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C H A P T E R 1

An Introduction to Learning

1

THE GIFT OF KNOWLEDGE

Marcus entered college three years ago with the intention of studying chemistry.However, over the past year, he has found several of his psychology courses moreexciting and challenging than his science classes, and he now wants to obtain adegree in clinical psychology. Marcus’s concern over his younger sister Yolanda’sdrug problems has stimulated his interest in psychology. Yolanda, an excellentstudent before she began to experiment with drugs several years ago, is nowaddicted, has quit school, and has left home. Marcus wants to understand the factorsthat can lead to addiction, and he hopes to contribute someday to the development ofan effective drug addiction therapy. Dr. Martinez, Marcus’s advisor, suggested thatMarcus enroll in a course on learning in order to fulfill the Psychology department’sdegree requirements. Spending endless hours watching rats run through mazes andanalyzing pages and pages of data did not appeal to Marcus. Interested in the humanaspect of psychology, Marcus wondered how this course would benefit him. However,he trusted Dr. Martinez’s advice, so he enrolled in the class. Marcus soon discoveredthat his preconceived ideas about the learning course were incorrect. The coursecovered research with both human and nonhuman subjects, and the various types ofexperimentation complemented each other in revealing the nature of the learningprocesses that govern behavior. The experiments, far from boring, made the learningprinciples described in class seem real. Marcus soon discovered that learning involvesdeveloping effective methods to obtain reward and to avoid punishment, as well as anunderstanding of when and where these responses are appropriate. He becameinterested in learning how basic research has stimulated the development of behaviormodification techniques and how understanding the principles of learning benefitsthe student of clinical psychology.

Psychology relies heavily on theory to guide its research; theory is especially important ininvestigations of the learning process. As Marcus discovered, many generations of psy-chologists have speculated about the nature of learning, and they have shown that the learn-ing process is governed by complex, yet lawful, principles. For instance, Marcus learned that

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although past psychologists attempted to use a stimulus-response approach to describe thelearning process, contemporary psychologists recognize that several processes are involvedin the acquisition or the elimination of a behavior.

Marcus now thinks that the knowledge gained from the learning class will undoubtedlyhelp in his search for an effective treatment of addictive behavior. You will learn from thisbook what Marcus discovered about learning in his course. I hope your experience will beas positive as his. We begin our exploration by defining lleeaarrnniinngg.

A DEFINITION OF LEARNING

What do we mean by the term learning? Learning can be defined as a relatively permanentchange in behavior that results from experience. This definition of learning has two impor-tant components. First, learning reflects a change in the potential for a behavior; it does notautomatically lead to a change in behavior. We must be sufficiently motivated to translatelearning into behavior. For example, although you may know the location of the campuscafeteria, you will not be motivated to go there until you are hungry. Also, we are sometimesunable to exhibit a particular behavior even though we have learned it and are sufficientlymotivated to exhibit it. For example, you may learn from friends that a good movie is play-ing but not go because you cannot afford it.

Second, the behavior changes that learning causes are not always permanent. As a result ofnew experiences, previously learned behavior may no longer be exhibited. For example, youmay learn a new and faster route to work and no longer take the old route. Also, we sometimesforget a previously learned behavior, and therefore are no longer able to exhibit that behavior.Forgetting the story line of a movie is one instance of the transient aspect of learning.

It is important to note that changes in behavior can be due to processes other than learn-ing. Our behavior can change as the result of a motivational change rather than becauseof learning. For example, we eat when we are hungry or study when we are worried aboutan upcoming exam. However, eating or studying may not necessarily be due to learning.Motivational changes, rather than learning, could trigger eating or studying. You havealready learned to eat, and your hunger motivates your eating behavior. Likewise, you havelearned to study to prevent failure, and your fear motivates studying behavior. Thesebehavior changes are temporary; when the motivational state changes again, the behaviorwill also change. Therefore, you will stop eating when you are no longer hungry and quitstudying when you no longer fear failing the examination. Becoming full or fatigued andceasing to eat or study is another instance when a temporary state, rather than learning,leads to a change in behavior.

Many behavioral changes are the result of maturation. For example, a young child mayfear darkness, while an adult does not show an emotional reaction to the dark. Thischange in emotionality reflects a maturational process and is not dependent on experienceswith darkness. Another example of the impact of maturation is a child who cannot open adoor at age 1, but can do so at age 2. The change in the child’s behavior reflects the physicalgrowth that allows the child to reach the doorknob.

Not all psychologists agree on the nature of the learning process. Some even argue thatinstinct, rather than experience, determines behavior. We begin our discussion by examining

LEARNING: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS2

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the view that instinctive processes govern human actions. Later in the chapter, we willexplore the origins of behavior theory, the view that emphasizes the central role of experi-ence in determining behavior. Throughout the rest of the text, we will discuss what we nowknow about the nature of learning.

HISTORICAL ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM

Psychology has not always been interested in the role of experience in governing humanbehavior. Early thinking focused on the importance of instinct in human activity.

FunctionalismFFuunnccttiioonnaalliissmm was an early school of psychology that emphasized the instinctive originsand adaptive function of behavior. According to this theory, the function of behavior is topromote survival through adaptive behavior. The functionalists expressed various ideas con-cerning the mechanisms controlling human behavior. The father of functionalism, JohnDewey (1886), suggested that the reflexive behaviors of lower animals have been replacedin humans by the mind, which has evolved as the primary mechanism for human survival.The mind enables the individual to adapt to the environment. The main idea in Dewey’sfunctionalism was that the manner of human survival differs from that of lower animals.

In contrast to Dewey, William James, also a nineteenth-century psychologist, argued thatthe major difference between humans and lower animals lies in the character of theirrespective inborn or instinctual motives. According to James (1890), human beings possessa greater range of iinnssttiinnccttss that guide behavior (e.g., rivalry, sympathy, fear, sociability, clean-liness, modesty, and love) than do lower animals. These social instincts directly enhance (orreduce) our successful interaction with our environment and, thus, our survival. WilliamJames also proposed that all instincts, both human and nonhuman, have a mentalistic qual-ity, possessing both purpose and direction. Unlike Dewey, James believed that instincts moti-vated the behavior of both humans and lower animals.

Some psychologists (see Troland, 1928) who opposed a mentalistic concept of instinctargued that internal biochemical forces motivate behavior in all species. Concepts devel-oped in physics and chemistry during the second half of the nineteenth century provideda framework for this mechanistic approach. Ernst Brucke stated in 1874 that “the livingorganism is a dynamic system in which the laws of chemistry and physics apply”—a viewthat led to great advances in physiology. This group of functionalists used a physiochemi-cal approach to explain the causes of human and animal behavior.

A number of scientists strongly criticized the instinct concept that the functionalistsproposed. First, anthropologists pointed to a variety of values, beliefs, and behaviors amongdifferent cultures, an observation inconsistent with the idea of universal human instincts.Second, Watson and Morgan’s (1917) observations of human infants led them to conclude thatonly three innate emotional responses existed—ffeeaarr, rage, and love—and that only a smallnumber of stimuli could elicit these responses. Third, some argued that the widespread anduncritical use of the instinct concept did not advance our understanding of the nature ofhuman behavior. Bernard’s (1924) analysis illustrates the weaknesses of the instinct theories

CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Learning 3

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of the 1920s. Bernard identified several thousand often-conflicting instincts the functional-ists had proposed. For example, Bernard described one instinct as “with a glance of the eyewe can estimate instinctively the age of a passerby” (p. 132). With this type of proposed“instinct,” it is not surprising that many psychologists reacted so negatively to the instinct concept.

In the 1920s, American psychology moved away from the instinct explanation of humanbehavior and began to emphasize the learning process. The psychologists who viewed expe-rience as the major determinant of human actions were called behaviorists. Contemporaryviews suggest that behavior is traceable to both instinctive and experiential processes. InChapter 3, we will look at instinctive processes and how experience affects instinctive reac-tions. In this chapter, we will examine the behaviorists’ ideas concerning the nature of thelearning process. We will discuss contemporary learning theories throughout the text.

BehaviorismBBeehhaavviioorriissmm is a school of thought that emphasizes the role of experience in governingbehavior. According to behaviorists, the important processes governing our behavior arelearned. We learn both the drives that initiate behavior and the specific behaviors motivatedby these drives through our interaction with the environment. A major goal of the behav-iorists is to determine the laws governing learning. A number of ideas contributed to thebehavioral view. The Greek philosopher Aristotle’s concept of the association of ideas is oneimportant origin of behaviorism.

Associationism

Suppose a friend approaches you after class and remarks that your party last week was ter-rific. This remark causes you to recall meeting a very attractive person at your party, whichin turn reminds you to ask this person for a date. This whole thought process reflects theconcept of the association of ideas: two events become associated with each other; and thus,when you think of one event, you automatically recall the other. Aristotle proposed that inorder for an aassssoocciiaattiioonn to develop, the two events must be contiguous (temporally paired)and either similar to or opposite each other.

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, British empiricists described the asso-ciation process in greater detail. John Locke (1690/1964) suggested that there are no innateideas, but instead we form ideas as a result of experience. Locke distinguished simple fromcomplex ideas. SSiimmppllee iiddeeaass are passive impressions received by the senses, or the mind’s rep-resentation of that sensory impression. In contrast, ccoommpplleexx iiddeeaass represent the combinationof simple ideas, or “the association of ideas.” The following example illustrates the differencebetween simple and complex ideas. You approach a rose in a garden. Your senses detect thecolor, odor, and texture of the rose. Each of these sensory impressions represents a simple idea.Your mind also infers that the smell is pleasant, which also is a simple idea. The combinationor association of these simple ideas creates the perception of a rose, which is a complex idea.

David Hume (1748/1955) hypothesized that three principles connect simple ideas intoa complex idea. One of these principles is rreesseemmbbllaannccee, the second is ccoonnttiigguuiittyy in time orplace, and the third is ccaauussee aanndd eeffffeecctt. Hume’s own words best illustrate these three prin-ciples, which, he proposed, are responsible for the association of ideas:


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A picture naturally leads our thoughts to the original [resemblance]. The mentionof the apartment in a building naturally introduces an inquiry . . . concerning theothers [contiguity]; and if we think of a wound, we can scarcely forebear reflectingon the pain which follows it [cause and effect]. (Hume, 1748/1955, p. 32)

Locke and Hume were philosophers, and it was left to later scientists to evaluate the valid-ity of the principle of the association of ideas. One of these scientists was Edward Thorndike,whose work we will discuss next.

Thorndike

The work of Edward Thorndike was another important influence on the development of thebehaviorist view. Thorndike’s 1898 publication of his studies established that animalbehavior could change as a consequence of experience. Thorndike’s ideas on learning andmotivation developed from his research with his famous puzzle box (see Figure 1.1). Hetested 13 kittens and young cats in 15 different puzzle boxes. In his studies, he placed a


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hungry cat in a locked box and put food just beyond its reach, outside the box. The cat couldescape to obtain food by exhibiting one of a number of possible behaviors. A differentresponse or sequence of responses was required to activate a release mechanism andescape from each box. For example, two effective behaviors were pulling on a string andpressing a pedal.

Thorndike (1898) observed that when a cat was initially placed into the puzzle box, thecat would engage in a number of behaviors, such as clawing, biting, meowing, and rubbing.Eventually, the cat would respond in a way that activated the release mechanism andopened the door to the puzzle box. The cat would then escape from the puzzle box and con-sume the food outside. On subsequent trials, the cat would engage in the other behaviors, buteventually would respond in the manner needed to activate the release mechanism andescape from the puzzle box. Thorndike found that not only did the cats escape, but with eachsuccessive trial, the time needed to activate the release decreased (see Figure 1.2). Further,Thorndike observed that the time the cat spent engaging in the other behaviors declined untilthe only behavior seen in the puzzle box was the one that activated the release mechanism.

Thorndike (1898) proposed that the cat formed an association between the stimulus (thebox) and the effective response. Learning, according to Thorndike, reflects the developmentof an S-R (stimulus-response) association. As the result of learning, the specific stimulus elic-its the appropriate response. Thorndike asserted that the animal is not conscious of this asso-ciation but is instead exhibiting a mechanistic hhaabbiitt in response to a particular stimulus. TheS-R connection developed because the cat received a rreewwaarrdd: The appropriate responseresulted in the ability to obtain food, which produced a satisfying state and strengthened theS-R bond. Thorndike labeled this strengthening of an S-R association by a satisfying eventor reward the llaaww ooff eeffffeecctt. Thus, the law of effect selects the appropriate response and con-nects it to the environment, thereby changing a chance act into a learned behavior.

Thorndike did not think that the law of effect applied only to animal behavior; he arguedthat it also describes the human learning process. Thorndike (1932) presented his humansubjects with a concept to learn. Telling his subjects that they had responded correctlyenabled the subjects to learn the appropriate response.

Although Thorndike’s views concerning the nature of the learning process were quitespecific, his ideas on the motivational processes that determine behavior were vague.According to Thorndike (1898), learning occurs, or previously learned behavior is exhibited,only if the animal or human is “ready.” Thorndike’s llaaww ooff rreeaaddiinneessss proposes that the ani-mal or human must be motivated to develop an association or to exhibit a previously estab-lished habit. Thorndike did not hypothesize about the nature of the motivation mechanism,leaving such endeavors to future psychologists. Indeed, the motivational basis of behaviorbecame a critical concern of the behaviorists.

Thorndike (1913) suggested a second means by which learning can occur. According toThorndike, gradually changing the stimulus that elicited a response could result in the associ-ation of that response to a totally new stimulus. Thorndike referred to this learning process asaassssoocciiaattiivvee sshhiiffttiinngg. To illustrate the associative shifting process, consider Thorndike’s exampleof teaching a cat to stand up on command. At first, a piece of fish is placed in front of a cat; whenthe cat stands to reach the fish, the trainer says “stand up.” After a number of trials, the traineromits the fish stimulus, and the verbal stimulus alone can elicit the standing response, even

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though this S-R association has not been rewarded. Although Thorndike believed that condi-tioning, or the development of a new S-R association, could occur through associative shifting,he proposed that the law of effect, rather than associative shifting, explains the learning of mostS-R associations. In the next section, we will discover that Thorndike’s associative shiftingprocess bears a striking resemblance to Pavlovian conditioning.


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B E F O R E Y O U G O O N

• What could Marcus learn about addiction from our discussion of behaviorism?

• How could Marcus use Thorndike’s law of effect to explain a possible cause of addiction?

S E C T I O N R E V I E W

• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.

• The functionalists emphasized the instinctive character of human behavior, but could notagree on the nature of instinctive processes or the number of instincts.

• The behaviorists’ view is that most human behavior is due to experience.

• Thorndike repeatedly placed individual cats in a puzzle box and found that the catsincreasingly used the behavior that enabled them to escape from the box.

• Thorndike believed that the effect of the food reward was to strengthen the associationbetween the stimulus of the puzzle box and the effective response.

• Thorndike’s law of readiness proposed that motivation was necessary for learning to occur.

• Thorndike believed that the gradual changing of the stimulus could lead to a new S-Rassociation through the associative shifting process.

Pavlov

How did the cat choose the correct response in Thorndike’s puzzle box studies? Thorndikeexplained the process as one of trial and error; the cat simply performed various behaviorsuntil it discovered a correct one. Reward then functioned to strengthen the association ofthe stimulus environment with that response. However, the research of Ivan Pavlov (1927)suggests that the learning process is anything but trial and error. According to Pavlov, def-inite rules determine which behavior occurs in the learning situation.

Pavlov was a physiologist, not a psychologist; his initial plan was to uncover the laws gov-erning digestion. He observed that animals exhibit numerous reflexive responses when foodis placed in their mouths (e.g., salivation, gastric secretion). The function of these responsesis to aid in the digestion process.

Pavlov observed during the course of his research that his dogs began to secrete stom-ach juices when they saw food or when it was placed in their food dishes. He concluded thatthe dogs had learned a new behavior because he had not observed this response duringtheir first exposure to the food. To explain his observation, he suggested that both humansand nonhuman animals possess innate or uunnccoonnddiittiioonneedd rreefflleexxeess. An unconditioned reflexconsists of two components—an uunnccoonnddiittiioonneedd ssttiimmuulluuss (UCS; e.g., food), which involun-tarily elicits the second component, the uunnccoonnddiittiioonneedd rreessppoonnssee (UCR; e.g., release ofsaliva). A new or ccoonnddiittiioonneedd rreefflleexx develops when a neutral environmental event occursalong with the unconditioned stimulus. As conditioning progresses, the neutral stimulusbecomes the ccoonnddiittiioonneedd ssttiimmuulluuss (CS; e.g., the sight of food) and is able to elicit the learned,or ccoonnddiittiioonneedd rreessppoonnssee (CR; e.g., the release of saliva).

The demonstration of a learned reflex in animals was an important discovery, illustrat-ing not only an animal’s ability to learn but the mechanism responsible for the learned


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Apparatus formeasuring flow

of saliva Meat PowderMeat PowderMeat Powder


behavior. According to Pavlov, any neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimuluscould, through conditioning, develop the capacity to elicit a CR. In his classic demonstra-tion of the conditioning process, he first implanted a tube, called a fistula, in a dog’s sali-vary glands to collect saliva (see Figure 1.3). He then presented the conditioned stimulus (thesound of a metronome) and shortly thereafter placed the unconditioned stimulus (meatpowder) in the dog’s mouth. On the first presentation, only the meat powder producedsaliva (UCR). However, with repeated pairings of the metronome with food, the metronomesound (CS) began to elicit saliva (CR), and the strength of the conditioned response increasedwith increased pairings of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.

Pavlov conducted an extensive investigation of the conditioning process, identifyingmany procedures that influence an animal’s learned behaviors. Many of his ideas are stillaccepted today. He observed that stimuli similar to the CS can also elicit the CR through aprocess he called ggeenneerraalliizzaattiioonn; further, the more similar the stimulus is to the CS, thegreater the generalization of the CR. Pavlov also showed that if, after conditioning, the con-ditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the strength of the con-ditioned response diminishes. Pavlov named this process of eliminating an establishedconditioned response eexxttiinnccttiioonn.

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Pavlov’s observations have profoundly influenced psychology. The conditioning processhe described, often called Pavlovian conditioning, has been demonstrated in various ani-mals, including humans. Conditioned responses to many different unconditioned stimulihave also been established, and psychologists have shown that most environmental stim-uli can become conditioned stimuli.

Watson

Neither Thorndike nor Pavlov was a behaviorist; each merely described the learningprocess. It was John B. Watson who demonstrated the importance of this process to humanbehavior. Although Pavlov’s research excited Watson, the work of another Russian, VladimirBechterev, was an even greater influence.

Whereas Pavlov used positive or pleasant UCSs, Bechterev employed aversive or unpleas-ant stimuli (e.g., shock) to study the conditioning process. Bechterev found that a condi-tioned leg withdrawal response could be established in dogs by pairing a neutral stimuluswith the shock. In his duplication of Bechterev’s studies, Watson (1916) showed that afterseveral pairings with electric shock, a previously neutral stimulus elicited a leg withdrawalresponse in dogs. Watson also was able to condition a toe or a finger withdrawal in humansubjects. Further, Watson conditioned not only a toe or a finger withdrawal response butemotional arousal (revealed by increased breathing).

Watson believed that abnormal, as well as normal, behavior is learned. He was particu-larly concerned with demonstrating that human fears are acquired through Pavlovian con-ditioning. To illustrate this point, Watson and Rayner (1920) showed a white rat to Albert,a healthy 9-month-old infant attending a daycare center. As the child reached for the rat,he heard a loud sound (UCS) produced as Watson hit a heavy iron rail with a hammer (seeFigure 1.4). After three CS-UCS pairings, Watson and Rayner observed that presentation ofthe rat (CS) alone produced a fear response in the child. The rat elicited strong emotionalarousal, demonstrated by the child’s attempts to escape from it, after six CS-UCS pairings.The authors observed a strong generalized response to similar objects: The child alsoshowed fear of a white rabbit and a white fur coat.

Although Watson had intended to extinguish Albert’s fear, Albert’s mother withdrew himfrom the daycare center before Watson could eliminate the infant’s fear. In 1924, Mary CoverJones, a student working with Watson, developed an effective technique for eliminating conditioned fears. A 3-year-old boy named Peter served as the subject in her study. Jonesobserved that Peter was quite frightened of white rabbits. When Peter was at ease, shebrought the rabbit into the same room while Peter was eating, keeping enough distancebetween the rabbit and Peter that the child was not alarmed. She then moved the rabbitcloser and closer to Peter, allowing him to grow accustomed to it in gradual steps. Eventually,the child was able to touch and hold the formerly fear-inducing animal. According to Jones,this procedure had eliminated fear by conditioning a positive emotional response to the rab-bit, produced by eating. The elimination of fear by the acquisition of a fear-inhibiting emo-tional response occurs through the conditioning of an opponent or antagonistic response,a process called ccoouunntteerrccoonnddiittiioonniinngg. Approximately 30 years later, Jones’s study played animportant role in the development of an effective treatment of human phobic behavior. Wewill discuss this treatment, systematic desensitization, in Chapter 5.

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• How might Pavlovian conditioning lead to addictive behavior?

• What could Marcus learn from the Mary Cover Jones study about a potential way toeliminate addictive behavior?


• Pavlov demonstrated that pairing a novel stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) with abiologically significant event (the unconditioned stimulus) results in the conditioning of anew reflex.

• Prior to conditioning, only the unconditioned stimulus elicited the unconditionedresponse, while after the pairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, theconditioned stimulus was able to elicit the conditioned response.

• Watson showed that an emotional fear response could be conditioned in humans.

• He found that a young child would become frightened of a rat if the rat was paired with aloud noise.


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• The child also generalized the fear to other white animals and objects.

• Jones discovered that pairing a feared rabbit with food could eliminate a child’s fear of therabbit through counterconditioning.

Many different views of human nature developed during the early part of the twen-tieth century. Some of these views stressed the mentalistic aspect of our behavior;others presented human beings as automatically responding to events in our environ-ment. The role of instincts was central to some theories of behavior; learning as thedeterminant of human action was the core of others. However, psychology was just inits infancy, and all these views remained essentially untested. Our understanding of thelearning process has increased during the past 75 years, as you will discover from theremainder of the text.

THE ETHICS OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH

In this text, we will discuss many studies that used both nonhuman animals and humansas subjects. There are limits to both types of research. Research must never violate princi-ples of ethical conduct. This chapter ends by examining the research that is permissible.

Conducting Research With HumansPsychological research with human subjects must be conducted in accordance with the prin-ciples published by the American Psychological Association (APA) in the book titled EthicalPrinciples in the Conduct of Research With Human Participants (APA, 1992). Let’s briefly discussthe ethical principles a psychologist must follow when conducting research with humans.

When a psychologist plans to conduct research using human subjects, an ethics commit-tee decides whether that research is permissible under the guidelines. The main principle thatdetermines whether the ethics committee will approve the research project is the demon-stration that the planned study maximizes potential gain in knowledge and minimizes the costsand potential risks to human subjects. In conducting human research, the psychologist typi-cally enters into an agreement with the subject. The subject learns the general purpose of thestudy and the potential risks of participating. It also is essential that no subject be coerced intoparticipation in the study. For example, at many schools, students are required to participatein psychological experiments as a course requirement in general psychology. This requirementis permissible only if an alternative activity is available to the student. Students at other uni-versities can volunteer to participate, but failing to volunteer cannot be counted against thestudent. The subject must also be free to withdraw from the study at any time.

As part of the agreement between the researcher and subject, the subject is informed thathe or she will receive some tangible rewards (such as money), personal help (such as coun-seling), or information regarding the study (primarily results of the study). The researchermust live up to this agreement because it is a contract between the researcher and partici-pant. After the study is completed, the subject is ddeebbrriieeffeedd by the experimenter, who provides information about the nature of the study. Further, the anonymity of the subject


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and confidentiality regarding the subject’s behavior in the study must be maintained. All ofthis information must be explained in a written agreement, and the subject must sign aniinnffoorrmmeedd ccoonnsseenntt agreement indicating that he or she is willing to participate in the study.

The Use of Nonhuman Animals in ResearchMany of the studies described in this text used as subjects nonhuman animals, includingmice, rats, birds, cats, dogs, and monkeys. Why do psychologists use nonhuman animals intheir research? There are several reasons. One is the problem of documenting causal rela-tionships. People differ greatly in terms of their behavior, which makes it difficult to obtaina representative sample. Because the behavior of animals is less variable, it is easier to showcausal relationships in lower animals than in humans.

Another reason for using nonhuman animals is that some types of research cannot beethically conducted with humans. For example, suppose that a psychologist suspects thatdamage to a certain area of the brain impairs memory storage. This idea may come fromcase histories of individuals with memory disorders who have tumors in this brain area. Butthese case histories cannot be used to infer causality. The only way to demonstrate causal-ity is to damage this area of the brain and see whether memory storage problems result.Obviously, we cannot do this type of research with humans; it would be unethical to exposea person to any treatment that would lead to a behavior pathology. The use of animals pro-vides a way to show that this brain area controls memory storage and that damage to thisarea leads to memory disorders.

Some people object to the use of animals for demonstrating that a certain area of thebrain controls memory storage, or for any other reason. Several arguments have beenoffered in defense of the use of animals for psychological research. Humans suffer frommany different behavior disorders, and animal research can provide us with knowledge con-cerning the causes of these disorders as well as treatments that can prevent or cure behav-ioral problems. As the noted psychologist Neal Miller (1985) points out, animal research hasled to a variety of programs, including rehabilitation treatments for neuromuscular disor-ders and the development of drug and behavioral treatments for phobias, depression, schiz-ophrenia, and other behavior pathologies.

Certainly, animals should not be harmed needlessly, and their discomfort should beminimized. Yet, when a great deal of human suffering may be prevented, the use of animalsin studies seems appropriate (Feeney, 1987). Animal research also has led to significantadvances in veterinary medicine, and far more animals are sacrificed for food, hunting, orfur coats than for research and education (Nichols & Russell, 1990). Currently, animalresearch is conducted only when approved by a committee, such as an Institutional AnimalUse and Care Committee (IACUC), that acts to ensure that animals are used humanely andin strict accordance with local, state, and federal guidelines.


• What would Marcus need to do to conduct a study using human subjects?

• How would Marcus justify the use of animals to study addictive behavior?


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• Ethical principles established by the American Psychological Association govern the kindof research that is permissible with human subjects.

• A researcher must demonstrate to an ethics committee that the planned study maximizesthe potential gain in psychological knowledge and minimizes the costs and potential risksto human subjects.

• Many psychologists use nonhuman animals as subjects in their research.

• One reason for using animal subjects is that causal relationships can be demonstrated inanimals in certain types of studies that cannot be ethically conducted with humans.

• The discomfort experienced by the animals should be minimized; however, a great deal ofhuman suffering can be prevented by conducting research with animals.

• Animal research must be approved by a committee, such as the IACUC, which acts toensure that animals are used in accordance with local, state, and federal guidelines.

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G Q U E S T I O N S

1. Functionalism and behaviorism present quite different explanations for the causes ofbehavior. Explain the differences between functionalism and behaviorism. Select abehavior. Explain that behavior using both the functionalist and behaviorist perspectives.

2. Pavlov and Thorndike had a significant impact on our understanding of the learningprocess. Describe their work, and indicate why it is important for learning theory.

3. Many individuals object to the use of animals in psychological research. Discuss the basisof their objections. Explain why some psychologists use animals in their studies. Is thereany way to reconcile these opposing perspectives?

K E Y T E R M S


associationassociative shiftingbehaviorismcause and effectcomplex ideasconditioned reflexconditioned response (CR)conditioned stimulus (CS)contiguitycounterconditioningdebriefedextinctionfearfunctionalism

generalizationhabitinformed consentinstinctlaw of effectlaw of readinesslearningresemblancerewardsimple ideasunconditioned reflexunconditioned response (UCR)unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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C H A P T E R 2

Traditional Learning Theories

15

THE OLDIES BUT GOODIES

Justin goes to the movies every Friday night. The Cinema Theater shows classicmovies like On the Waterfront and To Kill a Mockingbird. Although he has notmissed a show in almost a year, Justin was not always a fan of the classics. Beforegoing to college, his favorite movies were science fiction and adventure films. Justinespecially enjoyed the Star Wars movies; he probably saw each Star Wars movie atleast three times. Some of his friends are not as avid for movies, but Justin enjoysthem so much that he often goes by himself. His new preference developed in hisfirst semester at school. He met with his advisor during enrollment to discuss thecourses he should take. Four courses were required, but he could enroll in onecourse of his choosing. His advisor gave him a list of courses that would fulfill theuniversity’s General Education program. As he looked over the list, he spotted acourse titled “Introduction to Motion Pictures” offered by the Theater Department.Since he liked movies so much, Justin decided to take the course. At the first class,he received a list of 15 movies the class would see that semester. Justin had not seenmost of the movies on the list, and several of the films were not familiar to him. Hisinstructor informed the class that they would discuss each film’s strengths andweaknesses after seeing it. The first movie the class saw was High Noon. Justin hadseen many Western movies, but none compared with this one. It was not only actionpacked; it revealed well-defined characters. The next week, he saw Grapes of Wrath.He could not believe he would like a black-and-white movie, but it was wonderful.Every week, he saw a new and exciting movie. Around the middle of the semester,Justin started going to the theater in town every Friday night. The theater showed aHumphrey Bogart film festival, and several students in the class asked Justin to go.The Bogart movies were great, and he had a super time. He is now hooked on classicmovies.

Why does Justin go to the movies every Friday night? It seems his past enjoyable experi-ences are responsible for his present behavior. Yet how have Justin’s experiences been trans-lated into actions? Many psychologists have speculated on the nature of the learning

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