1996 these subjects included Applied Photovoltaics

(ELEC4540) and Semiconductor Devices (ELEC4512) at

undergraduate level, and Advanced Semiconductor

Devices (ELEC9501), Solar Cells and Systems

(ELEC9507), Photovoltaics (ELEC9509) and Solar Energy

Conversion (ELEC9504) at postgraduate level. Official

enrolment figures for 1996 were 66, 25, 5, 13, 11 and

24 respectively. In 1998, the subject Solar Energy

Conversion (ELEC9504) will be offered as a General

Education subject for the rest of the University. Most of

the material will remain unchanged from the present

course, but with the addition of material of particular

interest to non-engineers, such as solar cars etc.

Another postgraduate subject: High Efficiency Silicon

Solar Cells (ELEC9508) is not offered every year but will

run in 1997.

In addition to the above elective subjects, the

new “Electronics III” subject will run in Session II of

1997 with approximately 200 students. In this subject,

undergraduate students will be given a basic

understanding of the semiconductor physics associated

with photovoltaic devices and introduced to basic

design principles. This subject is taken by most Year 3

Electrical Engineering undergraduate students. In

addition to the above formal course work, there are

currently over twenty postgraduate research students

working on Centre photovoltaic projects.

The 1996 recipients of the Photovoltaics

Awards were Nina Amisano, for the

undergraduate subject “Applied Photovoltaics”,

Aaron Johnson for the combined best

performance in the postgraduate subjects

“Solar Cells and Systems” and “Photovoltaics”

and Byron Kennedy for the best undergraduate

thesis in the photovoltaics area.

External RelationsManager: David Roche

The Centre has received much media attention

throughout 1996, resulting in a continuation of the

already considerable public interest in its activities.

A variety of approaches to meeting this public

demand have been used, including science programs,

media articles, courses, world-wide web information,

visitor tours, talks at field days and answering of

general enquires.

The Centre’s External Relations position underwent

a change in 1996, with the former External Relations

Manager Michelle Guelden leaving the Centre on

secondment to the Centre for Appropriate Technology in

Alice Springs. The position is now held by David Roche.

UNSW has joined the newly formed Australian

Cooperative Research Centre for Renewable Energy and

the PV Centre will be involved with the Generation,

Systems Integration and Education Programs. The PV

Centre’s facilities at Little Bay will provide the focus for

much of the cooperative work, including PV systems

research and training.

The running of the fourth World Solar Challenge in

October and November of 1996 provided the Centre with

a great opportunity to further promote its activities.

Many Centre staff travelled to Darwin and followed the

solar vehicles along the Stuart Highway to Adelaide.

Throughout the race, results were down-loaded remotely

to the Centre’s World Wide Web site, providing

thousands of people around the world with up-to-date

and accurate information on each vehicle’s progress.

This project led to an enormous increase in access to

the Centre’s World Wide Web site, increasing exposure of

the Centre and its activities.

27

The World Solar Challenge itself generated

substantial media interest in the Centre because of the

dominance of the Centre’s solar cell technology in the

race. Numerous articles in newspapers, magazines, and

on television and radio broadcasts referred to the Centre

as the cell supplier for several teams, particularly the

winning car, Honda’s ‘Dream’.

Prior to the 1996 World Solar Challenge, the

Centre was commissioned by Energy Promotions, the

race organisers, to produce the official technical report

for the event (Speed of Light: The 1996 World Solar

Challenge). This report provides a full account of the

race itself and detailed documentation of the

technology used by various teams. The report is

essential to the success of the World Solar Challenge in

achieving its two main aims: promoting renewable

energy and stimulating technological development.

Speed of Light will be available from March 1997

through the Centre.

The 1996 World SolarChallenge

The fourth World Solar Challenge commenced on

27 October 1996. Much of the Centre’s PV production

activity during the year related directly to this event.

In late 1995, the Centre commenced high volume

manufacture of its PERL (Passivated Emitter, Rear

Locally-diffused) solar cells for use by several of the

solar car teams. As detailed in the Device Research

Reports, this project was enormously successful, with a

total of almost 20,000 cells being produced, half of

which were over 23% efficient. The Centre was also a

major sponsor of the 1996 World Solar Challenge and

used the event to promote its activities by posting race

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Almost 50 teams from around the world gathered

in Darwin for the start of the 1996 World Solar

Challenge. This unique event pits backyard hobbyists

and high schools against universities and automotive

giants, in what the event organisers refer to as ‘brain

sport’. The 3000km course runs from Darwin to Adelaide

along the Stuart Highway, through the dry centre of the

Australian continent.

The rules of the World Solar Challenge are simple.

Prior to the race, vehicles are checked for road-

worthiness and to ensure they comply with the design

regulations. Single-seat vehicles are allowed a

maximum of eight square metres of the earth’s surface

with which to gather the sun’s energy; two-seat

vehicles are allowed twelve. Cars are also allowed to

carry a small battery to store some of this energy for

strategic use during the race. The entrants race

between 8 am and 5 pm, camping on the side of the

Stuart Highway at night, with the first car across the

finish line in Adelaide deemed to be the winner.

The entry list for the 1996 World Solar

Challenge included the reigning champions

Honda with their two-seat Dream. The other

potential race winning cars were the Swiss

sCHooler (a slightly modified Sprit of Biel III,

the second placed car in the 1993 race), Aisol

III from the Toyota company Aisin Seiki and

the Australian Aurora 101. Three of these top

four teams—Honda, Aisin Seiki and Aurora—

were using high efficiency PERL cells

manufactured by the Centre. In addition, two

teams were using laser grooved cells

manufactured by the Centre for the 1993 race:

Northern Territory University’s Desert Rose and the

University of New South Wales’ own student entry

Sunswift, adapted from the 1993 Aurora Q1.

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For the 1996 World Solar Challenge,

innovations came in the areas of motor design,

aerodynamics and battery technology. However,

the major reason for Honda’s increased average

speed compared to the 1993 race was their

improved solar cell efficiency. For a given area,

these cells generate 10% more power than those

used on Honda’s 1993 Dream and double the power

of conventional cells.

The official technical report for the 1996 World

Solar Challenge is to be published by the Centre in early

1997. As well as being a comprehensive account of the

race itself, this report documents the major

technological developments resulting from the World

Solar Challenge and is an essential reference work for

teams involved in solar car racing. (Copies of this

report, Speed of Light: The 1996 World Solar Challenge,

can be purchased directly from the Centre.)

Open DayOn the 7th September 1996, 30,000 people

flocked through the gates of UNSW to visit the “high

tech extravaganza” of UNSW Open Day. Held every

three years, Open Day is an opportunity for the Centre

to educate the public in our research activities and

introduce future students to the study of photovoltaics

in a non-intimidating, friendly fashion.

The Centre hosted a large interactive display with

broad ranging appeal. The display was organised by

Gordon Bates, Lawrence Soria and Mark Silver and

financially supported by our Open Day sponsors Pacific

Solar and SEIAA, the Solar Energy Industries Association

of Australia.

Soon after the starting gun sounded for the 1996

World Solar Challenge, Dream led the rest of the field

out of Darwin, closely followed by sCHooler, Aisol III

and Aurora 101. Just south of Darwin, however,

disaster struck the Aurora team. A brake failure and

subsequent electrical problems forced the team to stop

and eventually retire from the race. Dream continued

their impressive run to record a first day average speed

of 93 km/h, with sCHooler and Aisol in second and third

places, respectively. The positions of these three teams

remained unchanged throughout the race, and attention

shifted to whether Dream could better the record of the

1993 Honda team. Finishing late on the fourth day,

Dream set a new record of 33:32 hours for the 3010 km

course, giving them an average speed of almost 90

km/h. sCHooler and Aisol III arrived early on the fifth

day to take second and third places at average speeds

of 86 and 81 km/h, respectively. The remaining top ten

places were taken by Mitsubishi Materials, the

University of Queensland, Waseda University, NTU,

Simon, UNSW and Tokyo Salesian Polytechnic. Cells

manufactured by the Centre either during 1996 or 1993

were used by four of

these top ten

teams, including

those in first and

third place.

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Visitors were beaconed to the display area by the

carnival sound of solar powered music. Throughout the

day over 800 cups of orange juice gushed from the solar

powered juicers to the delight of the thirsty crowd.

Those interested in a hands on challenge attempted to

land the solar powered model helicopter. For the

technically demanding visitor, photovoltaic experts were

on hand to supplement the information from the large

PV poster display. Visitors were introduced to

cyberspace as two Internet connected computer

workstations allowed them to browse the latest

photovoltaic resources available on the World Wide Web.

The traditional carnival atmosphere was completed with

the distribution of free information show bags.

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Design Assistance DivisionManager: Robert Largent

The Centre’s Design Assistance Division (DAD) has

a primary function to make available the Centre’s

photovoltaic and systems expertise to University and

off-campus individuals and groups.

The DAD handles public enquiries regarding the

technical issues concerning PV and its associated

equipment by offering information, advice and

commercial contacts. Advise ranges from RAPS

information, equipment suppliers, and system sizing to

recommending the best locations in gardens to install

solar powered lights.

Technical support for industry is diverse, ranging

from enquiries concerning commercially available solar

technology to instituting full projects for the

development (to the pre-commercial stage) of

specialised equipment for solar PV applications.

Notable users of the Centre’s DAD have been:

• ECO Design Foundation

• General Technology

• Taronga Zoo

• National Parks and Wildlife

• Harry Seidler and Associates

• Barry Webb and Associates

• EnergyAustralia

• Olympic Organising Committee

• Federal Ministry of Health, India

The Centre’s expertise in applied photovoltaics has

been effectively put to use by the National Parks and

Wildlife Service (NPSW). Montague Island National Park

is an ecologically sensitive area with Australia’s only

year round seal colony and penguin rookeries. NPWS

wished to significantly reduce the fossil usage on the

island by installing a PV hybrid system to augment the

existing diesel generator and chose to use the Centre as

a non-partisan expert for the project.

The DAD evaluated the island’s power

requirements, set tender specifications, conducted a

technical site visit for tenderers, and clarified the

technical content of the tenders during tender

resolution, thus allowing NPWS to make informed

decisions.

The Montague Island PV/Diesel hybrid system is

due to be installed in April ‘97 and commissioned in

May ‘97.

Industrial consulting and research (through

Unisearch Ltd.) has resulted in a DAD designed 2.54

MHz inverter used to power Philips’ induction lamps and

a high efficiency Maximum Power Point Tracker designed

specifically for BP Solar’s BP 585F (laser grooved) PV

module.

Specialised support has been given to Artist Joyce

Hinterding for her major work entitle Koronatron: 24

Winds of the Sparkling Globe, which was featured in iCH

Phoenix, Gasometer, Oberhausen, Germany between

April and October 1996. The electronics for her PV

powered artwork were designed and prototyped by the

DAD with the full scale fabrication of the electronics

occurring in Germany. This artwork utilised nearly 1 kW

of PV.

30

Artists Joyce Hinterding’s Koronatron,75 M above the floor — Germany

A growing level of technical support is being

sought by architectural firms for projects both within

and outside of Australia. Collaborative effort involving

Solarch and the DAD is helping to meet this demand.

The DAD’s ongoing collaboration with the

Vanadium Research Group, involving the new Vanadium

battery technology developed by the University’s School

of Chemical Engineering and Industrial Chemistry, is

evolving new electronics designs for the control of the

battery.

Montague Island: New 4kWp PV Array will beinstalled adjacent to existing lighthouse array.Dr. Chris Honsberg, David Jordan and Rob Largent

Technology TransferThe main objective of the technology transfer

group is to facilitate the transfer of cell technologyfrom the Centre’s research laboratory tocompanies which license the technology.The technology transfer group bridges the gap between

the small-scale solar cell processes used in research

work, and the large-scale production used in industry.

This is done by establishing candidate sequences on the

Centre’s pilot production line, thereby demonstrating

the suitability of the technology to commercialisation

and providing a training ground for the Centre’s

licensees.

The technology transfer group works closely with

Unisearch Ltd, the commercial arm of the University of

New South Wales. When transferring technology to a

licensee, its activities may be divided into two main

sections:

Cell-Processing Training

This includes the following:

• The preparation of a document outlining the

scientific and engineering principles underlying

the design, fabrication, operation and

commercialisation of the new technology;

• The provision of a series of seminars on various

aspects of the new technology;

• The provision of practical training for licensee

personnel in all aspects of the production of the

new photovoltaic devices. The training is carried

out at the Centre’s pilot production facility. The

trainees are provided with detailed documentation

of the processing sequence. They observe and

participate in the day-to-day operation of the

pilot production facility. The level of training is

such that the trainees are in a position to

fabricate devices with minimal assistance from

Centre staff. A photovoltaic module assembly

facility has been established at the Botany site,

allowing the Centre to incorporate module

assembly into the practical training program;

• Technology transfer visits are organised at

appropriate stages of the development of the

licensee’s own pilot production facility. During

these visits, one or more research engineers from

the Centre visit the licensee’s facilities for a

period of approximately one week. The main

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purpose of these visits is to get first hand

experience of any problems which may arise, to

suggest solutions to these problems, and to

establish a strong communication link between

key technical personnel;

• The Centre’s research engineers make themselves

available to offer the licensees prompt and

specific technical assistance by facsimile or

telephone, if the need arises.

Advising on Equipment

The Centre provides technical support and advice

to licensees as they establish their own laboratories and

pilot production facilities. The degree of the Centre’s

involvement may include all or any part of the full

spectrum of system integration:

• Cost analyses;

• Feasibility studies;

• Planning;

• Design of equipment (where appropriate);

• Acquisition of equipment and materials (technical

specifications, quotations, freight);

• Installation and commissioning of equipment and

plant;

• Implementation and optimisation of the

production process.

Activities in 1996

The technology transfer group directed its

energies into one main area in 1996:

• In November 1995 the group began work on

manufacturing the Passivated Emitter and Rear

Locally Diffused (PERL) cells for the World Solar

Challenge in 1996. To cope with the demand for

PERL cells, the laboratory area which is dedicated

to the pilot-line expanded to accommodate new

equipment, and the number of staff members

increased dramatically. Work involved adapting

the pilot line equipment to the PERL technology

and training staff.

product testing at its Little Bay Solar Research Facility,

the development of guidelines for renewable

interconnection to the supply grid, and various studies,

courses and seminars in the general area of renewable

energy systems.

Contracts and Agreements

Pacific Solar Pty. Ltd.

Pacific Solar commenced operation in February,

1995 as a $64 million collaborative venture between

Pacific Power and Unisearch Ltd. The company’s mission

is to commercialize the multilayer thin film technology

developed by the Centre. The new company is leasing

the Centre’s Bay Street facility from the University and

is engaging the Centre’s services for contractual

research. Additionally, a number of Centre staff have

been seconded from the Centre for the duration of the

company’s developmental phase to assist in meeting the

company’s objectives.

Energy Research and Development Corporation

Towards the end of 1991, a research contract was

completed with the Energy Research and Development

Corporation which provided financial contributions to

specific bulk silicon and thin film silicon research

programs. Funds allocated totalled $1.5 million over

the 1992-1994 triennium. The bulk silicon projects

were completed in December, 1994, and commercial

returns flow to ERDC on a regular basis from this work.

The thin film projects were completed in June, 1995.

The Corporation has negotiated rights to equity in

Pacific Solar in return for its support of the Centre’s

thin film research.

New South Wales Office of Energy

During 1993, funds were made available under the

State Energy Research and Development Fund for thin

film solar cell development. This funding was co-

ordinated with funding received from the Energy

Research and Development Corporation. Total funding

from the State Fund was $0.5 million. This project was

completed in June, 1995 and similar equity rights in

Pacific Solar in return for this support were negotiated.

energyAustralia

energyAustralia has provided Foundation

Sponsorship for the Little Bay Solar Energy Research

Facility. Their sponsorship included funding of

photovoltaic-based power systems installed at the site.

Funding of $85,000 was provided towards construction

of the building in 1994 and another $240,000 over 3

Business DevelopmentsThe Centre has had another successful year in its

Business Development activities with outstanding

success in the fabrication and supply of high

performance silicon solar cells, as well as in support of

its technology licensees and in continued intellectual

property development and patent protection.

Throughout most of 1996 sections of the Centre’s

research laboratories were devoted to the fabrication of

high efficiency PERL cells for several of the top entrants

in the 1996 World Solar Challenge.

The Centre supplied some 15,000 cells of efficiencies

up to 24% and valued in excess of $3.5 million through

Unisearch Ltd. These cells were used successfully by

the winning entrant Honda, and third placegetter Aisin

Seiki, with another entrant, Aurora, unfortunately

suffering mechanical failure early in the race.

In addition to the financial value of these cell sales,

the Centre also facilitated the procurement of the

competitive “Sunswift” solar car for the University

student body (which gained a very creditable 9th overall

placing) and has formed a consortium of interested parties

in the as yet unraced Aurora 101 vehicle.

The Centre also assisted in the purchase of a

second industrial property, to be leased to Pacific Solar

to assist in its thin film silicon multilayer technology

development program.

The Centre also provided collaborative support to

several existing or potential licensees of the Laser

Buried Contact technology, and the lodgement of

several new patents covering areas in buried contact

processing and optical entrapment.

In addition to the above activities, the Centre

continued to provide technical services to the

photovoltaics and electrical utility industry, with new

32

33

years towards the photovoltaic system. This system was

officially opened in October, 1994.

Additional activities at Little Bay have included

performance assessment of selected crystalline and thin

film silicon module technologies and electronic

interface hardware.

energyAustralia has also been involved in other

collaborative projects with the Centre including the

Australian High School Project and the Australian

Technology Park photovoltaic installation.

Sandia National Laboratories

The long term association of the Centre with

Sandia continued into 1996, completing over 10 years

of very fruitful collaboration. During 1996, Sandia

supported the supply of advanced cells for testing at

Sandia. A contract was also negotiated with Sandia

assigning the rights for the development and

distribution of the solar cell computer simulation

program, PC1D, to the Centre.

Other Research Contracts and Grants

Individual researchers affiliated with the Centre

attracted additional grants from other bodies such as

the New South Wales Department of Energy.

Seven academics affiliated with the Centre also

received grants for 1996 under the Australian Research

Council’s Large Grant Scheme.

Licensing Agreements

Companies now on public record as being licensed

to use technology developed at the Centre or assigned

intellectual property include:

Angewandte Solarenergie - ASE GmbH

BP Solar Australia Pty. Ltd.

BP Solar Espana S.A.

Central Electronics Ltd., India

Pacific Solar Pty. Ltd.

Samsung Electronics Co. Ltd.

Solarex Corporation

Solarex Pty. Ltd.

Professional ActivitiesConferences

Staff or students affiliated with the Centre presented

papers relevant to photovoltaics at the following local

and international conferences during the year:

• BPN Ecologically Sustainable Development

Conference, Sydney, November, 1996; CO

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• EuroSun ‘96, Freiburg, Germany, September, 1996;

• First UNSW/NEDO Workshop on Thin Film

Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells, Tokyo, October, 1996;

• IEE Japan Power and Energy ‘96, Osaka, Japan,

August;

• IEEE Conference on Microelectronics and

Optoelectronics Devices, Canberra, December, 1996;

• International Conference in Industry Economics,

Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain, July, 1996;

• International PVSEC-9, Miyazaki, Japan, November,

1996;

• SISPHD, Tokyo, Japan, November, 1996;

• Special Research Centre Research Centres

Workshop, Canberra, December, 1996;

• Sunshine Workshop on Crystalline Silicon Solar

Cells, Tokyo, October, 1996;

• 1996 Materials Research Society Spring Meeting,

San Francisco, April, 1996;

• 25th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialist Conference,

Washington DC, May, 1996;

• 34th Annual Conference of the Australian and New

Zealand Solar Energy Society (ANZSES), Darwin,

October, 1996;

AwardsAssociate Director, Stuart Wenham was awarded a

prestigious Special Investigator award by the Australian

Research Council.

Associate Director, Paul Basore commenced his

term as Chair of the 26th IEEE Photovoltaics Specialists

Conference to be held in Los Angeles in 1997. This is

the longest running conference in this field.

Centre Director, Martin Green was one of six

finalists from nominations for the 1997 Australian of

the Year, subsequently awarded to Nobel prize winner,

Dr. Peter Doherty. Professor Green was nominated for

“his contribution to solar energy research”.

Centre researchers, Mark Keevers and David Thorp,

were awarded postdoctoral fellowships by the Australian

Research Council and will take up these fellowships at

the Centre in 1997, joining current fellows under this

scheme: Patrick Campbell, Steve Robinson, Alistair

Sproul and Jianhua Zhao.

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The Centre was established in 1990 withbroadly based funding received under theAustralian Research Council’s (ARC) SpecialResearch Centres Scheme and from Pacific Power.In addition to this broadly based funding,individual researchers within the Centre receiveresearch grants and contracts for specific projectsof interest to the Centre.

Total expenditure during 1996 was $3.2 million,

with a breakdown of expenditure by source of income

shown below.

Only 42% of total expenditure was expended from

income from the ARC Special Research Centres Scheme,

meeting the Centre’s target of 45% or less for this

figure. Another substantial source of funds was Pacific

Solar, with large funding totals also received for specific

projects proposed by staff affiliated with the Centre

supported by the Australian Research Council’s grants

and fellowship schemes. Smaller but significant

amounts were received from energyAustralia, the New

South Wales Department of Energy (SERDF Scheme),

Sandia National Laboratories and a variety of other

sources. The Centre also expended monies received as a

major equipment grant from the University,

supplementing an ARC grant for the purchase of optical

characterization equipment. The University also

provided other substantial non-cash support to the

Centre.

Figure 15: Breakdown of expenditure by source ofexternal income.

Figure 16 shows the broad areas where funds were

spent. Salaries accounted for close to 50% of

expenditure, similar to the proportion in past years.

The Centre has a target of reducing expenditure to 40%

on salaries. More rapid progress towards this target was

frustrated in 1996 due to the labour intensive nature of

the contracted work undertaken on behalf of Pacific

Solar. Figure 16 also shows the progressively smaller

percentages spent on equipment, materials and travel.

Figure 16: Overall expenditure by category.

Figure 17: Expenditure by category of ARC SpecialResearch Centre funds.

Other

energyAustralia

UNSW

ARC F'ships

ARC Grants

Pacific Solar

ARC Centre

Travel

Materials

Equipment

Salaries

Travel

Materials

Equipment

Salaries

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Figure 17 shows the corresponding breakdown for

the expenditure of the specific funds received under the

ARC Special Research Centres Scheme. These funds have

a special role in maintaining and developing Centre

infrastructure.

A breakdown of total Centre expenditure by

project area is shown in Figure 18. This expenditure, in

past years, was weighted heavily towards near-term bulk

device research. This primarily reflected the success in

obtaining external funding for specific research projects

in this area.

With the maturing of the thin film device work,

appreciable external funding is now being received for

this area so that it now exceeds support for bulk device

work. Although a smaller component of total

expenditure, external funding for the expanding

activities in the systems area is also becoming

significant. The figures shown do not accurately reflect

total Centre effort directed to the areas indicated, since

University resources directed to these areas by way of

salary, space and other infrastructural support are not

included.

Finally, Figure 19 shows the breakdown of

expenditure by project area of broadly based funding

received by the Centre from the ARC Special Research

Centres Scheme. The ARC funding has been used

primarily to provide support for the operation,

maintenance and development of Centre laboratories

and facilities.

Apart from direct cash funds received, support

from the University is not included in any of the

previous figures. The University provides salaries for 9

of the academic staff and 4 of the non-academic staff

involved with the Centre. The University also provides

accommodation and a range of services for the Centre,

as well as infrastructural support by way of facilities,

such as the library.

Figure 18: Breakdown of total Centre expenditure byproject area.

Figure 19: Breakdown of expenditureby project area of funding from the ARCSpecial Research Centres Scheme.

Centre Operations

Systems Research

Bulk Device Research

Thin Film Research

Bulk & Thin Film Labs.

Centre Operations

Systems Research

Bulk Device Research

Thin Film Research

Bulk & Thin film Labs.

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Theses

Bowden, S., “A High Efficiency Photovoltaic Roof

Tile”, PhD Thesis, The University of New South Wales,

September, 1996.

Ghozati, S., “High Efficiency Double Sided Buried

Contact Bi-Facial Silicon Solar Cells”, PhD Thesis, The

University of New South Wales, August, 1996.

Keevers, M. J., “Improved Performance of Silicon

Solar Cells by the Impurity Photovoltaic Effect”, PhD

Thesis, The University of New South Wales, December,

1996.

Stephens, A., “Application of Photoconductance

Decay Measurements to Silicon Solar Cell

Characterisation”, PhD Thesis, The University of New

South Wales, May, 1996.

Thorp, D., “Absorption Enhancement in Thin-Film

Polycrystalline-Silicon Photovoltaic Modules”, PhD

Thesis, The University of New South Wales, July, 1996.

Zheng, G. F., “High Efficiency Thin-Film Silicon

Solar Cells”, PhD Thesis, The University of New South

Wales, December, 1996.

Books, Book Chapters

Outhred, H.R., and Kaye, R.J., “Incorporating

Network Effects in a Competitive Electricity Industry:-

An Australian Perspective”, in M. Einhorn and R.

Siddiqui (eds), Electricity Transmission Pricing and

Technology (Kluwer Press Academic Publishers, Boston,

Dordrecht and London, 1996), pp. 207-228.

Refereed Journals

Altermatt, P. P., Heiser, G., Aberle, A. G., Wang,

A., Zhao, J., Robinson, S. J., Bowden, S. and Green, M.

A., “Spatially Resolved Analysis and Minimization of

Resistive Losses in High-efficiency Si Solar Cells”,

Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications,

Vol. 4, pp. 399-414, 1996.

Altermatt, P.P., Heiser, G., Dai, X., Jurgens, J.,

Aberle, A.G., Robinson, S.R., Young, T., Wenham, S.R.,

and Green, M.A., “Rear surface passivation of high-

efficiency silicon solar cells by a floating junction”,

Journal of Applied Physics, 80 (6), pp.3574-3586, 15

September, 1996.

Altermatt, P.P., Heiser, G., and Green, M.A.,

“Numerical Quantification and Minimization of Perimeter

Losses in High-efficiency Silicon Solar Cells”, Progress

in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, Vol. 4, pp.

355-367, 1996.

Bazylenko, M.V., Gross, M., Simonian, A. and Chu,

P.L., “Pure and fluorine-doped silica films deposited in a

hollow cathode reactor for integrated optics

applications”, Journal of Vacuum Science and

Technology, A 14(2), Mar/Apr, pp. 336-345, 1996.

Corkish, R., Chan, D. S-P., and Green, M.A.,

“Excitons in silicon diodes and solar cells: A three

particle theory”, Journal of Applied Physics, 79 (1), pp.

195-203, 1996.

Corkish, R., and Green, M.A., “Junction

recombination current in abrupt junction diodes under

forward bias”, Journal of Applied Physics, 80 (5), pp.

3083 - 3090, 1996.

Cuevas, A.., Basore, P.A., Giroult-Matalkowski, G.,

and Dubois, C., “Surface recombination velocity of

highly doped n-type silicon”, Journal of Applied

Physics, 80 (6), pp. 3370-3375, 1996.

Dai, X.M., and Tang, Y.H., “A simple general

analytical solution for the quantum efficiency of front-

surface-field solar cells”, Solar Energy Materials and

Solar Cells, 43, pp.363-376, 1996.

Ebong, A.U., Honsberg, C., and Wenham, S.R.,

“Fabrication of double sided buried contact (DSBC)

silicon solar cell by simultaneous pre-doposition and

diffusion of boron and phosphorus”, Solar Energy

Materials and Solar Cells, 44, pp. 271-278, 1996.

Ebong, A.U., Lee, S.H., Bowden, S., and Taouk, M.,

“Adaptation of Drafting Plotter for Buried Contact

Groove Formation”, Solar Energy, Vol. 57, No. 3, pp.

185-193, 1996.

Ebong, A.U., Lee, S.H., Honsberg, C., and

Wenham, S.R., “High Efficiency Double Sided Buried

Contact Silicon Solar Cells”, Journal of Applied Physics,

35 (1), pp 2077-2080, 1996.

Ebong, A. U., Taouk, M., Honsberg, C. B., Wenham,

S. R., “The use of oxynitrides for the fabrication of

buried contact silicon solar cells”, Solar Energy

Materials and Solar Cells, 40, 1996, pp183-195, 1996.

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Edmiston, S.A., Heiser, G., Sproul, A.B., and

Green, M.A., “Improved Modelling of Grain Boundary

Recombination in Bulk and p-n Junction Regions of

Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells”, Journal of Applied

Physics, 80 (12), pp. 6783-6795, 1996.

Green, M.A., “Bounds upon grain boundary effects

in minority carrier semiconductor devices: A rigorous

“perturbation” approach with application to silicon

solar cells”, Journal of Applied Physics, 80 (3), pp.

1515-1521, 1996.

Green, M.A., “Depletion Region Recombination in

Silicon Thin-film Multlayer Solar Cells”, Progress in

Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, Vol. 4, pp.

375-380, 1996.

Green, M.A., “Photovoltaic Solar Energy

Conversion”, Brazilian Journal of Physics, Vol 26, No. 1,

pp. 137-143, 1996.

Green, M.A., Emery, K., Bücher, K., and King,

D.L.,”Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 7)”, Progress

in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, Vol 4, pp.

59-62, 1996.

Green, M.A., Emery, K., Bücher, K., King, D.L. and

Igari, S.,”Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 8)”,

Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications,

Vol 4, pp. 321-325, 1996.

Honsberg, C.B., Edmiston, S., Koschier, L.,

Wenham, S.R., Sproul, A.B., and Green, M.A.,

“Capitalizing on two dimensional minority carrier

injection in silicon solar cell design”, Solar Energy

Materials and Solar Cells, 41/42, pp.183-193, 1996.

Keevers, M. J. and Green, M. A., “Extended

Infrared Response of Silicon Solar Cells and the

Impurity Photovoltaic Effect”, Solar Energy Materials

and Solar Cells, 41/42, pp. 195-204, 1996.

Shi, Z., Zhang, W., Zheng, G.F., Chin, V.L.,

Stephens, A., Green, M.A., and Bergman, R., “The

effects of solvent and dopant impurities on the

performance of LPE silicon solar cells”, Solar Energy

Materials and Solar Cells, 41/42, pp. 53-60, 1996.

Thorp, D., Campbell, P. and Wenham, S.R.,

“Conformal Films for Light-Trapping in Thin Silicon Solar

Cells”, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and

Applications, Vol. 4, pp. 205-224, 1996.

Wang, A., Zhao, J., Wenham, S.R., and Green,

M.A., “21.5% Efficient Thin Silicon Solar Cell”, Progress

in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, Vol 4, pp.

55-58, 1996.

Wenham, S.R., and Green, M.A., “Silicon Solar

Cells”, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and

Applications, Vol 4, pp. 3-33, 1996.

Wenham, S.R., Green, M.A., Edmiston, S.,

Campbell, P., Koschier, L., Honsberg, C.B., Sproul, A.B.,

Thorpe, D., Shi, Z. and Heiser, G., “Limits to the

efficiency of silicon multilayer thin film solar cells”,

Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 41/42, pp. 3-17,

1996.

Zhao, J., Wang, A., Altermatt, P.P., Wenham, S.R.,

and Green, M.A., “24% Efficient perl silicon solar cell:

Recent improvements in high efficiency silicon cell

research”, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 41/42,

pp.87-99, 1996.

Zheng, G.F., Wenham, S.R., and Green, M.A.,

“17.6% Efficient Multilayer Thin-film Silicon Solar Cells

Deposited on Heavily Doped Silicon Substrates”,

Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications,

Vol. 4, pp. 369-373, 1996.

Zheng, G.F., Zhao, J., Gross, M., and Chen, E.,

“Very low light-reflection from the surface of incidence

of a silicon solar cell”, Solar Energy Materials and Solar

Cells, 40, pp. 89-95, 1996.

Zheng, G.F., Zhang, W., Shi, Z., Gross, M. Sproul,

A.B., Wenham, S.R., and Green, M.A., “16.4% efficient,

thin active layer silicon solar cell grown by liquid phase

epitaxy”, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 40, pp.

231-238, 1996.

Conference Papers And Reports

Aberle, A.G., Lauinger, T., Bowden, S., Wegener, S.

and Betz, G., “SUNALYZER - A powerful and cost-

effective solar cell I-V tester for the photovoltaic

community”, 25th IEEE Photovoltic Specialist

Conference, Washington, DC, 13-17 May, 1996.

Basore, P.A., and Clugston, D.A., “PC1D Version 4

for Windows: from Analysis to Design”, 25th IEEE

Photovoltaic Specialist Conference, Washington, DC, 13-

17 May, 1996.

Ebong, A.U., Lee, S.H., Honsberg, C.B., and

Wenham, S.R., “Optimisation of boron grooved diffusion

for double sided buried contact silicon solar cells”,

Conference Record, 25th IEEE Photovoltaic

Specialist Conference, Washington, DC, 13-17

May, 1996, pp. 513-516.

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Green, M.A., “High Efficiency Silicon Solar Cells”,

COMMAD ‘96 Conference, Canberra, Australia, 8-11

December 1996.

Green, M.A., “Photovoltaic Activities in Australia”,

High Level Expert Meeting on Solar Energy in East and

South-East Asia, Otaga-mura Village, Akita, Japan, 24 -

27 July, 1996.

Green, M.A., Sproul, A.B., Puzzer, T., Zheng, G.F.,

Basore, P., and Young, T., “Silicon Parallel Multilayer

Thin Film Solar Cells”, MRS Spring Meeting, San

Francisco, USA, April, 1996.

Heiser, G., Edmiston, S., and Green, M.A.,

“Numerical Modelling of Polysilicon Grain Boundaries”,

SISPHD, Tokyo, Japan, November, 1996.

Honsberg, C.B., Ghozati, S.B., Ebong, A.U., Tang,

Y-H., and Wenham, S.R., “Elimination of Parasitic

Effects in Floating Junction Rear Surface Passivation for

Solar Cells”, 25th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialist

Conference, Washington, DC, 13-17 May, 1996.

Johnson, A.J., and Outhred, H.R., “Tradeable

emissions rights: the U.S. emissions trading program

and its implications for renewables and for

implementation in Australia”, Proceedings of the 34th

Annual Conference of the Australian and New Zealand

Solar Energy Society, (ANZSES), Darwin, Oct., 1996, pp.

568-575.

Kaye, R.J., Spooner, E., and Watt, M., “The

Australian Solar Schools Project”, Proceedings of the

34th Annual Conference of the Australian and New

Zealand Solar Energy Society, Darwin, Oct., 1996, pp.

143-148.

MacGill, I.F., and Kaye, R.J., “Optimal operation of

renewable resources within market-based electric

distribution systems”, Proceedings of the 34th Annual

Conference of the Australian and New Zealand Solar

Energy Society, Darwin, Oct., 1996.

MacGill, I.F., and Kaye, R.J., “Optimised Operation

of Electrical Distribution Systems with Photovoltaics

and Storage Using Evolutionary Programming”, EuroSun

‘96, Freiburg, Germany, 16-19 September, 1996.

Outhred, H.R., “Renewable energy and the

National Electricity Market”, Proceedings of the 34th

Annual Conference of the Australian and New Zealand

Solar Energy Society, (ANZSES), Darwin, Oct., 1996, pp.

568-575.

Outhred, H.R., and Kaye, R.J., “Structured Testing

of the National Electricity Market Design: Final Report”,

prepared for the Victorian Power Exchange representing

the National Grid Management Council, September, 1996.

Outhred, H.R., and Kaye, R.J., “The Australian

Electricity Market: Strengths and Weakness”,

International Conference in Industry Economics,

Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain, 3-5 July, 1996.

Sproul, A.B., Edmiston, S.A., Puzzer, T., Heiser, G.,

Wenham, S.R., Green, M.A., and Young, T.L., “Grain

Boundary Modelling and Characterization of Thin-Film

Silicon Solar Cells”, 25th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialist

Conference, Washington, DC, 13-17 May, 1996.

Thorp, D., Campbell, P., and Wenham, S.R.,

“Absorption Enhancement in Conformally Textured Thin

Film Polycrystalline Solar Cells”, 25th IEEE Photovoltaic

Specialist Conference, Washington, DC, 13-17 May, 1996.

Thorp, D., and Wenham, S.R, “Ray-Tracing of

Arbitrary Surface Textures for Light-Trapping in Thin

Silicon Solar Cells”, poster & 2 page paper for Technical

digest of PVSEC-9, Miyazaki, Japan, 11/96, extended

version also submitted to special conference edition of

Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells.

Travers, D.L., and Kaye, R.J., “Dynamic dispatch:

modelling the interaction between renewable energy

sources and conventional generation in a large electric

power system”, Proceedings of the 34th Annual

Conference of the Australian and New Zealand Solar

Energy Society, (ANZSES), Darwin, Oct., 1996.

Tully, F.R., Kaye, R.J., “Unit Commitment in

Competitive Electricity Markets using Genetic

Algorithms”, IEE Japan Power and Energy ‘96, Osaka,

Japan, August, 1996.

Watt, M., “PV Applications in Australia”,

Conference Record, 25th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialist

Conference, Washington, DC, 13-17 May, 1996, pp. 19-24.

Watt, M., and Ellis, M., “Renewable Energy Issues

for Local Government”, Proceedings of the 34th Annual

Conference of the Australian and New Zealand Solar

Energy Society, (ANZSES), Darwin, Oct., 1996, pp. 552-

559.

Watt, M., Ellis, M., O’Regan, S., Gow, S., Fisher, B.

and Fowkes, R., “Study of Local Government Regulations

Impacting on the Use of Remote Area Power Supply

Systems and Other Renewable Energy Technology”,

Report to the Department of Primary Industries &

Energy. March 1996.

Watt, M., Kaye, J., and Jordan, D., “Assessing the

Potential for PV in Buildings”, Proceedings of the 34th

Annual Conference of the Australian and New Zealand

Solar Energy Society, (ANZSES), Darwin, Oct., 1996, pp.

203-209.

Wenham, S.R., Bowden, S., Dickinson, M., Largent,

R., Shaw, N., Honsberg, C.B., Green, M.A., and Smith,

P.R., “Low Cost Photovoltaic Roof Tile”, PVSEC-9,

Miyazaki, Japan, 11-15 November 1996.

Wenham, S.R., Honsberg, C.B., Edmiston, S.,

Koschier, L., Fung, A.,and Green, M.A., “Simplified Buried

Contact Solar Cell Process”, 25th IEEE Photovoltic

Specialist Conference, Washington, DC, 13-17 May, 1996.

Zhao, J., Wang, A., Abbaspour-Sani, E., Yun, F.,

Green, M.A., and King, D.L., “22.3% Efficient Silicon

Solar Cell Module”, Conference Record, 25th IEEE

Photovoltaic Specialist Conference, Washington, DC,

May 13-17, pp. 1203-1206, 1996.

Zhao, J., Wang, A., Roche, D.M., Wenham, S.R.,

and Green, M.A., “Pilot Production of High Efficiency

PERL Silicon Solar Cells for the World Solar Challenge

Solar Car Race”, Technical Digest of the International

PVSEC-9, Miyazaki, Japan, pp.65-66, 1996.

Zhao, J., Wang, A., Roche, D.M., Wenham, S.R.,

and Green, M.A., “Production of High Efficiency Silicon

Solar Cells for the World Solar Challenge”, Proceedings

of the 34th Annual Meeting of the Australian and New

Zealand Solar Energy Society (ANZSES Solar’96), Darwin,

Oct., pp. 453-458, 1996.

Zheng, G. F., Edmiston, S., Sproul, A. B., Zhang, G.

C., Gauja, E., Ghozati, S. and Wenham, S. R., “High-

Efficiency CVD Multi-Layer, Single-Layer Thin Film and

Thin Silicon Solar Cells”, Proceedings of the 33rd Annual

Conference of the Australia and New Zealand Solar

Energy Society, SOLAR ‘95, November 29 - December 1,

1995, Hobart, pp. 87-92, 1995. (omitted from 1995

Annual Report)

Zheng, G.F., Sproul, A.B., Wenham, S.R., and

Green, M.A., “High-Efficiency CVD Multi-Layer Thin-Film

Silicon Solar Cells”, Conference Record, 25th IEEE

Photovoltaic Specialist Conference, Washington, DC, 13-

17 May, 1996, pp. 465-468.

Zheng, G.F., Zhang, W., Shi, Z., Thorp, D., and

Green, M.A., “High-Efficiency Drift-Field Thin-Film

Silicon Solar Cells by Liquid-Phase Epitaxy and Substrate

Thinning”, Conference Record, 25th IEEE Photovoltaic

Specialists Conference, Washington, DC, 13-17 May,

1996, pp. 693-696.

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Publications in Press

Clugston, D.A., and Basore, P.A., “Modelling Free-

Carrier Absorption in Solar Cells”, accepted of

publication in Progress in Photovoltaics.

Corkish, R., “Can Solar Cells Ever Recapture the

Energy Invested in their Manufacture?”, submitted for

publication in Renew, January, 1997.

Ebong, A.U., Lee, S.H., Warta, W., Honsberg, C.B.,

and Wenham, S.R., “Characterization of high open-

circuit voltage double sided buried contact (DSBC)

silicon solar cells”, accepted for publication in Solar

Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 1997.

Edmiston, S.A., “Anomalously High Collection

Probability in Thin Film Polycrystalline Silicon Solar

Cells”, accepted for publication in Journal of Applied

Physics, 1997.

Green, M.A., “Generalized Relationship between

Dark Carrier Distribution and Photocarrier Collection in

Solar Cells”, accepted for publication in Journal of

Applied Physics, 1997.

Stephens, A.W., and Green, M.A., “Effectiveness of

0.08 molar iodine in ethanol solution as a means of

chemical surface passivation for photoconductance

decay measurements”, accepted for publication in Solar

Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 1997.

Zhao, J., Wang, A., Abbaspour-Sani, E., Yun, F.,

and Green, M.A., “Improved Efficiency Silicon Solar Cell

Module”, accepted for publication in IEEE Electron

Devices Letters.

Zhao, J., Wang, A., Yun, F., Zhang, G., Roche,

D.M., Wenham, S.R., and Green, M.A., “20,000 PERL

Silicon Cells for 1996 World SOLAR CHALLENGE Solar Car

Race”, Progress in Photovoltaics, in preparation.

Zheng, G. F., Zhang, W., Shi, Z., Thorp, D.,

Bergmann, R. B. and Green, M. A., “High efficiency

draft-field thin-film silicon solar cells grown on

electronically inactive substrates”, submitted to Solar

Energy Materials and Solar Cells, August, 1996.

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CENTRE ADVISORY Committee

1. Full Membership

(a) University Representatives

1. Deputy-Vice-Chancellor (Professor C.J.D. Fell)

2. Dean, Faculty of Engineering (Professor M.

Wainwright)

(b) Centre Representatives

3. Director (Professor M.A. Green)

4. Associate Director, Systems (A/Professor H.R.

Outhred)

5. Associate Director, Devices (A/Professor S.R.

Wenham)

6. Associate Director, Multilayer Technology

Commercialization (A/Professor P.A. Basore)

(c) Representatives of Major Sponsors

7. Pacific Power

8. Energy Research and Development

Corporation

9. N.S.W. Office of Energy

10. Unisearch Ltd.

11. Pacific Solar Pty. Ltd.

2. Associate Membership

(a) Manufacturing Representatives

12. B.P. Solar Australia Pty. Ltd.

13. Solarex Pty. Ltd.

(b) Other Representatives

14. Electricity Supply Association of Australia

15. Murdoch University Energy Research Institute

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CENTRE PERSONNEL

Director:

Martin A. Green, BE, MEngSc (Qld.), PhD (McMasters),

FAA, FTS, FIEEE, FIEAust.

Associate Directors:

Paul A. Basore, BSc (Oklahoma State), MS, PhD (MIT),

MIEEE

Hugh R. Outhred (Systems), BSc, BE, PhD (Syd.), AMIEE,

MIEEE, FIEAust.

Stuart R. Wenham (Devices), BE, BSc, PhD (UNSW),

SMIEEE

Affiliated Academic Staff:

T.R. Blackburn, BSc (Adelaide), PhD (Flin.), CEng, MAIP,

MIEE, MIEEE

K.C. Daly, BSc, BE, PhD (UNSW), CEng, MIEE, MIEEE

G. Heiser, BSc, MSc, PhD (ETH Zurich)

C.B. Honsberg, BEE, MSc, PhD (Delaware)

R.J. Kaye, BE, MEngSc (Melb.), PhD (Calif.), MIEEE

I.F. Morrison, BSc, BE, PhD (Syd), CPEng, FIAE, FIEAust,

MIEE, MIEEE.

Business Manager:

D. Jordan, BSc (UNE), BE (UWA)

Project and Senior Project Scientists:

E.D. Spooner, BE, ME (UNSW)

A. Wang, BE, PhD (UNSW)

M.E. Watt, BSc (UNE), PhD (Murdoch)

J. Zhao, ME, PhD (UNSW), MIEEE

Research Fellows and Research Associates:

P. Altermatt, Dipl Phys (Konstanz) (to 4/96)

P. Campbell, BSc, BE, PhD (UNSW)

A. Chtanov, BE, MEE, PhD (Russia)

R. Corkish, BE (RMIT), PhD (UNSW)

D. Krcho, MPhys (Bratislava)

T. Puzzer, BSc, PhD (UNSW) (P/T)

S.J. Robinson, BSc (Syd), PhD (UNSW) (since 7/96)

A.B. Sproul, BSc (Syd.), PhD (UNSW) (since 7/96)

S. Varlamov, BE, ME, PhD (Moscow) (to 3/96)

Visiting Academics:

H. S. Tang, Professor of Fudan University, China

Logistics/External Relations Manager :

D. Roche, BE, BA (UNSW)

Non-Award Professional Practicum Students :

Molitor, M., BE, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology,

Zurich (since 11/96)

Neisser, A., BSc (England), Technical University of

Berlin (since 11/96)

Centre Clerks:

J. Hansen

J. Kwan (since 2/96)

J. Noble (P/T)

A. Votsis (since 8/96)

V. Yung (to 7/96)

Laboratory and Research Staff:

Professional Officers and Research Assistants:

R. Bardos, BSc (Hons) (Melbourne) (since 5/96)

G. Bates, BA Ind.Des. (UTS)

M. Brauhart, BE (Elec) (UNSW)

X. Dai, BSc (Zhejiang), PhD (UNSW)

M. Dickinson

A. Fung, BE (UNSW) (since 1/96)

M. Gross, BSc (Syd), PhD (Syd)

M. Guelden, BE (UNSW) (on secondment to Centre for

Appropriate Technology, NT)

V. Henninger, Dipl Phys (since 06/96)

E.M. Keller, BE (Czechoslovakia)

A. Lambertz, Dipl Ing (since 10/96)

K. McIntosh (since 9/96)

B. Richards, BSc (Victoria) (since 11/96)

M. Silver, BE (UNSW), GMQ (AGSM)

L. Soria, Assoc.Dip.Comp.Appl. (Wollongong)

Y. H. Tang, BSc (China)

B. Vogl, BE (Regensburg) (since 3/96)

J. Xu, ME (China), PhD (UNSW/Wollongong) (since

6/96)

Z. S. Yang, BSc (China)

Technical and Senior Technical Officers:

M. Ahmadi-Dezfouli (P/T) (to 7/96)

S. Alipour (P/T) (to 7/96)

B. Kennedy (P/T)

A. Khouri, BA (Lebanon) (P/T)

R. Largent, AS (USA)

K. McIntosh (P/T) (to 8/96)

H.R. Mehrvarz, PhD (UNSW) (P/T)

D. Muzi (P/T) (since 5/96)

T. Seary

J. Shi, BE (China), ME (UNSW) (P/T) (to 8/96)

J. Xu, ME (China), PhD (UNSW/Wollongong) (P/T) (to

5/96)

J. N. Yuan, MSc (China) (P/T) (to 8/96)

B. Vandenberg, (P/T)

G. C. Zhang, BE, ME (China)

Laboratory Operations Officers

T. Basevi (P/T)

J. Beer (P/T) (to 8/96)

R. Jimenez

G. Jones (P/T)

Laboratory Assistants:

E. Abbaspour-Sani, (P/T) (to 7/96)

J. H. Babaei (P/T) (to 8/96)

K. Eldridge (P/T) (since 5/96)

G. Harbidge (since 3/96)

N. Hornidge (since 3/96)

J. Saunders (since 3/96)

N. Shaw (P/T)

R. Simpson (since 5/96)

G. Vodopivec (P/T) (to 12/96)

J. Wilson (P/T)

Higher Degree Students:

Masters:

F. Barone, BE (UNSW)

O. Harsh, MSc, PhD, DSc (India)

K. Omaki, BE (Japan)

T. Zhang, Electronics Eng. (China)

Doctoral:

M. Boreland, BSc (UNSW)

S. Bowden, BE (UNSW)

D. Clugston, Bsc (Syd)

D. Debuf, BE, ME (UNSW)

S. Edmiston, BE (Sydney)

F. Geelhaar, Dipl Phys (Hamburg)

S. Ghaemi, BE (UNSW)

S. Ghozati, BSc, MSc (Iran)

D. Gilbert, BE, ME (NZ)

Y. Huang, MSc (China)

H.B. Jafar, BE, MS (Iran)

M. Keevers, BSc (UNSW)

L. Koschier, BE, (UNSW)

I. MacGill. BE, MEngSc (Melb)

A. Stephens, BE, BSc (UNSW)

D. Thorp, BA (Cambridge)

D. Travers, BE (UNSW)

F. Yun, BSc (Jinan), MSc (AIT)

F. Zhang, BE (China)

G.F. Zheng, BE (China), ME (Japan)

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Photovoltaics Special Research Centre

School of Electrical Engineering

University of New South Wales

Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia

Tel +61 2 9385 4018 Fax +61 2 9662 4240

Produced by PLT Print Solutions

Photovoltaics Special Research Centre

School of Electrical Engineering

University of New South Wales

Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia

Tel +61 2 9385 4018 Fax +61 2 9662 4240

Produced by PLT Print Solutions