animal kingdom 1
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Animal KingdomAnimal KingdomThe animal kingdom is classified into three subkingdoms:The animal kingdom is classified into three subkingdoms:
11-- Subkingdom Protozoa:Subkingdom Protozoa:It includes seven phyla as the individuals possess one cell whichIt includes seven phyla as the individuals possess one cell which
performs all physiological activities.performs all physiological activities.
22-- Subkingdom Parazoa:Subkingdom Parazoa:It includes one phylum "Phylum" Porifera" as the individualsIt includes one phylum "Phylum" Porifera" as the individuals
have simple multicultural structures, and they commonly referredhave simple multicultural structures, and they commonly referredas sponges.as sponges.
Their cells are not differentiated in proper tissues.Their cells are not differentiated in proper tissues.
33-- Subkingdom Metazoa:Subkingdom Metazoa:It includes manyIt includes many-- celled animals, classified to different phyla.celled animals, classified to different phyla.
The body of the included animals consists of several cells whichThe body of the included animals consists of several cells which
are well differentiated into distinct types forming specializedare well differentiated into distinct types forming specialized
tissues, organs, and in many phyla systems could betissues, organs, and in many phyla systems could be
differentiated.differentiated.
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The phyla included in such subkingdom which areThe phyla included in such subkingdom which are
of our interest, and possess members that affect theof our interest, and possess members that affect theagricultural production could be outlined as follows:agricultural production could be outlined as follows:
Phylum PlatyhelminthesPhylum Platyhelminthes
Phylum NemathelminthesPhylum Nemathelminthes
Phylum AnnelidaPhylum Annelida
Phylum ArthropodaPhylum Arthropoda
Phylum MolluscaPhylum Mollusca
Phylum ChordataPhylum Chordata
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11-- Subkingdom Protozoa:Subkingdom Protozoa:Protozoan phyla include over Protozoan phyla include over 6565..000000 species, spread all over species, spread all over
the world wherever life exists. Members of Protozoa are unicellular,the world wherever life exists. Members of Protozoa are unicellular,
eukaryotic (nucleated) organisms. Although protozoans are singleeukaryotic (nucleated) organisms. Although protozoans are single
cells, they are also complete organisms. The cell must perform notcells, they are also complete organisms. The cell must perform not
just certain functions but also must retain the ability to perform all of just certain functions but also must retain the ability to perform all of
the functions demanded of an organism.the functions demanded of an organism.
Characteristics of Protozoa:Characteristics of Protozoa:
11.. Protozoa areProtozoa are singlesingle--celled (unicellular)celled (unicellular) microscopic, eukaryoticmicroscopic, eukaryotic
organisms that are noted for ability to move independently.organisms that are noted for ability to move independently.
22.. Protozoa live in many different environments. They can drift in theProtozoa live in many different environments. They can drift in the
ocean, creep across vegetation in fresh water rivers and ponds, crawlocean, creep across vegetation in fresh water rivers and ponds, crawl
in deep soil, and even reproduce in the bodies of other organisms.in deep soil, and even reproduce in the bodies of other organisms.
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33.. Most Protozoa areMost Protozoa are heterotrophicheterotrophic, obtaining their nutrients from their , obtaining their nutrients from their
hosts by ingesting small molecules or cells. These particles arehosts by ingesting small molecules or cells. These particles are
usually broken down in food vacules, membraneusually broken down in food vacules, membrane-- bound chambersbound chambers
that contain digestive enzymes. Some arethat contain digestive enzymes. Some are saprozoicsaprozoic and other areand other are
autotrophicautotrophic as inas in EuglenaEuglena..
44. Many species are free living, while others are parasites. Many species are free living, while others are parasites..55.. Free living live in any habitat where water or moisture is available atFree living live in any habitat where water or moisture is available at
same time during the year.same time during the year.
66.. Many species make upMany species make up zooplanktonzooplankton, a population of organisms that, a population of organisms that
constitutes one of the primary sources of energy in aquaticconstitutes one of the primary sources of energy in aquatic
ecosystems. They are the beginning of the food chain.ecosystems. They are the beginning of the food chain.
77.. Some free living protozoa live in the soil.Some free living protozoa live in the soil.
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88.. Parasitic protozoa usually have complex life cycles that take place inParasitic protozoa usually have complex life cycles that take place in
the cells, tissues and blood stream of their host. Several speciesthe cells, tissues and blood stream of their host. Several species
cause serious human diseases, including malaria, Amebiccause serious human diseases, including malaria, Amebicdysentery.dysentery.
99.. All protozoa reproduce All protozoa reproduce AsexuallyAsexually, usually by, usually by binarybinary fissionfission, in which, in which
protozoan divides into two identical individuals. Some speciesprotozoan divides into two identical individuals. Some species
reproduce byreproduce by multiplemultiple fissionfission which is a from of cell division in awhich is a from of cell division in anumber of identical individuals and or cysts in certain conditions.number of identical individuals and or cysts in certain conditions.
Protozoa also can reproduceProtozoa also can reproduce sexuallysexually by forming male and femaleby forming male and female
gametes or by conjugation (gametes or by conjugation (P arameciumP aramecium).).
1010.. Locomotion through pseudopodia as in amebas, flagella as inLocomotion through pseudopodia as in amebas, flagella as inEuglenids and cilia as in ciliates.Euglenids and cilia as in ciliates.
1111.. Some species possess chrom atophores and eye spots as inSome species possess chrom atophores and eye spots as in
EuglenaEuglena..
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1212.. AerobicAerobic respiration is the rule in many protozoans by simple diffusion.respiration is the rule in many protozoans by simple diffusion.Some are however capable of Some are however capable of anaerobicanaerobic respiration in the absencerespiration in the absenceoxygen in the surrounding media.oxygen in the surrounding media.
1313.. Excretion of catabolic nitrogenous wastes takes place by diffusionExcretion of catabolic nitrogenous wastes takes place by diffusionthrough the body surface.through the body surface.
1414.. Irritability, all protozoans respond to the environmental condition in theIrritability, all protozoans respond to the environmental condition in the
media like temperature, moisture, light, «.. etc. encystment is amedia like temperature, moisture, light, «.. etc. encystment is acommon phenomenon to resist unfavorable environmental conditions.common phenomenon to resist unfavorable environmental conditions.
Classification of protozoan phyla:Classification of protozoan phyla:
Subkingdom Protozoa includes seven phyla:Subkingdom Protozoa includes seven phyla:
AA-- Phylum: SarcomastigophoraPhylum: Sarcomastigophora11-- Subphylum:Subphylum: MastigophoraMastigophora
Class:Class: PhytomastigophoraPhytomastigophora
Autotrophic, free living protozoa, Ex. Autotrophic, free living protozoa, Ex. EuglenaEuglena..
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Class: ZoomastigophoraClass: Zoomastigophora
Heterotrophic, mostly parasites, Ex.Heterotrophic, mostly parasites, Ex. PhytomonasPhytomonas,, Tric homonasTric homonas
22-- Subphylum: OpalinataSubphylum: Opalinata
Mostly parasites, Ex.Mostly parasites, Ex. OpalinaOpalina,, P r oto palinaP r oto palina..
33-- Subphylum: SarcodinaSubphylum: SarcodinaFree living, parasites or symbiotantsFree living, parasites or symbiotants
Super Super--class: Rhizopodaclass: Rhizopoda
ItIt includesincludes 88 classes. saprophytic or parasitic protozoans.classes. saprophytic or parasitic protozoans.
Super Super--class: Actinopodaclass: Actinopoda
It includesIt includes 44 classes. Mostly marine, planktonic, some species areclasses. Mostly marine, planktonic, some species arefresh water.fresh water.
BB-- Phylum: LabyrinthomophoraPhylum: Labyrinthomophora
Small group living on algae, mostly marine.Small group living on algae, mostly marine.
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CC-- Phylum: ApicomplexaPhylum: Apicomplexa
All species are parasites, it includes two class, class All species are parasites, it includes two class, class SporozoaSporozoa is theis the
most important. Ex.most important. Ex. Eimeria, BabesiaEimeria, Babesia..
DD-- Phylum : ApicomplexaPhylum : Apicomplexa
All are parasites on lower invertebrates and vertebrates especially All are parasites on lower invertebrates and vertebrates especiallyfishes.fishes.
EE-- phylum: Microsoporaphylum: Microsopora
Parasites on arthropods and some lower vertebrates.Parasites on arthropods and some lower vertebrates.
FF-- Phylum : AscetosporaPhylum : Ascetospora
Small group that is parasites in invertebrates and some vertebrates.Small group that is parasites in invertebrates and some vertebrates.
GG-- Phylum : CiliophoraPhylum : Ciliophora
Most species free living, but many commensal, some parasiticMost species free living, but many commensal, some parasiticEx.Paramecium,Ex.Paramecium, Balant idium, V or t icellaBalant idium, V or t icella..
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Economic importanse of protozoa:Economic importanse of protozoa:
Protozoa are found wherever life exists and require moistureProtozoa are found wherever life exists and require moisture
whether they live. They from a large part of the floating plankton. Theywhether they live. They from a large part of the floating plankton. They
may have positive influence on the soil fertility through decayingmay have positive influence on the soil fertility through decaying
organic matter to be more easier for plants to absorb by some ciliatedorganic matter to be more easier for plants to absorb by some ciliated
protozoans. Others, like flagellated protozoans may play an importantprotozoans. Others, like flagellated protozoans may play an important
role in fixing nitrogen in the soil through encouraging the nitrogen fixingrole in fixing nitrogen in the soil through encouraging the nitrogen fixing
bacteria Azotobacter. On the other hand some Rhizopods may have abacteria Azotobacter. On the other hand some Rhizopods may have a
negative influence by feeding on such bacteria or the decaying organicnegative influence by feeding on such bacteria or the decaying organic
matter. Some of the most important diseases of humans, domesticmatter. Some of the most important diseases of humans, domestic
animals and economic plants are caused by parasitic protozoa.animals and economic plants are caused by parasitic protozoa.
Some parasitic protozoans will be discussed in derails.Some parasitic protozoans will be discussed in derails.
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Ex.Ex. 11-- Club root of Cabbage:Club root of Cabbage:
Roots of cabbage, cauliflower, raddish, turnip and other CruciferousRoots of cabbage, cauliflower, raddish, turnip and other Cruciferousplants are attacked by a pathogenic protozoan,plants are attacked by a pathogenic protozoan, P lasmodi o phoraP lasmodi o phora
brassicabrassica related to order Mycetozida, phylum Sarcomastigophora.related to order Mycetozida, phylum Sarcomastigophora.
Symptoms:Symptoms:The first symptoms on aboveThe first symptoms on above± ±ground parts vary with environmentalground parts vary with environmental
conditions. Temporary flagging (wilt) of leaves in the middle of brightconditions. Temporary flagging (wilt) of leaves in the middle of bright
days is often the first sign in cabbage and cauliflower. Plants may later days is often the first sign in cabbage and cauliflower. Plants may later
wilt permanently or they may recover to a condition of retarded growth.wilt permanently or they may recover to a condition of retarded growth.
Thus, stunting may be the only evidence of disease above ground.Thus, stunting may be the only evidence of disease above ground.Infected roots enlarge rapidly after infection to from "clubs" or Infected roots enlarge rapidly after infection to from "clubs" or
swellings on the roots, which take on a variety of shapes. In someswellings on the roots, which take on a variety of shapes. In some
hosts the clubbed roots take on a spindle shape, in others a sphericalhosts the clubbed roots take on a spindle shape, in others a spherical
shape along the root axis.shape along the root axis.
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Disease Cycle:Disease Cycle:
P. brassicaP. brassica is capable of surviving in the soil for is capable of surviving in the soil for 77--1010 years or longer years or longer
as resting spores. The resting spores can be spread from field to field byas resting spores. The resting spores can be spread from field to field by
infested soil, contaminated water supplies, infected transplants, infestedinfested soil, contaminated water supplies, infected transplants, infested
soil on farm machinery, and even by roving animals such as cattle. Whensoil on farm machinery, and even by roving animals such as cattle. When
soil conditions dictate, the resting spores of the pathogen geminate tosoil conditions dictate, the resting spores of the pathogen geminate to
produce zoospores, which are able to "swim" by means of flagella toproduce zoospores, which are able to "swim" by means of flagella to
infect susceptible plant root hairs. The germination of resting sporesinfect susceptible plant root hairs. The germination of resting spores
requires moist, acid soil and can occur over a wide temperature range of requires moist, acid soil and can occur over a wide temperature range of
((1212 --2727 C). Disease development is favored by high soil moisture andC). Disease development is favored by high soil moisture and
soil temperatures between, (soil temperatures between, (1818 ± ± 2525C).C).
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Although club root has been found in soils exhibiting a wide pH Although club root has been found in soils exhibiting a wide pH
range fromrange from 44..55--88..11, the disease is primarily associated with acid soils., the disease is primarily associated with acid soils.
Within the infected plant roots, the organism develops rapidly,Within the infected plant roots, the organism develops rapidly,
causing an increase in the number and size of cells, which results incausing an increase in the number and size of cells, which results in
"clubbing" During the development of the organism in the plant, new"clubbing" During the development of the organism in the plant, new
zoospores are produced; these are capable of infecting the same plantzoospores are produced; these are capable of infecting the same plant
or adjacent plants and, thus, repeating the cycle. Eventually, restingor adjacent plants and, thus, repeating the cycle. Eventually, resting
spores are formed within the diseased plant tissue, and these arespores are formed within the diseased plant tissue, and these are
released into the soil when the plant roots disintegrate.released into the soil when the plant roots disintegrate.
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Club root cabbageClub root cabbage
Plasmodiophora brassicaPlasmodiophora brassica
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Treatment and Prevention:Treatment and Prevention:There are several approaches to the control of club root, all of which mayThere are several approaches to the control of club root, all of which may
be used where appropriate. The first defense should be aimed at excludingbe used where appropriate. The first defense should be aimed at excluding
the disease by avoiding the purchase or use of infected transplants.the disease by avoiding the purchase or use of infected transplants.
Regardless of your source, inspect all seedlings before transplanting andRegardless of your source, inspect all seedlings before transplanting and
discard any diseased plants. If transplants are to be grown, care must bediscard any diseased plants. If transplants are to be grown, care must be
taken to use clean or sterile soil mixes for the seed bed.taken to use clean or sterile soil mixes for the seed bed.
If infected plants have occurred in a garden, a tong rotation of crops (If infected plants have occurred in a garden, a tong rotation of crops (55
years) combined with liming may reduce or completely control the disease.years) combined with liming may reduce or completely control the disease.
The pH of the soil should be raised toThe pH of the soil should be raised to 77..22 or higher with hydrated lime.or higher with hydrated lime.Family crop as part of the rotation crop.Family crop as part of the rotation crop.
Although resistant cultivars of cabbage are not readily available, there is Although resistant cultivars of cabbage are not readily available, there is
at least one, Badger Shipper, that has a fair amount of resistance. In someat least one, Badger Shipper, that has a fair amount of resistance. In some
situations this cultivar may solve the control problem.situations this cultivar may solve the control problem.
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22-- White spot diseaseWhite spot disease
The largest protozoan parasite of fish, ciliatedThe largest protozoan parasite of fish, ciliated I c hthyo phthiriusI c hthyo phthirius
mul t ifilismul t ifilis, phylum Ciliophora, phylum Ciliophora
Symptoms:Symptoms:Clinically fish become hyperactive with fish flashing and cuttingClinically fish become hyperactive with fish flashing and cutting
against rocks or sides of aquariums. As the trophozoites enlarge theyagainst rocks or sides of aquariums. As the trophozoites enlarge they
cause hyperplasia of the epidermis with white spots forming on the skincause hyperplasia of the epidermis with white spots forming on the skin
and gills. Severely infected fish may have respiratory problems and die.and gills. Severely infected fish may have respiratory problems and die.
Histologically there is epidermal hyperplasia with the encystedHistologically there is epidermal hyperplasia with the encysted
trophozoite present in the epidermis.trophozoite present in the epidermis.
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Disease Cycle:Disease Cycle:
The life cycle is direct and there are three phases of the lifeThe life cycle is direct and there are three phases of the lifecycle of this protozoa.cycle of this protozoa.
Adult phaseAdult phase-- it is embedded in the skin or gills of the fish, causingit is embedded in the skin or gills of the fish, causing
irritation (with the fish showing signs of irritation) and the appearance of irritation (with the fish showing signs of irritation) and the appearance of
small white nodules. As the parasite grows it feeds on red blood cells andsmall white nodules. As the parasite grows it feeds on red blood cells andskin cells. After a few days it bores itself out of the fish and falls to theskin cells. After a few days it bores itself out of the fish and falls to the
bottom of the aquarium.bottom of the aquarium.
Cyst phaseCyst phase-- after falling to the bottom, the adult parasite forms into aafter falling to the bottom, the adult parasite forms into a
cyst with rapid cell divisions occurringcyst with rapid cell divisions occurring..Free swimmingFree swimming phasephase-- after the cyst phase, aboutafter the cyst phase, about 10001000 freefree
swimming young swim upwards looking for a host. If a host is not foundswimming young swim upwards looking for a host. If a host is not found
withinwithin 22 toto 33 days, the parasite dies. Once a host is found the wholedays, the parasite dies. Once a host is found the whole
cycle begins a new.cycle begins a new.
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These three phases take aboutThese three phases take about 44 weeks atweeks at 7070 F but onlyF but only 55 days atdays at 8080 F. For F. For
this reason it is recommended that the aquarium water be raised to aboutthis reason it is recommended that the aquarium water be raised to about 8080
for the duration of the treatment. If the fish can stand it, raise the temperaturefor the duration of the treatment. If the fish can stand it, raise the temperature
even higher up toeven higher up to 8585..
Treatment and Prevention:Treatment and Prevention:
It is only the freeIt is only the free-- swimming stage of the parasite that is susceptible toswimming stage of the parasite that is susceptible to
treatment; neither the trophonts under the epithelium or the tomont cysts cantreatment; neither the trophonts under the epithelium or the tomont cysts can
be killed. So any treatment plan has to be carried out over a period of time inbe killed. So any treatment plan has to be carried out over a period of time in
order to kill the emerging parasites. This in turn depends on temperature. Atorder to kill the emerging parasites. This in turn depends on temperature. At 77C the life cycle will take six weeks whereas atC the life cycle will take six weeks whereas at 2525 C it will be complete in aC it will be complete in a
week. Tomites (free swimming) stage could be killed by treating water withweek. Tomites (free swimming) stage could be killed by treating water with
malachite green, Formaline or KMnOmalachite green, Formaline or KMnO44..
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** An alternative treatment is prolonged salt immersion at An alternative treatment is prolonged salt immersion at 11--22 pptppt
(parts per thousand), i.e.(parts per thousand), i.e. 11--22 grams per liter.grams per liter.
**Water should be monitored during the treatment course in caseWater should be monitored during the treatment course in case
there is any loss of filter activity.there is any loss of filter activity.
** It is believed that fish that survive an attack of the disease have anIt is believed that fish that survive an attack of the disease have an
in creased immunity against future attacks.in creased immunity against future attacks.
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White spot diseaseWhite spot diseaseIchthyophthirius multifilisIchthyophthirius multifilis
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Ex.Ex. 33 Coccidia:Coccidia:Coccidia cause a greater economic loss among domestic andCoccidia cause a greater economic loss among domestic and
wild animals in temperate climates. They are of major importance towild animals in temperate climates. They are of major importance topoultry raisers and produce serious disease in rabbits and cattle.poultry raisers and produce serious disease in rabbits and cattle.Many other animals frequently suffer from their attacks. The coccidianMany other animals frequently suffer from their attacks. The coccidianare most commonly parasites of the epithelial cells of some parts of are most commonly parasites of the epithelial cells of some parts of the intestine, although some species attack the liver and other the intestine, although some species attack the liver and other
organs.organs.
Eimeria perf ormanceEimeria perf ormance andand E . st eidaeE . st eidae of rabbits are representativeof rabbits are representative
examples of coccidian.examples of coccidian.
Symptoms:Symptoms:In light cases there are often no symptoms but in severe attacksIn light cases there are often no symptoms but in severe attacksthere is extensive destruction of the epithelium in the chosen sites,there is extensive destruction of the epithelium in the chosen sites,with sloughing of the walls and severe hemorrhage. Also, symptomswith sloughing of the walls and severe hemorrhage. Also, symptomsare loss of appetite, emaciation, weakness, pallor, diarrhea, bloodare loss of appetite, emaciation, weakness, pallor, diarrhea, blood
feces, and sometimes fever.feces, and sometimes fever.
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Life Cycle:Life Cycle:
The infection start when the animal swallows ripe oocysts mixing with theThe infection start when the animal swallows ripe oocysts mixing with theinfested food. Each oocyst containsinfested food. Each oocyst contains 44 sporocysts each withsporocysts each with 22 sporozoites.sporozoites.
The sporozoites liberated from ingested oocysts penetrate cells in their The sporozoites liberated from ingested oocysts penetrate cells in their
chosen sites of development, feed on the contents, and named as thechosen sites of development, feed on the contents, and named as the
trophozoites. Then, they grow to schizonts which divide into a cluster of trophozoites. Then, they grow to schizonts which divide into a cluster of
spindlespindle--shaped merozoites. All of the above mentioned steps referred asshaped merozoites. All of the above mentioned steps referred as
schizogony. After one, two, or more schizonic cycles, the merozoites developschizogony. After one, two, or more schizonic cycles, the merozoites develop
into gametocysts to start the gamogony cycle. Two types of gametocysts areinto gametocysts to start the gamogony cycle. Two types of gametocysts are
developed, the macrogametocysts which develop later to macrogametes;developed, the macrogametocysts which develop later to macrogametes;
and the microgametocysts. Which produce later a swarm of minute twoand the microgametocysts. Which produce later a swarm of minute two--
flagellated microgametes. The microgametes fertilize the macrogametes,flagellated microgametes. The microgametes fertilize the macrogametes,
usually after the latter have escaped from the cells which mothered them.usually after the latter have escaped from the cells which mothered them.
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The macrogmetes are provided with cyst walls, but a small openingThe macrogmetes are provided with cyst walls, but a small opening
celled a microphyle at one end through which the microgamets arecelled a microphyle at one end through which the microgamets are
able to enter. The resulting zygote is a young oocyst, ready for able to enter. The resulting zygote is a young oocyst, ready for
escape from the host in which it was developed and prepared toescape from the host in which it was developed and prepared to
withstand conditions in outside until opportunity to enter another hostwithstand conditions in outside until opportunity to enter another host
is afforded. The oocysts are undeveloped when they leave the hostis afforded. The oocysts are undeveloped when they leave the host
with the feces and require almost one week to develop. Developmentwith the feces and require almost one week to develop. Developmenttakes place in two steps, (takes place in two steps, (11) a division of the nucleus and cytoplasm) a division of the nucleus and cytoplasm
into four parts called sporocysts, (into four parts called sporocysts, (22) the further development of these) the further development of these
sporoblasts into sporocysts with resistant cyst walls, and the divisionsporoblasts into sporocysts with resistant cyst walls, and the division
of their contents into two sporozoites for each one. The sporocystsof their contents into two sporozoites for each one. The sporocystsare cysts within cysts. The ripe oocysts are considered the infectiveare cysts within cysts. The ripe oocysts are considered the infective
stage which repeat the life cycle as a suitable host swallow, it with itsstage which repeat the life cycle as a suitable host swallow, it with its
food.food.
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Treatment and Prevention:Treatment and Prevention:11.. Following of new means and technology in rearingFollowing of new means and technology in rearing
houses.houses.
22.. Isolation of the infected animals, and elimination of theIsolation of the infected animals, and elimination of theseverely infected ones.severely infected ones.
33.. Addition of suitable drugs to food or water are capable of Addition of suitable drugs to food or water are capable of
preventing infection prior to its establishment.preventing infection prior to its establishment.