Simple Present

The use

When simple present is used?

Generally speaking simple present is used to describe actions that happen in the present.

Ex: We study simple present.

Simple present is used with:

1-Habbits & routines.

Everyday- everyweek –evry morning………..

Ex: "I work on my website every day."

2-Adverbs of frequency: - always, usually, often, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely, never..

Example : "I always get up at 6.00."

"I never drink coffee before 12.00."

3- FACT (something which is true 100/)

Example: Water boils at 100 c*

Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen.

Most animals kill only for food.

4-things in general

Example: The sun rises in the East.

5-fixed arrangements, scheduled events

Example: The plane flies to London every Monday at 9:00

6- Permanent actions

Example : I live in Germany."

Q) "What do you do?" A) "I'm a trainee."

7- Instructions

Open your books at page 34

8 To talk about tastes/ feeling / opinion.

            -  Peter likes Chinese food. I think Chinese food is ……….            -  Julie doesn't like fish. I don’t argue………..            -  Their children love chocolate.

9-describtion:

Example: She is tall she is thin she is pretty….

The Form:

The verb,in simple present ,changes only with : he ; she & it

1-) He ,She , it + verb +S

2) verbs ending in : ch – o - sh – ss-x

We add -es to the infinitive.

Examples: - he watches - he passes - he goes - he does

-he mixes

3) verbs ending in –y

verbs ending in 'y' preceded by a consonant: Change 'y' to 'i' and add 'es'.

Example: I hurry - he hurries

But verbs ending in 'y' preceded by a vowel (a, e, i, o, u): Add -s.

Example: I play - he plays

 Present Continuous

The use

When simple continuous Is used ?

1 Use the Present Continuous is used to express the idea that something is happening now, at this very moment.

Examples:

You are learning English now.

Are you sleeping?

I am not standing.

Is he sitting or standing?

They are reading their books.

Look ! he is ciming.

Listen I m explaining

2 Longer Actions in Progress Now

"now" can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress;

Examples:

I am studying to become a doctor.

I am not studying to become a dentist. .

Are you working on any special projects at work?

3 Near Future

Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to indicate that something will happen in the near future.

Examples:

I am meeting some friends after work.

I am not going to the party tonight.

Is he visiting his parents next weekend?

Isn't he coming with us tonight?

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. [verbs of sense feel ;hear see smell …. [verbs expressing feelings and emotion : adore appeciate like desire fear love mind want wish…..

Examples:

She is loving this chocolate ice cream. Not Correct

She loves this chocolate ice cream. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

You are still watching TV.

Are you still watching TV?

The form:

To be (in simple present) + verb +ing

Simple Present / Present Continuous

1- Using the words in parentheses, complete the text below with the appropriate tenses

1. Every Monday, Sally (drive) her kids to football practice.

2. Usually, I (work) as a secretary at ABT, but this summer I (study) French at a language school in Paris. That is

why I am in Paris.

3. Shhhhh! Be quiet! John (sleep).

4. Don't forget to take your umbrella. It (rain).

5. I hate living in Seattle because it (rain, always).

6. I'm sorry I can't hear what you (say) because everybody (talk) so loudly.

7. Justin (write, currently) a book about his adventures in Tibet. I hope he can find a good publisher when he is

finished.

8. Jim: Do you want to come over for dinner tonight?

Denise: Oh, I'm sorry, I can't. I (go) to a movie tonight with some friends.

9. The business cards (be, normally ) printed by a company in New York. Their prices (be) inexpensive, yet the

quality of their work is quite good.

10. This delicious chocolate (be) made by a small chocolatier in Zurich, Switzerland.

 

2- A Trekking Journal November 12, 1997

Today (be) the second day of my trek around Mount Annapurna. I am exhausted and my legs (shake); I just hope

I am able to complete the trek. My feet (kill, really) me and my toes (bleed), but I (want, still) to continue.

Nepal is a fascinating country, but I have a great deal to learn. Everything (be) so different, and I (try) to adapt to

the new way of life here. I (learn) a little bit of the language to make communication easier; unfortunately, I (learn,

not) foreign languages quickly. Although I (understand, not) much yet, I believe that I (improve, gradually).

I (travel, currently) with Liam, a student from Leeds University in England. He (be) a nice guy, but impatient. He

(walk, always) ahead of me and (complain) that I am too slow. I (do) my best to keep up with him, but he is

younger and stronger than I am. Maybe, I am just feeling sorry for myself because I am getting old.

Right now, Liam (sit) with the owner of the inn. They (discuss) the differences between life in England and life in

Nepal. I (know, not) the real name of the owner, but everybody (call, just) him Tam. Tam (speak) English very well

and he (try) to teach Liam some words in Nepali. Every time Tam (say) a new word, Liam (try) to repeat it.

Unfortunately, Liam (seem, also) to have difficulty learning foreign languages. I just hope we don't get lost and

have to ask for directions.

Simple past

The use

When simple past is used?

the Simple Past is used to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past.

Examples:.

I didn't see a play yesterday.

Last year, I didn't travel to Korea.

Did you have dinner last night?

Simple past is used with:

Yesterday- last –before- ago- when-after-(a date which belong to the past ex: 2010) –for –never –in the morning(if you ‘re in the afternoon) – in the past

Examples:

-I saw a movie yesterday

-Last year, I traveled to Japan.

-A: How long did you wait for them?-B: We waited for one hour.

-I studied They never went to school

- French when I was a child.

-He didn't like tomatoes before.

-Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?

-We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.

-People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.

2 A Series of Completed Actions

We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.

Examples:

I finished work,I walked to the beach, and I found a nice place to swim.

He arrived from the airport at 8:00,I checked into the hotel at 9:00, and I met the others at 10:00.

Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?

7. Forming the simple past tense

With most verbs, the simple past is created simply by adding -ED. However, with some verbs, you need to add -D or change the ending . Here are the rules:

Verb ending in... How to make the simple past Examples

E Add -D live liveddate dated

Consonant +y Change y to i, then add -ED try triedcry cried

One vowel + one consonant(but NOT w or y)

Double the consonant, then add –ED

tap tappedcommit committed

anything else including w

Add –ED

boil boiledfill filledhand handedshow showed

Past Continuous

The use

When past continuous is used?

The past continuous describes actions or events in a time before now, which began in the past and was still going on at the time of speaking. In other words, it expresses an unfinished or incomplete action in the past.

Examples: You were studying when she called.

1- Interruption

the Past Continuous is used to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.

Examples:

I was watching TV when she called.

When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.

While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.

What were you doing when the earthquake started?

I was listening to my iPod, so I didn't hear the fire alarm.

You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off.

While John was sleeping last night, someone stole his car.

Sammy was waiting for us when we got off the plane.

While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went off.

A: What were you doing when you broke your leg?B: I was snowboarding.

2 Parallel Actions

When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions were happening at the same time. The actions are parallel.

Examples:

I was studying while he was making dinner.

While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television.

Were you listening while he was talking?

I wasn't paying attention while I was writing the letter, so I made several mistakes.

What were you doing while you were waiting?

Thomas wasn't working, and I wasn't working either.

They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.

When I walked into the office, several people were busily typing, some were talking on the phones, the boss was yelling directions, and customers were waiting to be helped. One customer was yelling at a secretary and waving his hands. Others were complaining to each other about the bad service.

While vs. When

When you talk about things in the past, "when" is most often followed by the verb tense Simple Past, whereas "while" is usually followed by Past Continuous. "While" expresses the idea of "during that time." Study the examples below. They have similar meanings, but they emphasize different parts of the sentence.

Examples: I was studying when she called. While I was studying, she called.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Past.

Examples: Jane was being at my house when you arrived. Not Correct

Jane was at my house when you arrived. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples: You were just studying when she called. // Were you just studying when she called?

The form

To be in (simple past)+ verb +ing

Use the words in parentheses; complete the text below with the appropriate tenses,

1. A: What (you, do) when the accident occurred?

B: I (try) to change a light bulb that had burnt out.

2. After I (find) the wallet full of money, I (go, immediately) to the police and (turn) it in.

3. The doctor (say) that Tom (be) too sick to go to work and that he (need) to stay at home for a

couple of days.

4. Sebastian (arrive) at Susan's house a little before 9:00 PM, but she (be, not) there. She (study, at

the library) for her final examination in French.

5. Sandy is in the living room watching television. At this time yesterday, she (watch, also) television.

That's all she ever does!

6. A: I (call) you last night after dinner, but you (be, not) there. Where were you?

B: I (work) out at the fitness center.

7. When I (walk) into the busy office, the secretary (talk) on the phone with a customer, several clerks

(work, busily) at their desks, and two managers (discuss, quietly) methods to improve customer

service.

8. I (watch) a mystery movie on TV when the electricity went out. Now I am never going to find out how

the movie ends.

9. She (be) in the room when John told me what happened, but she didn't hear anything because she

(listen, not).

10. It's strange that you (call) because I (think, just) about you.

11. The Titanic (cross) the Atlantic when it (strike) an iceberg.

12. When I entered the bazaar, a couple of merchants (bargain, busily) and (try) to sell their goods to

naive tourists who (hunt) for souvenirs. Some young boys (lead) their donkeys through the narrow

streets on their way home. A couple of men (argue) over the price of a leather belt. I (walk) over to a

man who (sell)fruit and (buy) a banana.

13. The firemen (rescue) the old woman who (be) trapped on the third floor of the burning building.

14. She was so annoying! She (leave, always) her dirty dishes in the sink. I think she (expect, actually)

me to do them for her.

2-

Last night, while I was doing my homework, Angela (call). She said she (call) me on her cell phone

from her biology classroom . I asked her if she (wait) for class, but she said that the professor was at

the front of the hall lecturing while she (talk) to me. I couldn't believe she (make) a phone call during

the lecture. I asked what was going on.

She said her biology professor was so boring that several of the students (sleep, actually) in class.

Some of the students (talk) about their plans for the weekend and the student next to her (draw) a

picture of a horse. When Angela (tell) me she was not satisfied with the class, I (mention) that my

biology professor was quite good and (suggest) that she switch to my class.

While we were talking, I (hear) her professor yell, "Miss, are you making a phone call?" Suddenly, the

line went dead. I (hang) up the phone and went to the kitchen to make dinner. As I (cut) vegetables for

a salad, the phone rang once again. It (be) Angela, but this time she wasn't sitting in class.

Present Perfect Simple

The use

When present perfect simple is used?

1- We use the Present Perfect to say that an action started in the past and finished in the present (at the moment of speaking).It is also used to show that an action started in the past and still continue in the present and it may continue towards the future

Examples:

I have read this book.

She has been in canada.

People have not traveled to Mars.

Have you read the book yet?

Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.

Man has walked on the Moon.

Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.

2- the present perfect is used with :

For- since-already- yet- recently- so far (up to now)- never – ever- lately- still-

Examples:

My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.

You have grown since the last time I saw you.

James has not finished his homework yet.

Bill has still not arrived.

I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester.

I have had a cold for two weeks.

She has been in England for six months.

Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.

3-For & since

I have been here for 20 minutes. I have been here since 9 o'clock. John hasn't called for 6 months. John hasn't called since February. He has worked in New York for a long time. He has worked in New York since he left school.

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

You have only seen that movie one time.

Have you only seen that movie one time?

4-The form

To have in ( simple present) + pastparticiple

Present Perfect Continuous

The use

1- When present perfevt is used ?

We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect Continuous.

Examples:

They have been talking for the last hour.

She has been working at that company for three years.

What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes?

James has been teaching at the university since June.

We have been waiting here for over two hours!

Why has Nancy not been taking her medicine for the last three days?

2- Present perfect continuous is used with:

For- since-already- yet- recently- so far (up to now)- never – ever- lately- still-

Examples:

Recently, I have been feeling really tired.

She has been watching too much television lately.

Have you been exercising lately?

Mary has been feeling a little depressed.

Lisa has not been practicing her English.

What have you been doing?

3-The form

To have (in simple past )+ present participle

Use the words in parentheses, complete the text below with the appropriate tenses,

1. A: Did you like the movie "Star Wars?"

B: I don't know. I (see, never) that movie.

2. Sam (arrive) in San Diego a week ago.

3. My best friend and I (know) each other for over fifteen years. We still get together once a week.

4. Stinson is a fantastic writer. He (write) ten very creative short stories in the last year. One day, he'll

be as famous as Hemingway.

5. I (have, not) this much fun since I (be) a kid.

6. Things (change) a great deal at Coltech, Inc. When we first (start) working here three years ago, the

company (have, only) six employees. Since then, we (expand) to include more than 2000 full-time

workers.

7. I (tell) him to stay on the path while he was hiking, but he (wander) off into the forest and (be) bitten

by a snake.

8. Listen Donna, I don't care if you (miss) the bus this morning. You (be) late to work too many times.

You are fired!

9. Sam is from Colorado, which is hundreds of miles from the coast, so he (see, never) the ocean. He

should come with us to Miami.

10. How sad! George (dream) of going to California before he died, but he didn't make it. He (see,

never) the ocean.

11. In the last hundred years, traveling (become) much easier and very comfortable. In the 19th

century, it (take) two or three months to cross North America by covered wagon. The trip (be) very

rough and often dangerous. Things (change) a great deal in the last hundred and fifty years. Now you

can fly from New York to Los Angeles in a matter of hours.

12. Jonny, I can't believe how much you (change) since the last time I (see) you. You (grow) at least a

foot!

13. This tree (be) planted by the settlers who (found) our city over four hundred years ago.

14. This mountain (be, never) climbed by anyone. Several mountaineers (try) to reach the top, but

nobody (succeed, ever). The climb is extremely difficult and many people (die) trying to reach the

summit.

15. I (visit, never) Africa, but I (travel) to South America several times. The last time I (go) to South

America, I (visit) Brazil and Peru. I (spend) two weeks in the Amazon, (hike) for a week near Machu

Picchu, and (fly) over the Nazca Lines.

2-

Since computers were first introduced to the public in the early 1980's, technology (change) a great

deal. The first computers (be) simple machines designed for basic tasks. They (have, not) much

memory and they (be, not) very powerful. Early computers were often quite expensive and customers

often (pay) thousands of dollars for machines which actually (do) very little. Most computers (be)

separate, individual machines used mostly as expensive typewriters or for playing games.

Times (change). Computers (become) powerful machines with very practical applications.

Programmers (create) a large selection of useful programs which do everything from teaching foreign

languages to bookkeeping. We are still playing video games, but today's games (become) faster, more

exciting interactive adventures. Many computer users (get, also) on the Internet and (begin)

communicating with other computer users around the world. We (start) to create international

communities online. In short, the simple, individual machines of the past (evolve) into an international

World Wide Web of knowledge.

Past PerfectThe use

When past perfect is used?

1-The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.

Example:

You had studied English before you moved to New York.

Had you studied English before you moved to New York?

You had not studied English before you moved to New York.

2- Completed Action Before Something in the Past

Examples:

I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Hauai.

I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.

Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times.

Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand?

She only understood the movie because she had read the book.

Kristine had never been to an opera before last night.

We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked in advance.

A: Had you ever visited the U.S. before your trip in 2006?B: Yes, I had been to the U.S. once before.

3- Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous Verbs)

we use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past.

Examples:

We had had that car for ten years before it broke down.

By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years.

They felt bad about selling the house because they had owned it for more than forty years.

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples: You had previously studied English before you moved to New York.

Had you previously studied English before you moved to New York?

The form

To have (simple past)+ pastparticiple

Past Perfect Continuous

The use

When past perfect continuous?

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past. "For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the duration does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the past.

Examples:

You had been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.

Had you been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived?

You had not been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.

1 Duration Before Something in the Past

Examples:

They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.

She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business.

How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?

Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work.

James had been teaching at the university for more than a year before he left for Asia.

A: How long had you been studying Turkish before you moved to Ankara?B: I had not been studying Turkish very long.

2 Cause of Something in the Past

Using the Past Perfect Continuous before another action in the past is a good way to show cause and effect.

Examples:

Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.

Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending class.

Past Continuous vs. Past Perfect Continuous

If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since Friday," many English speakers choose to use the Past Continuous rather than the Past Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Past Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Past Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the past. Study the examples below to understand the difference.

Examples:

He was tired because he was exercising so hard.THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WAS TIRED BECAUSE HE WAS EXERCISING AT THAT EXACT MOMENT.

He was tired because he had been exercising so hard.THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WAS TIRED BECAUSE HE HAD BEEN EXERCISING OVER A PERIOD OF TIME. IT IS POSSIBLE THAT HE WAS STILL EXERCISING AT THAT MOMENT OR THAT HE HAD JUST FINISHED.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Past Perfect.

Examples:

The motorcycle had been belonging to George for years before Tina bought it. Not Correct

The motorcycle had belonged to George for years before Tina bought it. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

You had only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived.

Had you only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived?

The form:

[had been + present participle]

Simple Future

The use

When simple future is used?

Simple future is use to talk about action that will happen in the futrue

Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to." Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings.

The form Will

1 "Will" to Express a Voluntary Action

"Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. A voluntary action is one the speaker offers to do for someone else. Often, we use "will" to respond to someone else's complaint or request for help. We also use "will" when we request that someone help us or volunteer to do something for us. Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we refuse to voluntarily do something.

Examples:

I will send you the information when I get it.

I will translate the email, so Mr. Smith can read it.

Will you help me move this heavy table?

Will you make dinner?

I will not do your homework for you.

I won't do all the housework myself!

A: I'm really hungry.B: I'll make some sandwiches.

A: I'm so tired. I'm about to fall asleep.B: I'll get you some coffee.

A: The phone is ringing.B: I'll get it.

Simple future is used with :

Tomorrow,next , by a date whish belong to the future(ex:2020)

"Will" to express a Promise

Examples:

I will call you when I arrive.

If I am elected President of the United States, I will make sure everyone has access to inexpensive health insurance.

I promise I will not tell him about the surprise party.

Don't worry, I'll be careful.

I won't tell anyone your secret.

FORM Be Going To

[am/is/are + going to + verb]

"Be going to" to Express a Plan

"Be going to" expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the idea that a person intends to do something in the future.

Examples:

He is going to spend his vacation in Hawaii.

She is not going to spend her vacation in Hawaii.

A: When are we going to meet each other tonight?

B: We are going to meet at 6 PM.

I'm going to be an actor when I grow up.

Michelle is going to begin medical school next year.

They are going to drive all the way to Alaska.

Who are you going to invite to the party?

A: Who is going to make John's birthday cake?B: Sue is going to make John's birthday cake.

You are going to meet Jane tonight.

Are you going to meet Jane tonight?

You are not going to meet Jane tonight.

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

You will never help him.

Will you ever help him?

You are never going to meet Jane.

Are you ever going to meet Jane?

Use the words in parentheses in the appropriate tenses,

1. Today after I (get) out of class, I (go) to a movie with some friends.

2. When you (arrive) in Stockholm, call my friend Gustav. He (show) you around the city and help you get

situated.

3. A: Do you know what you want to do after you (graduate)?

B: After I (receive) my Master's from Georgetown University, I (go) to graduate school at UCSD in San Diego. I

(plan) to complete a Ph.D. in cognitive science.

4. If it (snow) this weekend, we (go) skiing near Lake Tahoe.

5. Your father (plan) to pick you up after school today at 3:00 o'clock. He (meet) you across the street near the

ice cream shop. If something happens and he cannot be there, I (pick) you up instead.

6. If the people of the world (stop, not) cutting down huge stretches of rain forest, we (experience) huge changes

in the environment during the twenty-first century.

7. If Vera (keep) drinking, she (lose, eventually) her job.

8. I promise you that I (tell, not) your secret to anybody. Even if somebody (ask) me about what happened that

day, I (reveal, not) the truth to a single person.

9. She (make) some major changes in her life. She (quit) her job and go back to school. After she (finish)

studying, she (get) a better-paying job and buy a house. She is going to improve her life!

10. Tom (call) when he (arrive) in Madrid. He (stay) with you for two or three days until his new apartment (be)

available.

1.

Michael: After you (leave) work, will you please drop by the grocery store and pick up some milk and

bread?

Marie: No problem, I (pick) up the groceries and be home by 6 o'clock.

Michael: Great. You will probably get home before I (do).

2. Ari: By the time we (get) to the movie theater, the tickets are going to be sold out.

Sarah: Don't worry. I told Jane we might be arriving just before the movie (start). She (buy) our tickets

and meet us in the lobby.

Ari: That place is huge! We (find, never) her in that crowded lobby.

Sarah: Calm down, we (meet) each other near the entrance.

3. Terry: If the weather (be) good tomorrow, maybe we should go to the beach.

Jennifer: I have a better idea. If it (be) nice out, we'll go to the beach; and if it (rain), we'll see a movie.

Terry: I guess we will have to wait until we (get) up in the morning to find out what we are going to do.

4. Max: What are you going to do tomorrow after work?

Sean: I (meet) some friends at the cafe across the street. Would you like to come along?

Max: No thanks! My brother is coming to town and I (pick) him up from the airport at 7 o'clock.

Sean: We (be, probably) at the cafe until 9 o'clock. Why don't you join us after you (pick) him up.

Max: Sounds good. We (see) you around 8 o'clock.

5. Lucy: I (call) you as soon as I arrive in Dublin.

Dwain: If I am not there when you (call), make sure to leave a message.

Lucy: I will. And please don't forget to water my plants and feed the cat.

Dwain: I promise I (take) care of everything while you are in Ireland.

ARTICLES

–the indefinite article: a, an. a book, an elephant.

A. It is used before nouns we can count; a dog, a house.B. But we say some water, some money.

C. It is not used with meals; lunch, supper, breakfast, dinner.Except

When they are preceded by an adjective We had a poor breakfastIt was a rich dinner

C. The indefinite article is not used before abstract nouns; love, happiness, death, silence, fear….But when they are preceded by an adjective the article is nessary.That was a terrible death.It is a surprising silence.

- 2 –the definite article; the .the sun. The moon, the earth.A. A noun becomes definite if it has been mentioned before; I lost my keys near a tree. But when I

went back to the tree, I did not find them.B. With superlatives; jack is the best student. John is the most serious.C. With; the first, the second, the third……….D. With a group of people; the poor, the old, the police.E. With mountains seas, rivers: the Atlas, the Pacific, the Mississippi.F. With instruments of music: the piano, the guitar.G. With definite nouns : the man with the glasses. the boy on the bicycle.

-3 –the definite and the indefinite articles are not used before;Work, hospital, home, church, school, prison.Jack went home .Alice stayed in hospital. The police put the; an in prisonBut when these nouns are definite;Brian went to the prison near the market.Jane came from the hospital where she visited her husband (not the one where she works).

ExercicesFill in the blanks with; an, a, the, only when it is necessary.

1) My salary will rise at …………beginning of ……..year.2) They gave…….youngest child……possibility to see…….world.3) ………love is a feeling that everybody has experienced.4) You needn’t take…..taxi to…..school.5) We sent jack to…..prison where they are keeping his brother.6) On the way to……..church I bought ……umbrella but…..rain did not fall.7) …..cigarette before….breakfast is …..Extremely dangerous thing.8) ……thanes is……river.9) It is good to play……..guitar but….violin is better.10) …….tennis and ……….football are good games.11) …….fisherman you saw near……sea caught….enormous fish and sold it at……;market

at………...low price.

RELATIVES PRONOUNS

For people : Who, whom, thatFor things : which, thatFor people and things: whose

Who (or that).The woman lost her husband. She is crying. ------The woman who lost her husband is cryingThe man is now in prison. He has killed his wife.------The man who has killed his wife is now in prison.

Whom, who, or thatThe girl was serious. I happened to know her.The girl whom I happened to know was serious.The girl who I happened to know was serious.The girl that I happened to know was serious.Whom is necessary when a preposition is used before it.The student to …………….I’m talking mush stand up.The student to whom I’m talking must stand up.

Which, thatShakespeare’s plays were a success read these plays.I read Shakespeare’s plays which were a success.I read Shakespeare’s plays that were a success.Whose.The students much fill in this form. their parents are poor.The students whose parents are poor must fill I this form.The women should inform the police. her house been broken into.The woman whose house has been broken into should inform the police.“where”,”when”or”why”can replace “which”The city in which he was born-the city where he was born.The year in which he wrote the book …..=the year when he wrote…….The reason for which he killed his wife is unknown=the reason why he killed his wife is unknown.EXERCICESPut which, who, whom or whose.The man …………has robbed the bank should be sent to prison.Would you like to see the photo …………we took near the sea?Students generally like a teacher …………is permissive.The old lady……..lives near the sea has died.The student …..the teacher is punishing,diddn’t to his homework.What will you say to the man …………brother you’re insulted and ………is here to complain about it. The four thieves ……….gained access to the office pretended to be policemen.The idea of fling to the moon …. was a dream in the past. is now a reality.Pollution …effect on people and environment is dangerous, is becoming more and more harmful.The teacher was driven to madness by his pupils…..behaviour was strange.The only person after ………..the baby takes is his father.There’s still a lot of repair…………has to be done before you move in.Peter is the sort of person on ……………you can’t rely.

a. Join the following sentences with: which, who, whom or whose.1) I don’t know anybody. He can repair your car in a very short time.2) This is the girl.i was talking to her last night.3) This is the area? You led me to it there moths ago.4) A helicopter fell on a group of tourists. They were at the beach.5) The man had an accident. His leg was X-rayed.6) They little boy is trying to convince me. he is in telling.7) They carried the man on a stretcher. He was badly injured.8) There are many members of our party. I still don’t know their names.9) My mother was quarrelling with the neighbours daughter. She is my gil friend.10) The boy’s eyes are blue. I can’t remember the boy’s name

COMPARISON

Comparative(Comparing two elements.)

I. Short adjectivesBig, bigger than.Pretty, prettier than, high, higher than.The Everest is higher than the Kilimanjaro.

II. LONG ADJECTIVES; Interesting, comfortable, frightening……

Handsome, more handsome than.Less handsome than.Sugar is more expensive than tea.Tea is less expensive than sugar.

Supperlative(Comparing one element to two or more elements.)

SHORT ADJECTIVES

Big, the biggest.Small, the smallest.The Nile is the longest river in the world.

-LONG ADJECTIVES

Handsome ,the most handsome .The least handsome.“The Exorcist” is the most frightening film I have ever seen.The donkey is the least intelligent animal.

III. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES.

Comparing two elements.Good better.Bad worse.Honey is better than jam.Smoking hashish is worse than smoking cigarettes.

Comparing one element to two or more elements.

Good, the best.Bad , the worst.The best way to travel is bay air.Killing is the worst thing a person can do.

IV. OTHER IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES.Little, less, the least.Many/much, more, the most.Far, farther the farthest. (further ,the furthest.)

V. EQUALITY: as…………asStealing is as bad as lying.Our car is as expensive as yours.

VI. INEQUALITY.Not as…….as.(not so …….as).Chicken is not as (so) delicious as fish.The Mediterranean is not as ( so) deep as the Atlantic.

VII. COODRINATE COMPARATIVES.If the sea is deep; the fish are big.If the sea is deaper , the fish are bigger.The deeper the sea is, the bigger the fish are.If the number of drug addicts is greater, traffickers will make much money.

If the number of drug addicts is greater, traffickers will make more money.The greater the number of drug addicts, the more money traffickers will make.

ExercisesA. Give the correct form of the adjectives between brackets.1) American cigarettes are (bad) French cigarettes.2) Today the weather is bad. So the sea is (rough) than yesterday.3) John is cooperative. He is (helpful) than his brother jack.4) Whisky is (bad) than wine. But beer is (good) than wine.

As far I am concerned, tea is (good).5) Normally a small car is (comfortable) than a big one.

It is also (expensive) .what do you think is (expensive) car in your country?6) May family is poor. They have (little) money than the neighbours7) Jack has (many) books than Jim. But Jim has (much) copybooks.

B. Rewrite the following sentences with the words given.1) If you eat much, you’ll get fat.

The more…………………….2) If you take exercises, you’ll be healthy

The more……………………..3) If the lights are bright are bright, the production will be great.

The………………….the…………………..4) If you have little money, you are little happy.

The…………………...the………………….5) If you decorate the house much, it will be nice.

The………………….the………………6) It is less difficult to sail when the sea is smooth.

The…………………the…………………7) The children will be much spoiled if parents are much permissive.

The…………………the…………………..8) A car is cheap if it is old.

The…………………the…………………..

CONDITIONAL

There are four sequences of tense which are most used:a. To express a habitual reaction.

Present, present.If I get up early I take exercises.If I ask him for anything he refuses.

b. To express a universal truth.present, present.Water boils if you heat it.A plant dies if it doesn’t get water.

1) To express probability:Present, future.If you ask him he will help you.

2) To express improbability: the action is not likely to happen.Past, conditional.If I had a gun I would kill that thief.

3) To express an impossible condition:Past perfect, perfect conditional.If you had told me the truth, I could have helped you.(You didn’t tell me the truth, so I didn’t help you.)Exercises.A) Give the correct form of the verbs between brackets

1. If the soup hadn’t been salty, I (like) it.2. Had he told his father I was in need of, he (give) him some.3. What would you have done if your friend (insult) you?4. We would learn more if we (be) motivated.5. He might get angry if you (shout) at him.6. What would you do if you (pass) your exam.7. If I have the possibility I (go) as far as china.B) .Rewrite the following sentences with the words given.1) The car was not new. So it broke down. If the car………………..2) I couldn’t take exercises because I didn’t bring may gym shoes.If I…………………………..3) The student didn’t understand the lesson. so he didn’t answer the questions.If the student………………….4) I didn’t get into trouble as I took his advices.If I …………………………..5) The stranger blushed because he was embarrassed.If the stranger……………………………6) You didn’t catch the train because you left late.If you………………..7) You didn’t put the brake on. That’s why you ran over the girl.If you…………………….8) Because you broke my glasses, I wasn’t able to read the story.If you…………………………………9) The sea was rough. That’s why the boat was turned upside-down.If the sea……………………………………

AUXILIARIES

PERMISSIONPressent Past Future

May CanBe allowed to

MightCouldWas/were allowed to

MayCanShall/will be allowed to

Examples

My car has broken down, may I use yours?We were allowed to go to the cinema yesterday because we had finished all our homework.You(may, can) will be allowed to leave prison if you tell the truth.

POSSIBILITY (PROBABILITTY): May ; Might

PRESENT PASTMay

Might

MightMay have doneMight have done

ExamplesI don’t want to go to Casablanca. My car may break down on the way as it is old.Don’t play cards on money. You might lose what you have saved.A bus went into a crowd of people. The driver might have had no brakes or he might have been completely drunk.

ABILITY: Can be able toPresent Past Future

CanBe able to

CouldWas/were able to

Shall/will be able to

Tom can’t play football because he is injured.Jim is not able to remember every thing I tell him, he is still young.Grand-father couldn’t sleep yesterday because he had drunk too much coffee.We will be able to study at the university once we pass the Bac

ADVICE: should, had better, ought to

Present Past Future

ShouldHad betterOught to

Should have doneOught to have done

ShouldHad betterOught to

John has a stomachache.He should see a doctorYour exam is coming soon. You’d better (had better) prepare for it.Peter should have tested his car (but he didn’t)Two people have attacked me. You ought to have warned me.

OBLIGATION

PRESENT PAST FUTURE

Must Have toAm/is/are Mustn’t

Had to

Was/were toWas/were not to

Shall/will have to

You must have a visa if you want to go EuropeYesterday I got up late. so I had to take a taxi to workYou will have to sit for exam if you want to study medicine.If you want to participate in the competition you are to inform the manager.I told you were not to go into the mosque with your shoes on.

ABSENCE OF OBLIGATION OR NECESSITY.

PRESENT PAST FUTUREDon’t/doesn’t have to haven’t got toDon’t/doesn’t need to needn’t

Didn’t have to

Didn’t need toNeedn’t have done

Won’t have to

Won’t need toNeedn’t

You don’t have to come all the way to tell me the information. You can telephone me.Paul needn’t buy that book. I’ll give him mine.The driver didn’t have to repair the lorry himself as the company had their own mechanicYou were shocked, but you needn’t have cried in front of everybody. (It was unnecessary, but you cried)I needn’t have bought so much meat. The fridge has stopped working. (But I bought and it was a waste of money).I didn’t have to buy any. (I wasn’t obliged because I had fished).

ExercisesGive the correct from of the words between brackets

1) Tom (can) drive a car when he grows up.2) By the end of the year you (can) speak English perfectly well.3) If my uncle didn’t live so far from town I (can) visit him once a week.4) We (can defeat) the enemy if we had used better weapons.5) I’ve been waiting for her for a long time. She (may) not turn up at all.6) The neighbours asked us if they (may) use our telephone.7) During the last exam we (mustn’t) smoke in the classroom.8) Next year we (must) work hard9) We (must) inform our parents of what we will do in case we succeed in the exam.

Rewrite the words between brackets using an auxiliary1) You made me come for nothing. I don’t think ( it was necessary for me to have com)2) (it is unnecessary for you to be) discourage3) You (were not obliged) to tell the truth.4) I (was obliged to) be present all the time.5) If we try to understand some of the exercises now we (won’t be obliged to learn) many things

before the exam.6) Go and see for yourself. (You’re not obliged to) believe me.7) You (have the permission to see) him once a week.8) (I advise you to obey) your parents.9) No one ( had the ability to defeat) that boxer10) Do you think I (have the ability to run) all that distance?11) It (is possible it will rain) tomorrow.

.

PASSIVE VOICE

I. Exemples of transformation

John plays the guitar

The guitar is played by john

The guest stole the moneyThe money was stolen by the guest

II. The possible transformationTense1. Present do2. past did3. preset continuous is doing4. past continuous was doing5. present perfect has done6. past perfect had done7. present infinitive to do8. present participle doing

Is doneWas doneIs being doneWas being doneHas been doneHad been doneTobe doneBeing done

9.willcan must should doought tomaymight10.willCanMustShould have doneOught toMayMight

Will CanMustShouldOught to be doneMayMightWillCanMustShouldOught to have been doneMayMight

III. Examples for each tense

1. They make cars in this town.Cars are made in this town.2. They played the guitar badly.The guitar was badly played.3. Someone is teaching me ChineseI am being taught Chinese.4. They were arranging for a meeting.A meeting was being arranged for.5. A someone has stolen my book.My book has been stolen.6. They had given me a bad mark.I had been given a bad mark7. The students hate anyone to laugh at then.The students hate to be laughed at8. I can’t forget my uncle telling me liesI can’t forget being told lies by my uncle.9. You should remember this.This should be remembered.10. Someone must have broken into the house.The house must have been broken into.

IV. Another type of transformation.

Subject+verb+that clause.PresentPeople say (that) jack is generous.It is said that jack is generous.Or, jack is said to be generous.

PastPeople said (that) jack was generous.It was said that jack was generousOr, jack was said to be generous

People said (that) he had been generous.It was said that he had been generous.Or, he was said to have been generous.

ExercisesRewrite the following sentences with the words given.1. The postman was delivering lettersLetters……………………………………………………..

2. The mechanic is repairing the letters.The car…………………………………………………..3. Mother promised Jim a book.Jim ………………………………………………………4. They showed me the photographs.I ………………………………………………………...5. The students gave me the answer.The answer………………………………………………6. People must do it.It …………………………………………………………7. My sister loves people telling her stories.My sister loves…………………………………………..8. Somebody has taken the keys.The keys…………………………………………………9. I’d like my friends to invite me to the party.I’d like………………………………………………….

10. The proved that forecasters were wrong.Forecasters11. Jane insists on punctuation.Punctuation……………………………………………12. Some women think that appearance is important.Appearance…………………………………………..13. Love drove peter to madnessPeter…………………………………………………14. Does anyone admire you for your courage?Are you ……………………………………………..?15. Most of us expect the results to be good.The results………………………………………….16. The government is building new roads.New roads…………………………………………17. People believed that the earth was flat.The earth………………………………………….18. The students have answered only one question.Only one question…………………………………

REPORTED SPEECH

When the introductory verb is in the present,present continuous,present perfect or future no changes take place.“the when is hot,”he says.He says (that)the weather he is hot.

When the introductory verb is in the past,changes take place .

“the weather is hot”,he said.He said(that)the weather was hot.Some of the changes

1. simple present simple past2. simpe past past perfect 3. present continuous past continuous 4. pst continuous past perfect continuous5. present perfect past perfect6. present perfect continuous past perfect continuous 7. past perfect past perfect8. future conditional future continuous shall/will be going9. may might10. can could11. must had to12. mustn’t was not/ wer not to13. needn’t did not have to14. wouldShouldOught toHad to could

Examples“I never get up early”, he said.He said (that) he never got up early.“We are happy», he saidHe said (that) they were happy.“I was listening to the radio» he said.He said (that) he had been listening to the radio“john has done his homework», he said.He said (that) john had done his homework.“We have been working hard», they saidThey said (that) they had been working hard.“we went finishing», they said.They said (that) they had gone fishing.“I shall go to France.He said (that) he would go to France.“we will be studying at the university», he said.He said (that) they would be studying at the university.“Your uncle may come», he saidHe told me (that) I could take it home.“I must see a doctor». He saidHe said (that) he had to see a doctor.“You mustn’t smoke here». He said.He said (that) we were not to smock there.“you needn’t take any medicine», the doctor said.The doctor told me (that) I didn’t have to take any medicine.“I would like to see the film», he said.He said (that) he would like to see the film.Imperative“Don’t go out alone”.He wanted me not to go out alone.“Stop smoking”He advised me to stop smoking.“Please forgive me”He begged me to forgive him.“Don’t forget to send me a letter”

She reminded me not to forget to send her a letter.

Other changes

Today that dayTomorrow the flowing day/the next dayThe day after tomorrow in two day’s timeThe day before yesterday two days beforeNext month the following monthYesterday the day before, the previous dayLast year the previous yearAgo beforeHere thereThis thatThese thoseNow then

“I’ll fly to the states tomorrow”He said he would fly to the states the following day.“I drove to Berlin four years ago”He said he had driven to Berlin four years before.Questions with what, where, who, when, why, howWhere do you work?He asked me where I me where I worked.

Change the sentence from a question to a statement.Where do you work? You workb. Then report: where you work where I workedThe final sentence will be: he asked me where I worked.What did you do yesterday?What you did yesterdayHe wanted to know what I had done the previous day.Questions with”yes”or “no”“are you happy”?He wanted to know if I was happy.Do you like music?He asked me if I liked music.Can you type?He wanted to know whether I could type.If=whether.

ExercisesA .rewrite the following sentences with the words given.May I take some more jam?The little boy asked his mother……………………………………...Is this the man you told are about?I asked my friend……………………………………………………How long have you been waiting?The girl wanted to know……………………………………………Someone has broken into the old lady’s house.The policeman informed us…………………………………………Why can’t you come to the party?My friend wanted to know…………………………………………..Go to the post office and buy some stamps for me.My father wanted me………………………………………………..Don’t drive so quickly. You’re not Billy Stewart.

I ordered him……………………………………………………….The inhabitants of this house left for USSR three years ago.The neighbour said that…………………………………………….I’ll give you my account number tomorrow. I have forgotten to bring my wallet with me.He told me………………………………………………………We mush go to the judge and inform him that the suspect is innocent.The witness said that they…………………..............................We needn’t water the flowers as it is going to rain.The workers told me………………………………………….You mustn’t come late if you want to have lunch with us.He said I……………………………………………………..Do you get up early?He wanted to know…………………………………………..Should we help the poor man?They asked whether…………………………………………You couldn’t be innocent if you accompanied the criminal.The judge said to me………………………………………..Did the guests enjoy the party?The host asked me………………………………………….I know Jane was absent yesterday.The teacher said…………………………………………… I’d rather you paid now.The shopkeeper said……………………………………….b. Replace the word said by one of the following words.Each word must be used only one.Promised, complained, shouted, admitted, agreed, suggested, insisted.

1) “Let’s go to a disco», she said.2) “Yes, if it isn’t raining we can go». he said3) “If we can’t go today, we must go tomorrow». She said.4) “Turn the radio low. I can’t hear you, my father said.5) “Yes, I killed her while her husband was out». The criminal said.6) “nobody ever helps me», the eldest brother said.7) “I shall give you your money back before the end of this month», my friend said.C. Rewrite the same sentences into reported speech beginning with the appropriate introductory verb.

Linking Words

Introduction

Linking words are essential for your writing to be natural and clear.

Linking devices vary in three ways:1. Position in the text.Some linking words normally form a link between clauses WITHIN a sentence. It is bad style to start a sentence with these words:and but so because then until such as.Another type of linking device is used to form a link BETWEEN sentences. These words must start with a capital letter and are usually immediately followed by a comma:Furthermore, Moreover, However, Nevertheless, Therefore, In conclusion,are used in this way.Most linking words, however, can either start a sentence or form a link between sentences. The choice is up to the writer.2. The function of linking wordsLinking devices are neither nouns, nor verbs. They provide a text with cohesion and illustrate how the parts of the text relate to each other. Here are some of the functions which linking words provide.Adding extra information to the main point, contrasting ideas, expressing cause and effect, showing exactly when something happened (narrating), expressing purpose (why?) and opinion, listing examples, making conclusions and giving emphasis.3. Grammatical differencesSome linking words must be followed by a clause (Subject + Verb + Object).E.g.. while why because although so whereas whenOther linking words should be followed by a noun phrase (Linking word + (the) + Noun/Pronoun or gerund)E.g.. because of despite during in spite ofThe majority of linking devices can be followed by either a noun phrase or a clause.Here is a list of the principal linking words in English, their function and if their position is usually fixed.

Adding Contrasting Expressing cause / reason*and

as well asbesides

Moreover,Furthermore,What is more,

In addition,not only .... but alsoanother point is that

*butHowever,Althoughdespite

In spite ofNevertheless,

On the contrary,on the one hand

on the other hand,whereas

whilebut while

In contrast,Neither...nor

becauseas

sinceThis is whybecause of

Due toOwing to

For this reason,Expressing effect / result

*soso....that

such a...thatTherefore

ThusConsequently,

As a result,too...for/to

not enough...for/toNarration Expressing purpose

First (of all)At first

At the beginningIn the beginning

Then next BeforeAfter After that

afterwardsWhen While

duringSoon

immediatelyOnce

SuddenlyAs soon as

onNo sooner....than

Hardly...whenFinally

EventuallyAt the endIn the end

At lastTo begin with,

Until

toso as to

in order thatso that

for (Non-specific)Expressing opinion

I would say thatIn my opinion,I think (that)

I believe (that)Personally

Apparently,

Giving examples Summing up / concluding Emphasis

for example, for instance,For one thing,this includes

such as e.g.. (for example)i.e. (that is)

All in all overallGenerally In conclusion,

on the wholein the mainTo sum up,

Especially particularlyNaturally, exactly because

above all WhateverWhenever

too / enough

Linking words - Difficult casesSoAVOID STARTING A SENTENCE WITH THIS WORD!'So' can be used in two ways:1. To show RESULT.E.g.. It was raining, so we decided not to go to the beach.NOTE! 'because' shows the REASON. The above sentence could be expressed like this:E.g.. We decided not to go to the beach because it was raining.NOTE! To show a REASON LINK BETWEEN SENTENCES use 'Therefore,'.

2. So & such used for EMPHASIS.When used for emphasis, 'So' must be followed by either an adjective or an adverb and must be linked to an explanation CLAUSE.E.g.. It was so hot that we decided not to go to the beach.OR We decided not to go to the beach because it was so hot.NOTE! 'such' is used in the same way, but must be followed by a NOUN or ADJECTIVE+NOUN.E.g.. It was such a hot day that we decided not to go to the beach.OR We decided not to go to the beach because it was such a hot day.

Enough and too'enough' goes AFTER ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS but BEFORE NOUNS.E.g.. You won't pass the exam if you don't work hard enough.OR He didn't get the job because he didn't have enough experience.'enough' can also be used alone.E.g.. I'll lend you some money if you haven't got enough.'too' means 'more than necessary' and comes BEFORE ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS ONLY.E.g.. The coffee was too hot to drink.

But and However,'but' is used to CONTRAST clauses WITHIN A SENTENCE.E.g.. I like going to the beach, but I never go at midday.'However,' has the same function, but is used to show CONTRAST BETWEEN SENTENCES.E.g.. I've always enjoyed going to the beach. However, I never go there at midday.

Although, though, even though & In spite of / despite,'Although' must join two clauses, but it's position can change. It can either start a sentence or come in the middle.E.g.. Although it rained a lot, we enjoyed the holiday.OR We enjoyed the holiday although it rained a lot.In spoken English 'though' can be used instead of 'although' when it is used for the second clause.E.g.. "I didn't get the job though I had all the necessary qualifications."'though' can also come at the end of a sentence.E.g.. "The house isn't very nice. I like the garden though."'Even though' is a stronger form of 'although'.E.g.. Even though I was really tired, I couldn't sleep.'In spite of' or 'Despite' must be followed by a NOUN, PRONOUN (this, that, what etc.) or ~ING.E.g.. In spite of the rain, we went to the beach.OR We went to the beach in spite of the rain.It is common to use the expression 'In spite of the fact (that)....' or 'Despite the fact (that)....'

E.g.. She's quite fit in spite of the fact that she smokes 40 cigarettes a day.

Linking words of time - Still, yet and already 'Still' tells us that an action is continuing, or hasn't happened yet. It has positive, negative and question forms.E.g.. It's 10 o'clock and John's still in bed.or She said that she would be here an hour ago and she still hasn't come.or Are you still living in London?'yet' asks if something has happened, or to say that something hasn't happened. It is mainly used in NEGATIVES & QUESTIONS and comes at the end of a sentence. 'Yet' is usually used with the present perfect tense.E.g.. He hasn't finished the report yet.OR Is dinner ready yet?'Already' is used to say that something happened before expected, it usually comes in middle position, but can also come in final position. 'Already' is not used in negatives and in British English is only used in questions to show considerable surprise.E.g.. I'll tell her that dinner is ready.

She already knows.Have you finished already?! I thought it would take you longer!

In order to understand this type of linking word, you must be clear about the concepts of 'a point in time' and 'a period of time'. A point in time is the answer to a 'when' question, and a period of time is the answer to a 'how long' question.

During and whileBoth 'during' and 'while' tell us WHEN something happened. The difference between them is that 'during' is followed by a noun phrase (no verb), and 'while' is followed by a clause (subject + verb + object).E.g.. When did you go to Barcelona?

I went there during my holiday in Europe.OR

I went there while I was on holiday in Europe.'By' means 'at some time before' and tells us when something happens. It is followed by a point in time and can be used for both past and future time.E.g.. This report must be finished by 6pm.'By the time' has the same meaning but is followed by a clause. It is common with perfect tenses.E.g.. By the time we get there the party will have finished.For, since and untilThese words all tell us how long something happens. 'For' focuses on duration and can be used in most tenses. It is followed by a period of time. 'Since' is only used with perfect tenses and must be followed by a point in time.E.g.. They stayed in Barcelona for two weeks.OR They've been in Barcelona since last Friday. = They are still in Barcelona now.'Until' also tells us how long something happens, but the focus is on the end of the action or situation. It is followed by a point in time.E.g.. They stayed in Barcelona until last Friday. = They left Barcelona last Friday.Not....any more/longer and no longerThese expressions tell us that a situation has changed. 'not....any more/longer' go at the end of a sentence and 'no longer' is used in the middle of a sentence.E.g.. Mr. Jones doesn't work here any longer. OR She no longer works here.As & like'As' and 'like' can be used in COMPARISONS.However, 'As' MUST BE FOLLOWED BY A CLAUSE, and 'like' MUST BE FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.E.g.. He worked for the company, as his father had done before him.OR She acts like a child sometimes.

'(not) as....as ' + ADJECTIVE or ADVERB shows EQUALITY or INEQUALITY.E.g.. She isn't as tall as her father was. OR The traffic can be as bad in Rio as it is in São Paulo.'As' can be used to state the ROLE, JOB or FUNCTION of a person or thing.E.g.. We all worked together as a team. OR She worked as a manager in the Human Resources Department. OR He used his handkerchief as a flag to attract attention.

in case   -   unless

     IN CASE :         In case expresses the possibility of something happening. 

             ► Take an umbrella with you in case it rains.                                

     In case + 'of '       In case of = if there is

                                 ► In case of emergency, call this number.                                     = If there is an emergency, call this number.                       

     UNLESS :         Unless means 'except if' or 'only if''.                                 Unless replaces 'if' + a negative verb.

                                 ► Mary won't come unless you invite Tom.                                     = Mary won't come except if you invite Tom..                                     = Mary will only come if you invite Tom.                                     = If you don't invite Tom, Mary won't come.

                                 ► We will have a picnic unless it rains..                                     = We will have a picnic except if it rains.                                     = If it doesn't rain, we will have a picnic.                                     = If it rains, we won't have a picnic.

Complete the following. Use: although, even though, though, nevertheless, however, in spite of, or despite.

1. The marks are high. The students level is low.(although)2. It was dark. He managed to find the keys.(despite)3. He got up early. He arrived late to school.( however)4. Tim is in good shape. He doesn’t get much exercise.(nevertheless)5. Samira was sad. She kept smiling and having fun.(in spite of)6. She loves him. He treats her badly.(even thoug)7. He didn't work hard. He passed the baccalaureat exam .Despite the fact that8. Some people are fat. Others are thin. whereas9. Brahim is a good student. His brother is lazy. on the other hand10. Fatima is economical. Her sister in extravagant. but

Write the sentence again, using the word in brackets. The meaning must stay exactly the same.

Combines the following sentences using the words given1. Peter failed the exam. he was lazy.(because of)2. Brain stood on the chair. he wanted to reach the lamp.(so as)3. My fiend didn’t ring me up. he didn’t send me a letter.(neither………nor)

4. The woman put the medicine out of the child’s reach. she was afraid he might swallow it.(lest)5. They let the old man succumb to his injuries. they didn’t call the doctor.(instead of)6. The old man was very rich. the young girl refused to marry home.(however)7. Morocco is a member of the United Nations. Tunisia is member of the united nations too.(both)8. The food was delicious. nobody wanted to eat it.(no matter)9. Mr Smith took his umbrella. he didn’t vent to get wet.(so as not)10. Uncle Ben broke the axe while chopping the wood. he hurt himself too.(not only….but….as well)11. The small car was very loaded with luggage. the back tyres looked flat.(so…….that)12. The policeman had a warrant. the suspect refused to be arrested.(although)13. The rain stopped. the passengers got off.(as soon as)14. Tom took a taxi to work. he wanted to get to work on time.(so that)15. The programme finished. my father switched off the TV.(no sooner)16. Give me your phone number. I might want to ring you up.(in case)17. My mother finished reading the letter. she burst into tears.(hardly)18. The criminal hid in the forest. he was afraid the police might recognize him.(for fear that)19. It was a very crowded hotel. some of the tourists spend the night on the floor of the restaurant.

(such………….that)20. Never buy shoes. you must try them on first.(without)21. Although the weather was bad. we went on a picnic.(in spite of)22. Although their parents are wealthy, the children are poorly dressed.(in spite of)

II)

1. She is a very good English speaker. You would think it was her native language. (so)

3. We missed the film because there was such a lot of traffic. (so)

4. I can't wear this coat in winter, It's not warm enough. (too)

5. When he speaks English, I can't understand what he says. (enough)

6. We lost the match although we we the better team.(despite)

7. In spite of not having eaten for 24 hours, I didn't feel hungry.(even though)

8. Despite her injured foot, she managed to walk to the village.(although)

9. Jack used to have long hair and a beard (no longer)

10. I was feeling tired. (any longer)

11. I wish I could speak English as well as you do (like)

12. Both in January and in February, the price of basic foods rose. (as)

14. He was sitting on the beach when the sun rose. (as)

15)She wasn't very rich. She gave money to the beggar. (although

16)He left early. He wanted to arrive on time. (so that)

17)You can go out tonight. You must tell us where you are going. (provided)

18) I don't earn a big salary. But if I did, I wouldn't buy a car. (even if)

19)Take a sandwich. There might be no restaurant. (in case)

2)There was a lot of noise. He managed to sleep. (despite

21)Sue likes Opera. Joe prefers jazz. (They have different tastes.) (whereas

22)The weather was bad. They enjoyed the trip. (even though

23)He had the 'flu. He went to work. (in spite of

24) You have to put the alarm on. If not, it won't work. (unless)

Pour commencer to begin with,in the first place

avant tout first and foremost

Tout d'abord first of all

ensuite Then

enfin Finally

d'une part...d'autre part on the one hand...on the other hand

pour conclure, nous pouvons dire que to conclude,we may say that

ainsi Thus

aussi Also

D'ailleurs Besides

de plus furthermore,moreover,in addition

en effet Indeed

en fait Actually

actuellement Currently

par exemple For example,for instance

c'est à dire that is to say

à savoir Namely

Bien que+S+V Although+S+V

Malgré+N Despite+N

cependant However

néanmoins nevertheless,nonetheless

Je ne suis pas d'accord avec... I don't agree with...

parce que Because

puisque Since

Grâce à thanks to

à cause de because of

Prepositions

Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of gerund

verbs).

There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn prepositions is looking

them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in English and learning useful phrases off by heart.

The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:

Prepositions – Time

Preposion Usage Example

On days of the week on Monday

In months / seasons

time of day

year

after a certain period of time

(when?)

in August / in winter

in the morning

in 2006

in an hour

At for night

for weekend

a certain point of time (when?)

at night

at the weekend

at half past nine

Since from a certain point of time (past

till now)

since 1980

For over a certain period of time (past

till now)

for 2 years

Ago a certain time in the past 2 years ago

Before Earlier than a certain point of time before 2004

To telling the time ten to six (5:50)

Past telling the time ten past six (6:10)

to / till / until marking the beginning and end of a

period of time

from Monday to/till Friday

till / until in the sense of how long something

is going to last

He is on holiday until Friday.

By in the sense of at the latest

up to a certain time

I will be back by 6 o’clock.

By 11 o'clock, I had read five

pages.

Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)

Preposition Usage Example

In room, building, street, town, country

book, paper etc.

car, taxi

picture, world

in the kitchen, in London

in the book

in the car, in a taxi

in the picture, in the world

At meaning next to, by an object

for table

for events

place where you are to do something

typical (watch a film, study, work)

at the door, at the station

at the table

at a concert, at the party

at the cinema, at school, at work

On attached

for a place with a river

being on a surface

for a certain side (left, right)

for a floor in a house

for public transport

for television, radio

the picture on the wall

London lies on the Thames.

on the table

on the left

on the first floor

on the bus, on a plane

on TV, on the radio

by, next to

beside

left or right of somebody or

something

Jane is standing by / next to /

beside the car.

Under on the ground, lower than (or

covered by) something else

the bag is under the table

Below lower than something else but above

ground

the fish are below the surface

Over covered by something else

meaning more than

getting to the other side (also

across)

overcoming an obstacle

put a jacket over your shirt

over 16 years of age

walk over the bridge

climb over the wall

Above higher than something else, but not

directly over it

a path above the lake

Across getting to the other side (also over)

getting to the other side

walk across the bridge

swim across the lake

Through something with limits on top,

bottom and the sides

drive through the tunnel

To movement to person or building go to the cinema

Preposition Usage Example

movement to a place or country

for bed go to London / Ireland

go to bed

Into enter a room / a building go into the kitchen / the house

Towards movement in the direction of

something (but not directly to it)

go 5 steps towards the house

Onto movement to the top of something jump onto the table

From in the sense of where from a flower from the garden

Other important Prepositions

English Usage Example

From who gave it a present from Jane

Of who/what does it belong to

what does it show

a page of the book

the picture of a palace

By who made it a book by Mark Twain

On walking or riding on horseback

entering a public transport vehicle

on foot, on horseback

get on the bus

In entering a car / Taxi get in the car

Off leaving a public transport vehicle get off the train

out of leaving a car / Taxi get out of the taxi

By rise or fall of something

travelling (other than walking or

horseriding)

prices have risen by 10 percent

by car, by bus

At for age she learned Russian at 45

About for topics, meaning what about we were talking about you

Supply the missing preposition or adverb.

1) The doctor advised the patient to abstain……..drugs.2) The criminal was accused………………homicide.3) Everybody agreed ………the leader ………the measures to be taken against the enemies. 4) The burglars broke…………our house while we were away.5) The new manager is getting …………well ……..his employees.6) The soldier had to carry ………the orders of his superiors.7) The car broke …….as soon as we set…………..on our journey.8) Children usually take……………..their parents.9) Nowadays it is hard to provide……………..a large family.10) In Ramadan, we knock…………early in order to get ready for the”maghrib”11) Make sure not to leave ……..any part while repairing the engine.12) The results will come………after the meeting.13) A heavy smoker finds it difficult to give…………..smoking.14) The best that a person can hope…………is to live in peace.15) The sign «keep………..the grass» means that people must remain at a distance from the grass.16) When the storm got more violent, the ship made………….the harbour.17) Some students try to excel in sports so as to make………/…………….their failure at their studies.18) I can’t make ………what he is saying as he is speaking in a very low voice.19) Don’t dream ……….becoming a millionaire.20) Japan is competing………..the US in technology21) Once on the dole, a person has to cut…………..expenses .otherwise, he will get………debt.22) You can do ………..a car as long as you lives near the place of work.23) I came………….an old photograph while I was looking for an address.24) Black people in South Africa are deprived…………their rights as citizens.25) The workers complained ………..the boss………..the low wages26) The father disapproved ……….his daughter wearing jeans.27) The mechanic finally managed to find…………what was wrong with the car28) People get angry when prices go………………………….29) After the death of his parents, the little child was brought…………by his aunt.30) The two teams carried…………playing football in spite of the rain.31) At home, nobody backs me………when I make a suggestion32) My father blamed me…………the loss of his documents33) The student apologized………..being late.34) When the little boy opened the cage, the bird flew…………..35) In winter people go to bed early, but in summer they sit…………….late36) The man who was sitting beside me tried to gain my sympathy, but he turned………to be a thief.37) Will you speak……………I can’t hear you.38) After a long resistence, the rebels finally gave…………….39) A lot of famous competitors entered………thee Paris Dakar race.40) Generally, people don’t appreciate things which are imposed …………them41) it is a fact that girls excel …………gymnastics.42) The young man got AIDS as a result of his indulging…………..drugs43) Towards the end of the marathom, many runners dropped…………….44) He went…………/………the race and won the gold medal.45) When my father died, we gave ………..his clothes46) The first world war broke …………in 191447) During the riot, many shops closed……………….48) Are you …………or against women’s emancipation?49) The wind blew ………….the candle.50) After leaving school, I applied ………the bank manager ……….a job as a typist.51) My brother took ……..the sport of judo at the age of seven.52) The old lady burst…………tears when she heard the bad news.

53) It’s too bad to resort………mean ways to serve one’s aim54) When you ponder ……..his philosophy, you will find out that is nonsense.55) When you make a mistake, you rub it ……………with a rubber56) I don’t object ………..your coming home as long as you come alone57) If you look ………..we cannot deny that women were badly treated58) The new student cannot keep…. /………his classmates because they have covered half the programme.59) The prisoner relied………….his lawyer but this latter let him60) When the guest knocked at the door, the maid let him……………61) It is hard to keep……………working if one is too tired.62) All my families are looking………..to seeing you.63) The old woman looks terrible when she makes…………her face.64) I called ……….my friend but he wasn’t……..he was ……………with his girl friend. His mother told

me that he wouldn’t be…………till midnight.65) When the film was………..I switched off the TV66) It is…………/…………you to decide67) The accused woman tried to convince the judge ………..her innocence.68) The lecturer dealt………the issue from a sociological angle.69) The government is trying hard to cope ………..economic difficulties.70) Failing the driving test twice didn’t deter me ………trying again71) The average Moroccan family consists…………six members.72) The new policy consists ………giving all citizens the same opportunities73) Old houses must be pulled…………….74) Don’t put ………till tomorrow what you can to day.75) No one can put………./………his bad behaviour76) When the driver pulled ………a beautiful lady got off.77) When you lose something you search…………….it78) The passengers fastened their belts before the plane took………….79) He stopped working as he was completely worn……………..80) Some problems are too difficult to work………………….81) What does U.N.E.S.C.O stand………………………….?82) I was disappointed because all my plans fell………………83) My brother is unable to do…………./………….the bad habit of biting his finger-nails84) Medicines are tried ………..before being sold.85) A lot of people take………….smoking just through trying.86) I went to the coach station to see my friend………………87) She is a blind woman. You ought to see her………….the street.88) My close friends always stand …………..me when I am in trouble.89) At the customs, the tourist had to fill………………….a from.

WRITING

HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY?

Introduction

What is an introduction ?

The introduction paragraph is the first paragraph of your essay. What does it do?It introduces the main idea of your essay. A good opening paragraph captures the interest of your reader and tells why your topic is important.

How do I write one? 1. Write the thesis statement. The main idea of the essay is stated in a single sentence called the thesis statement. You must limit your entire essay to the topic you have introduced in your thesis statement. 2. Provide some background information about your topic. You can use interesting facts, quotations, or definitions of important terms you will use later in the essay.

Example:

"A dog is man's best friend." That common saying may contain some truth, but dogs are not the only animal friend whose companionship people enjoy. For many people, a cat is their best friend. Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent house pets as they are good companions, they are civilized members of the household, and they are easy to care for.

The body

Supporting Paragraphs

What are supporting paragraphs?Supporting paragraphs make up the main body of your essay.

What do they do?They develop the main idea of your essay.

How do I write them?

1. List the points that develop the main idea of your essay.2. Place each supporting point in its own paragraph.3. Develop each supporting point with facts, details, and examples.

To connect your supporting paragraphs, you should use special transition words. Transition words link your paragraphs together and make your essay easier to read. Use them at the beginning and end of your paragraphs.

Like all good paragraphs, each supporting paragraph should have a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a summary sentence.

Topic Sentence

What is the topic sentence? The topic sentence is the first sentence in a paragraph.

What does it do? It introduces the main idea of the paragraph.

How do I write one? Summarize the main idea of your paragraph. Indicate to the reader what your paragraph will be about.

Example:

There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.

Supporting Details

What are supporting sentences? They come after the topic sentence, making up the body of a paragraph.

What do they do? They give details to develop and support the main idea of the paragraph.

How do I write them? You should give supporting facts, details, and examples.

Example:

…. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. ….Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live.

Closing Sentence

What is the closing sentence? The closing sentence is the last sentence in a paragraph.

What does it do? It restates the main idea of your paragraph.

How do I write one? Restate the main idea of the paragraph using different words.

Example:

…….. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.

Summary Paragraph (conclusion)

What is a summary paragraph?The summary paragraph comes at the end of your essay after you have finished developing your ideas. The summary paragraph is often called a "conclusion."

What does it do?It summarizes or restates the main idea of the essay, but it should not repeat specific examples. You want to leave the reader with a sense that your essay is complete.

How do I write one?1. Restate the strongest points of your essay that support your main idea. 2. Conclude your essay by restating the main idea in different words. 3. Give your personal opinion or suggest a plan for action.

Example:

To sum up Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who have small living quarters or less time for pet care should appreciate these characteristics of cats. However, many people who have plenty of space and time still opt to have a cat because they love the cat personality. In many ways, cats are the ideal house pet.

Prewriting Essays

What is the prewriting stage?

The prewriting stage is when you prepare your ideas for your essay before you begin writing. You will find it easier to write your essay if you build an outline first, especially when you are writing longer assignments.

Prewriting Steps:

1. Think carefully about what you are going to write. Ask yourself: What question am I going to answer in this paragraph or essay? How can I answer this question? What is the most important part of my answer? How can I make an introductory sentence (or thesis statement) from the most important part of my answer? What facts or ideas can I use to support my introductory sentence? How can I make this paragraph or essay interesting? Do I need more facts on this topic? Where can I find more facts on this topic?

2. Write out your answers to the above questions. You do not need to spend a lot of time doing this; just write enough to help you remember why and how you are going to write your paragraph or essay.

3. Collect facts related to your paragraph or essay topic. Look for and write down facts that will help you to answer your question. Timesaving hint: make sure the facts you are writing are related to the exact question you are going to answer in your paragraph or essay.

4. Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What else do I want to say about this topic? Why should people be interested in this topic? Why is this topic important?

5. Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay. Choose the most important point you are going to present.

6. Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops your main idea. Once you have chosen the most important point of your paragraph or essay, you must find the best way to tell your reader about it. Look at the facts you have written. Look at your own ideas on the topic. Decide which facts and ideas will best support the main idea of your essay. Once you have chosen the facts and ideas you plan to use, ask yourself which order to put them in the essay. Write down your own note that you can use to guide yourself as you write your essay

Example

The essay below demonstrates the principles of writing a basic essay. The different parts of the essay have been labeled. The thesis statement is in bold, the topic sentences are in italics, and each main point is underlined . They are marked here just so that you can more easily identify them.

"A dog is man's best friend." That common saying may contain some truth, but dogs are not the only animal friend whose companionship people enjoy. For many people, a cat is their best friend. Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent housepets as they are good companions, they are civilized members of the household, and they are easy to care for.

In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many cats are affectionate. They will snuggle up and ask to be petted, or scratched under the chin. Who can resist a purring cat? If they're not feeling affectionate, cats are generally quite playful. They love to chase balls and feathers, or just about anything dangling from a string. They especially enjoy playing when their owners are participating in the game. Contrary to popular opinion, cats can be trained. Using rewards and punishments, just like with a dog, a cat can be trained to avoid unwanted behavior or perform tricks. Cats will even fetch!

In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household. Unlike dogs, cats do not bark or make other loud noises. Most cats don't even meow very often. They generally lead a quiet existence. Cats also don't often have "accidents." Mother cats train their kittens to use the litter box, and most cats will use it without fail from that time on. Even stray cats usually understand the concept when shown the box and will use it regularly. Cats do have claws, and owners must make provision for this. A tall scratching post in a favorite cat area of the house will often keep the cat content to leave the furniture alone. As a last resort, of course, cats can be declawed.

Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as housepets is their ease of care. Cats do not have to be walked. They get plenty of exercise in the house as they play, and they do their business in the litter box. Cleaning a litter box is a quick, painless procedure. Cats also take care of their own grooming. Bathing a cat is almost never necessary because under ordinary circumstances cats clean themselves. Cats are more particular about personal cleanliness than people are. In addition, cats can be left home alone for a few hours without fear. Unlike some pets, most cats will not destroy the furnishings when left alone. They are content to go about their usual activities until their owners return.

To sum up Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who have small living quarters or less time for pet care should appreciate these characteristics of cats. However, many people who have plenty of space and time still opt to have a cat because they love the cat personality. In many ways, cats are the ideal house pet.

READING TEXTS

Objective Improving the reading ( pronunciation)and vocabularyTasks - Reading

- Punctuation - Vocabulary

GLOBALISATION - SECTION 1

The following text is a summary of a series of articles published in The Economist, in the "School's Brief" column, during the 3rd quarter of 1997.

Introduction Advocates of globalisation essentially take the view that larger markets will lead to greater specialisation, a deeper division of labour and hence a better allocation of resources. This in turn will promote economies of scale, higher productivity and so faster economic growth. The critics of globalisation stress that increased competition from the developing countries will lead to job destruction and downward pressure on wages in the industrialised world, especially for low-skilled or unskilled workers. They also state that financial markets erode the power of national governments to control economic policy, and can cause havoc via speculative attacks. Still, there are many signs that globalisation remains restricted. Comparisons of trade among Canadian provinces or among American States indicate that domestic trade flows are still 20 times as great as cross-border trade. Labour, in particular, is not internationally mobile, due to language and cultural barriers, differences in educational awards and professional qualifications etc. Erecting barriers to trade or controlling capital flows is more difficult than in the past, especially given electronic communications, and the digitisation of service-sector products. Indeed, today's globalisation is being driven by telecommunications advances, eg: the cost of a 3-minute phone call between New York and London has fallen from $300 (in 1996 dollars) in 1930 to $1 now.

Capital Markets International capital flows have expanded dramatically. But, when measured in terms of current account surpluses or deficits, or when judged in terms of the imbalance between savings and investment, capital markets still appear to be remarkably closed. In the 1990s, for instance, only 10% of domestic investment in the emerging countries has been financed from abroad. Similarly, interest rate spreads across bond prices exceed discounted exchange rate movements, suggesting that national markets retain national characteristics, while statistical analysis does not indicate that stock market fluctuations are greater today than they were when capital moves were limited. Yet, capital market openness does affect the power of fiscal and monetary policy. In a closed economy, greater government spending and monetary expansion may increase output in the short term, but result in higher interest rates and higher inflation in the long term. In an open economy, the impact of policies depends on the exchange rate: with a fixed exchange rate fiscal policy is very effective and monetary policy is muted; with floating exchange rates monetary policy is very effective and fiscal policy muted. That said, capital market mobility has limited government's choices in exchange rate policies. If governments want to pursue exchange rate stability, then monetary policy must be geared to this. This may lead to interest rate instability if investors move out of the currency. Smaller countries, with less-sophisticated capital markets are also more vulnerable, as witnessed by Mexico in 1994 and Thailand in 1997. Such problems have led some smaller countries, like Chile, to maintain foreign exchange controls on short-term capital inflows.

Vocabulary :

- allocation of resources - répartition des ressources - economies of scale - économies d'échelle - low-skilled or unskilled labour - travail peu qualifié ou travail non qualifié - cross-border trade - échanges trans-frontalières - digitisation - numérisation - current account surplus or deficit - excédant ou déficit du compte courant - interest rate spreads - écarts des taux d'intérêt - bond prices - prix des obligations - fiscal policy, monetary policy - politique budgétaire, politique monétaire - floating exchange rate - taux de change flottant - foreign exchange controls - contrôles des changes   Comprehension questions

1) What are the main arguments for globalisation? 2) What are the main disadvantages of globalisation? 3) What indicates that national markets may still not be that open? 4) How do monetary and fiscal policies compare in floating exchange rate regimes?

GLOBALISATION - SECTION 2

Migration Many of history's biggest population movements occurred under duress: the slave trade to the Americas; the "shipment" of between 10 and 40 million indentured workers ("coolies") from India and China throughout the world; the movement of 7 million Muslims from India to Pakistan and 7 million Hindus from Pakistan to India after the partition at independence. Until 1914 there was very little hindrance to immigration, so that between the middle of the 19th Century and World War I, something like 60 million people left Europe for the Americas (with 40 million moving to the United States). The inter-war period saw the implementation of controls, both in immigration to America, and within Europe (as in Nazi Germany). After 1945, many European countries encouraged immigration to ease labour shortages, but this policy came to an end in the 1970s, with the rise of unemployment. According to ILO figures, about 80 million people today live outside their country of birth, to which a further 20 million refugees should be added. Each year, roughly1.5 million people emigrate permanently, with the USA remaining the world's largest destination. Labour markets therefore remain predominantly national, the main exception being the market for certain types of high-skilled employees working for multi-national companies. The direct impact of immigration and its impact on native populations is small, though difficult to measure. There may be some downward pressure on wages, but at the same time immigrants may move into jobs that native workers would not do. Once again, the impact on labour markets appears to be greater for low-skilled or unskilled labour.

Trade According to the theory of comparative advantage - set out by Ricardo - two countries have an interest in trading if their production costs vary, even if one country has an absolute advantage in producing all the goods available. However, comparative advantage is often itself a product of history and not just natural resources or labour skills. This leaves some scope for government intervention in the form of "strategic trade policies", to promote specific sectors. The problem then becomes one of deciding which industries should be promoted and how.

Freight At the turn of the century, international trade was dominated by raw materials: in 1900, "crude materials and "crude food" made up 41% of US exports by value and 45% of imports. Over time, trade has shifted into goods whose weight is unrelated to their size, as technological advances (eg: composites, micro-electronics etc) make goods lighter. At the same time, the cost of shipping has fallen greatly. On the one hand, the use of containers and multi-modal transport equipment and systems have substantially cut handling costs by dockers etc. On the other hand, deregulation of transport industries, which began notably in the United States during the 1970s, has simulated stronger competition, helping to bring down prices.  

Vocabulary

duress, under duress - contrainte, sous contrainte indentured worker - travailleur lié par contrat hindrance - empêchement, entrave implementation - mise en oeuvre labour shortage - pénurie de main d'oeuvre comparative advantage - avantage comparatif raw material - matière première handling costs - coûts de manutention

Comprehension questions

1) What has characterised history's largest population movements? 2) How can immigration before 1914 be described? 3) What characterises labour markets? 4) What contributes to comparative advantage?

GLOBALISATION - SECTION 3

Leading multinationals Few companies, including many of the world's biggest are truly global, as the average MNC still produces more than two-thirds of its output in its home country.

Nevertheless, the most common explanation for MNCs' growth is provided by economies of scale, although the example of the aerospace suggests the causality is not simple, as this industry is dominated by one large US firm (Boeing) that produces

domestically and a European consortium (Airbus) with production units spread across the continent. Also, economies of scale do not just involve actual production, but may equally include promotion and marketing, as demonstrated by Coca-Cola.

Firms are also driven to being multinational via vertical integration, as they seek to secure supplies on the one hand and product outlets on the other. Similarly, firms may be pushed to becoming international, to follow their clients.

At the same time, the nature of FDI is evolving. To be sure, about three fifths of such investments remain within the industrialised countries. But for the other two fifths, investment flows are increasingly into manufacturing installations in developing countries, and less and less into extractive or raw materials industries.

This has led to fears of jobs being "exported" to the developing countries. Here the evidence is mixed, as investments abroad are frequently accompanied by greater exports from home countries. Nevertheless, there is some evidence that the relocation of production hits certain industries in particular (such as textiles and electronics) and affects low-skilled labour.

Conclusion The rise of globalisation has partly been driven by market forces, with companies seeking to expand their overseas business, and being helped by technological developments. At the same time, governments have also acted to reinforce the workings of the market by pursuing domestic and international liberalisation. To some extent, the movement has also taken on its own dynamics, reducing the scope for government intervention in the economy.

However, the overall scale of the public sector in the industrialised countries has not changed dramatically. Though there has been pressure on holding down government spending, there is little evidence at the macroeconomic level to support the view that the "state has been rolled back" in the rich countries. Thus, for example, while top income tax rates have be curbed, overall tax takes in the industrialised economies have not come down significantly. This can partly be explained by the fact that labour or rather tax-payers continue to be relatively immobile.

Nor, ultimately has globalisation radically altered the constraints of monetary and fiscal policy. Greater capital mobility can actually give governments greater room for manoeuvre in conducting fiscal policy as they can draw on overseas resources, though the markets obviously sanction abuse of such borrowing. Similarly, monetary policy can still be used to regulate the domestic economy or the exchange rate, although it cannot successfully by used to do both simultaneously.

Vocabulary home country (host country) - pays d'origine (pays d'accueil) outlet (retail outlet) - sortie, débouché (point de vente) relocation of production - délocalisation de la production market forces - les lois du marché scope - portée, étendue, domaine, envergure income tax - impôt sur les revenus to curb - maîtrise, feiner tax-payer - contribuable

Comprehension questions 1) What is driving firms' search for global presence? 2) Where is most FDI concentrated? 3) How are governments encouraging globalisation? 4) What is the dilemma of monetary policy?