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The European Defence Community (EDC) was a plan proposed in 1950 by RenéPleven, the French President of the Council (name of Prime Ministers until 1958), inresponse to the American call for the rearmament of  West Germany. The intention was toform a pan-European defense force as an alternative to Germany's proposed accession to NATO, meant to harness its military potential in case of conflict with the Soviet bloc. 

The EDC was to include West Germany, France, Italy, and the Benelux countries. Atreaty was signed on 27 May 1952, but the plan never went into effect.

The plan collapsed when it failed to obtain ratification in the French Parliament. Therewere Gaullist fears that the EDC threatened France's national sovereignty, constitutionalconcerns about the indivisibility of the French Republic, and fears about Germany'sremilitarization. Communists opposed a plan tying France to the capitalist USA andsetting it in opposition to the Communist bloc. Other legislators worried about theabsence of the United Kingdom. The EDC went for ratification in the French NationalAssembly on 30 August 1954, and failed by a vote of 264-319 (Judt, 2005:245). By thistime, concerns about a future conflict faded with the death of Stalin and the end of the

Korean War . Concomitant to these fears were a severe disjuncture between the originalPleven Plan of 1950 and the one defeated in 1954. Divergences included militaryintegration at the division rather than battalion level and a change in the commandstructure putting the NATO Supreme Commander in charge of EDC operationalcapabilities. Then Prime-Minister, Pierre Mendès-France attempted to placate the treaty'sdetractors by attempting to ratify additional protocols with the other signatory states.These included the sole integration of covering forces, or in other words, those deployedwithin Germany, as well as the implementation of greater national autonomy in regard to budgetary and other administrative questions. Great Britain approved of the plan in principle, but agreed to join only if the supranational element was decreased.

The EDC would have established a pan-European military, divided into nationalcomponents. In this military, the French, Italian, Belgium, Dutch and Luxembourgcomponents would report to their national governments, whereas the German componentwould report to the EDC. This was due to the fear of a return of German militarism, so itwas desired that the German government would not have control over the Germanmilitary. However, in the event of its rejection, it was agreed to let the Germangovernment control its own military in any case (something which the treaty would nothave provided). The EDC also provided for centralised military procurement. The EDCwould have had a common budget, arms and institutions.

After the failed ratification in the French National Assembly, the EC member states triedto create foreign policy cooperation in de De Gaulle-sponsored Fouchet Plans (1959-1962). European foreign policy was finally established during the third attempt withEuropean Political Cooperation (EPC) (1970). This became the predecessor of theCommon Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

Today, the Western European Union, the European Union and NATO all carry out someof the functions which was envisaged for the EDC, although none approach the degree of supranational military control that the EDC would have provided for.

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Fouchet Plan

The Fouchet Plan was a plan proposed by President Charles de Gaulle of France in

1961. It was drawn up by Christian Fouchet, at the time France's ambassador toDenmark . The idea was to form a new 'Union of States', an intergovernmental alternativeto the European Communities. De Gaulle feared a loss of national influence in theEuropean Communities, which at the time was becoming more and more supranational.Due to the success of the European Communities and the lack of enthusiasm of other states for this idea, the Fouchet Plan never became a serious alternative.

The European Political Cooperation (EPC) was introduced in 1970 and was thesynonym for European Union foreign policy coordination until it was superseded by theCommon Foreign and Security Policy in the Maastricht Treaty (November 1993).

Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the EC member states tried to give the internal market aforeign policy dimension, but failed twice. The idea of the supranational EuropeanDefence Community of State and Government instructed their Foreign Ministers duringThe Hague summit (1969), to "study the best way of achieving progress in the matter of  political unification, within the context of enlargement". [1] The Foreign Ministerssubsequently drafted the Luxembourg / Davignon report (1970), which created aninformal intergovernmental consultation mechanism where member states could achieve'politics of scale' (Ginsberg 1989).

While EPC adopted the intergovernmental nature of the Fouchet Plans, it disregarded the'French grandeur' of the Charles de Gaulle era. The involvement of the United Kingdom 

guaranteed its Atlanticist nature. The European Commission would furthermore be ableto express its opinion, if matters within its competencies were concerned. Finally, theEPC did not have the strong Paris-based Secretariat of the Fouchet proposals. The Netherlands had always been anxious about this idea, as they thought that it might turninto a competitor for the European Commission. The EPC was amended and strengthenedin the Copenhagen report (1973) and London report (1981). It was codified (formalized)with the Single European Act (1986).

The EPC turned out a 'mixed success'. During the 1970s it was an active player in theMiddle-East conflict and in the creation of the Conference on Security and Cooperationin Europe, the predecessor of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. 

The Soviet war in Afghanistan (1979) and the handling of the Yugoslav Wars (1991-1995), however, showed the weakness of the EPC.

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Western European Union

The Western European Union (WEU; French: Union de l'Europe occidentale, UEO) isan international organisation tasked with implementing the Treaty of Brussels (1948), adefence agreement among Western European nations during the Cold War . Since the end

of the Cold War, the European Union (EU) has been taking on a greater defence role andWEU tasks and institutions have been transferred to the EU.

In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon finally took over the WEU's mutual defence clause and as aresult, as of 31 March 2010, the treaty was terminated and the WEU's acivities are due to be wound up by July 2011.[1]

[edit] Participating states

The Western European Union had 10 member countries, 6 associate member countries, 5observer countries and 7 associate partner countries. On 14 June 2001, then-WEU

President Solana stated that there was no foreseeable reason to change the status of thenon member countries in the organisation.

Member countries: (modified Brussels Treaty -

1954) 

All of them were members of both  NATO and theEuropean Union. These are the only nations thathad full voting rights.

• Belgium• France• Germany• Greece (1995)• Italy• Luxembourg•  Netherlands• Portugal (1990)• Spain (1990)• United Kingdom

Observer countries: (Rome - 1992)

Observer countries were members of the EuropeanUnion, but not of NATO. 1

• Austria (1995)• Denmark 1 • Finland (1995)• Ireland

Associate member countries:

(Rome - 1992) 

Associate membership was created toinclude the European countries thatwere members of  NATO but not of the European Union. Since then,Poland, the Czech Republic &

Hungary have also joined the EU.

• Czech Republic (1999)• Hungary (1999)• Iceland•  Norway• Poland (1999)• Turkey (1992)

Associate partner countries:

(Kirchberg - 1994)

Countries that at the time were partof neither NATO nor of the EU. Allof the following nations have since joined both NATO and the EU.

• Bulgaria• Estonia

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• Sweden (1995)

1 Denmark is an exception, being member of both. Ithas an opt-out from the Treaty of Maastricht (1992), so that it does not participate in the ESDP 

of the European Union. Thus in respect to the WEUit would have been more appropriate for it to beregarded as non-EU NATO member state (WEUassociate status).

• Latvia• Lithuania• Romania• Slovakia

•

Slovenia (1996)

[edit] History

[edit] Treaty of Brussels

Main article: Treaty of Brussels

The Treaty of Brussels was signed by the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands on 17 March 1948. It was a mutual intergovernmentalself defence treaty which also promoted economic, cultural and social collaboration. As aresult of the failure of the European Defence Community on 23 October 1954 the WEUwas established by the Paris Agreements with the incorporation of the then WestGermany and Italy. The signatories of the Paris Agreements clearly stated their threemain objectives in the preamble to the modified Brussels Treaty:

• To create in Western Europe a firm basis for European economic recovery;• To afford assistance to each other in resisting any policy of aggression;• To promote the unity and encourage the progressive integration of Europe.

The defence efforts resulting from the Brussels Treaty took form as the Western Union Defence Organisation.

The Brussels Pact had cultural and social clauses, concepts for the setting up of a'Consultative Council'. The basis for this was that a cooperation between Western nationswould help stop the spread of Communism. The Treaty of Brussels was amended by theProtocol signed in Paris at the conclusion of the London and Paris Conferences on 23October 1954, which added West Germany and Italy to the Western Union. On thisoccasion it was renamed the Western European Union.

[edit] Transfers to the EU

Originally, under the Amsterdam Treaty, the WEU was given an integral role in givingthe EU an independent defence capability, playing a major role in the Petersberg tasks;however that situation is changing. On 13 November 2000, WEU Ministers met inMarseille and agreed to begin transferring the organisation's capabilities and functions to

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the European Union, under its developing Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)and European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP)[2].

For example, on 1 January 2002, the WEU's Security Studies Institute and the SatelliteCentre were transferred to the EU and became the European Union Institute for Security

Studies and the European Union Satellite Centre. Notably, the role given to the WEU inthe Amsterdam Treaty, was removed by the Nice Treaty. The European Constitution wasgiving the role of collective defence to NATO[citation needed ]. The Treaty of Lisbon has provisions for cooperation between the EU and both NATO (including the Berlin Plusagreement) and the WEU.[3][4] However the defence commitment, of Article 4 of theBrussels Treaty, has not been subsumed[5]. Article 42(7) of the Treaty of the EuropeanUnion, as amended by the Treaty of Lisbon, could be viewed as incorporating thatdefence commitment into the EU framework.[6]

A summary of some of the moves towards a merger of the WEU into the EU:

•

On 20 November 1999, Javier Solana, who is the High Representative for theCommon Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) of the EU, was also appointedSecretary-General of the WEU. His being head of both organisations permits himto oversee the ongoing transfer of functions from the WEU to the EU.

• The Petersberg tasks, declared by the WEU in 1992, were incorporated in 1997into the treaty of Amsterdam of the EU, forming the basis of the EuropeanSecurity and Defence Policy which frames a common policy to deal withhumanitarian and rescue, peacekeeping and tasks of combat forces in crisismanagement, including peacemaking.

• The European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS) and European UnionSatellite Centre (EUSC), both established to function under the EU's CFSP pillar ,

are replacements to the Western European Union Institute for Security Studiesand the Western Union Satellite Centre which had been established to function inconnection to the WEU.

With the transfer of responsibilities, the WEU's Parliamentary assembly was urged todissolve itself, as it had a mandate to supervise WEU politics, not the EU's ESDP politics. But the Assembly saw itself as playing an important role, particularly withgreater right of scrutiny, membership, experience and expertise in defence policy.Therefore, it renamed itself the "Interim European Security and Defence Assembly" andurged the European Convention to include it as a second chamber within the EU'sinstitutional framework. Hence it argued it could effectively scrutinise the ESDP, helpimprove EU-NATO relations and be more suited, being composed of national parliamentarians, to the intergovernmental style of the ESDP.

However with the European Constitution aiming to streamline and simplify the EU'sforeign policy, for example combining the two main foreign policy posts, it was not seenas wise to then create a separate double legislature for the CFSP, instead, the EuropeanParliament was granted greater scrutiny over foreign policy.[7]

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[edit] Abolition

In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon finally took over the WEU's mutual defence clause.[1] Therewas much discussion about what to do with the WEU following the introduction of Lisbon, including plans to scrap it.[8] On 30 March 2010 in a Written Ministerial

Statement UK's Foreign Office Minister Chris Bryant gives notice that the UK intends towithdraw from the Western European Union within a year.[9] On 31 March 2010 theGerman Foreign Affairs Ministry announced Germany's intention to withdraw from theModified Brussels Treaty.[10] Finally, the Spanish Presidency of the WEU, on behalf of the 10 Member States of the Modified Brussels Treaty announced the collective decisionto withdraw from the Treaty and to close the WEU organisation by June 2011.[11] TheWEU's acivities are due to be wound up by July 2011.[1]

[edit] Organisation

The WEU is headquartered in Brussels, with a staff of 65 and an annual budget of €13.4

million.[8] It is composed of the Council of the WEU (the Council) and the Assembly of the WEU (the Assembly).

The WEU is led by a Council of Ministers, assisted by a Permanent RepresentativesCouncil on ambassadorial level. Social and cultural aspects of the Brussels Treaty werehanded to the Council of Europe to avoid duplication of responsibilities within Europe.[12]

A Parliamentary Assembly (composed of the delegations of the member states to theParliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe) supervise the work of the Council, butit does not have any obligations on the Council. The Assembly of WEU is a consultativeinstitution.

Western European Armaments Group (WEAG) was established as a forum for armaments cooperation in 1976 with the aim of creating a European Armaments Agency.Its membership reached 19 in 2000: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark,Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway,Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Turkey and the United Kingdom. The body closed on23 May 2005.[13] Western European Armaments Organisation (WEAO) was intended asan Armaments Agency but operations were limited to a research cell. It provided supportservices in defence research and technology. It was created in 1996, and closed in August2006.[14] These agencies were taken over by the European Defence Agency. Other transferred bodies include the Institute for Security Studies and the Satellite Centre.

[edit] Eurofor

On 15 May 1995, the Council of Ministers of the WEU met in Lisbon. Declaration of Eurofor 's (European Operational Rapid Force) creation was made by France, Italy, Spainand Portugal. Eurofor became operational in June 1998 as a task force of the WesternEuropean Union.[15]

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ESDP

The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), formerly known as the European

Security and Defence Policy (ESDP), is a major element of the Common Foreign andSecurity Policy of the European Union (EU) and is the domain of EU policy coveringdefence and military aspects. The ESDP was the successor of the European Security and  Defence Identity under  NATO, but differs in that it falls under the jurisdiction of theEuropean Union itself, including countries with no ties to NATO.

Formally, the Common Security and Defence Policy is the domain of the Council of theEuropean Union, which is an intergovernmental body in which the member states arerepresented. Nonetheless, the Union High Representative Catherine Ashton also plays asignificant role. In her position as Chairman of the external relations configuration of theCouncil, she prepares and examines decisions to be made before they are brought to the

Council.

[edit] Political and diplomatic history

European security policy has followed several different paths during the 1990s,developing simultaneously within the Western European Union,  NATO and the European Union itself.

[edit] Background

Earlier efforts were made to have a common European security and defence policy. In

1948, the Western European Union, a collective defence organisation composed of Treaty of Brussels states—who were members of NATO—was founded. NATO soonovershadowed the organisation in importance. In the 1950s, a European DefenceCommunity, similar in nature to the European Coal and Steel Community, was proposed but the French parliament failed to ratify the treaty, and the project was abandoned.

[edit] Petersberg tasks

The Petersberg tasks are a list of  military and security priorities incorporated within theEuropean Security and Defence Policy of the European Union.

The Petersberg tasks are the military tasks of a humanitarian, peacekeeping and peacemaking nature that the European Union (EU) and the Western European Union (WEU) are empowered to do. They were defined in June 1992 at the Hotel Petersbergnear Bonn in Germany at a meeting of the Council of the WEU, where the member statesagreed to deploy their troops and resources from across the whole spectrum of themilitary under the authority of the WEU. As a part of the partial merger of the WEU withthe European Union these tasks now form a part of the European Security and Defence

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Policy, and are central to strengthening the European Union's second pillar, the CommonForeign and Security Policy.

The Petersberg tasks were first formulated by the Western European Union (WEU) in1992 during a summit in at the Hotel Petersberg near Bonn. In 1997, during the European

summit in Amsterdam, the tasks were incorporated in the Treaty on European Union. Both the WEU and the EU are empowered to enforce the Petersberg tasks, but with thetransfer of the most important WEU assets to the EU in 1999, this distinction is mostlyartificial. Recent creation of the European Defence Agency made the WEU obsolete,further more the WEU was enforce to act for 50 years and today is just a relic of the past.

The Petersberg tasks cover great range of possible military missions, ranging from themost simple to the most robust military intervention. They are formulated as:

• Humanitarian and rescue tasks

• Peacekeeping tasks

•  Tasks of combat forces in crisis management, including peacemaking.

Officially, the range of tasks the EU commits itself "includes" these tasks, but is notlimited by them. In practice, the task of territorial defence is considered the domain of  NATO. As many European countries are fervent supporters of NATO, there are many provisions to prevent competition with NATO.

[edit] WEU-NATO relationship and the Berlin agreement

At the 1996 NATO ministerial meeting in Berlin, it was agreed that the WesternEuropean Union (WEU) would oversee the creation of a European Security and

Defence Identity within NATO structures.[2] The ESDI was to create a European 'pillar'within NATO, partly to allow European countries to act militarily where NATO wishednot to, and partly to alleviate the United States' financial burden of maintaining military bases in Europe, which it had done since the Cold War . The Berlin agreement allowedEuropean countries (through the WEU) to use NATO assets if it so wished (thisagreement was later amended to allow the European Union to conduct such missions, theso-called Berlin-plus arrangement).

[edit] Incorporation of the Petersberg tasks and the WEU in the EU

The European Union incorporated the same Petersberg tasks within its domain with the

Amsterdam Treaty. The treaty signalled the progressive framing of a common securityand defence policy based on the Petersberg tasks. In 1998, traditional British reluctanceto such a plan changed into endorsement after a bilateral declaration of French PresidentJacques Chirac and the British Prime Minister  Tony Blair in St. Malo, where they statedthat "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed up by crediblemilitary forces, the means to decide to use them, and a readiness to do so, in order torespond to international crises".

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In June 1999, the Cologne European Council decided to incorporate the role of theWestern European Union within the EU, eventually shutting down the WEU. TheCologne Council also appointed Javier Solana as the High Representative for CommonForeign and Security Policy to help progress both the CFSP and the ESDP.

[edit] Helsinki Headline Goal

Main article: Helsinki Headline Goal

The European Union made its first concrete step to enhance military capabilities, in linewith the ESDP, in 1999 when its member states signed the Helsinki Headline Goal. Theyinclude the creation of a catalogue of forces, the 'Helsinki Force Catalogue', to be able tocarry out the so called “Petersberg Tasks”. The EU launched the European CapabilitiesAction Plan (ECAP) at the Laeken Summit in December 2001. However, it became clear that the objectives outlined in the Helsinki Headline Goal were not achievable quickly. InMay 2004, EU defence ministers approved "Headline Goal 2010", extending the

timelines for the EU's projects.

[edit] EU-NATO relationship and the Berlin Plus agreement

Main article: Berlin Plus agreement

Map showing European membership of the EU and NATO

Concerns were voiced that an independent European security pillar might result in adeclining importance of NATO as a transatlantic forum. In response to St. Malo, the

former US-Secretary of State Madeleine Albright put forth the three famous D’s, whichoutline American expectations towards ESDP to this day: no duplication of what wasdone effectively under NATO, no decoupling from the US and NATO, and nodiscrimination against non-EU members such as Turkey.

In the joint EU-NATO declaration of 2002, the six founding principles included partnership—for example, crisis management activities should be "mutuallyreinforcing"—effective mutual consultation and cooperation, equality and due regard for ‘the decision-making autonomy and interests’ of both EU and NATO, and ‘coherent andmutually reinforcing development of the military capability requirements common to thetwo organisations’. In institutional terms, the partnership is reflected in particular by the

"Berlin plus agreement" from March 2003, which allows the EU to use NATO structures,mechanisms and assets to carry out military operations if NATO declines to act.Furthermore, an agreement has been signed on information sharing between the EU and NATO, and EU liaison cells are now in place at SHAPE (NATO’s strategic nerve centrefor planning and operations) and NATO’s Joint Force Command in Naples.

A phrase that is often used to describe the relationship between the EU forces and NATOis "separable, but not separate":[3] the same forces and capabilities will form the basis of 

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 both EU and NATO efforts, but portions can be allocated to the European Union if necessary. Concerning missions, the right of first refusal exists: only if NATO refuses toact, the EU can decide to do so.

[edit] European Security Strategy

Main article: European Security Strategy

The European Security Strategy is the policy document that guides the European Union'sinternational security strategy. Its headline reads: "A Secure Europe In A Better World".The document was approved by the European Council held in Brussels on 12 December 2003 and drafted under the responsibilities of the EU High Representative for CommonForeign and Security Policy CFSP Javier Solana. With the emergence of the ESDP, it isthe first time that Europe has formulated a joint security strategy. It can be considered acounterpart to the National Security Strategy of the United States.

The document starts out with the declaration that "Europe has never been so prosperous,so secure nor so free". Its conclusion is that "The world is full of new dangers andopportunities". Along these lines, it argues that in order to ensure security for Europe in aglobalising world, multilateral cooperation within Europe and abroad is to be theimperative, because "no single nation is able to tackle today's complex challenges". Assuch the ESS identifies a string of key threats Europe needs to deal with: terrorism, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, regional conflict, failed states, andorganised crime. [4]

[edit] European Defence Agency

Main article: European Defence Agency

On 12 July 2004, details of a European Defence Agency were finalised. The 80-personagency is headed by Nick Whitney, formerly of the UK's Ministry of Defence. The totalspent by the 27 EU nations on defence is approximately €160 billion ($250 billion).

[edit] European Union Institute for Security Studies

Main article: European Union Institute for Security Studies

The European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS) was established by the

Council Joint Action of 20 July 2001. Its goals are to find a common security culture for the EU, to help develop and project the CFSP, CSDP and to enrich Europe’s strategicdebate.

[edit] Treaty of Lisbon

The Treaty of Lisbon renamed the ESDP to Common Security and Defence Policy

(CSDP). The post of High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security

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Policy has been created (superseding the High Representative for the Common Foreignand Security Policy and European Commissioner for External Relations and European Neighbourhood Policy) Unanimous decisions in the Council of the European Union continue to instruct the EU foreign policy and CSDP matters became available toenhanced co-operation.

The common security and defence policy shall include the progressive framing of 

a common Union defence policy. This will lead to a common defence, when the

 European Council, acting unanimously, so decides. It shall in that case

recommend to the member States the adoption of such a decision in accordancewith their respective constitutional requirements. The policy of the Union in accordance with this article shall not prejudice the

 specific character of the security and defence policy of certain member states,which see their common defence realised in the North Atlantic Treaty

Organisation, under the North Atlantic Treaty, and be compatible with the

common security and defence policy established within that framework. 

Lisbon also led to the termination of the Western European Union in 2010 as, with thesolidarity clause and the expansion of the CSDP, the WEU became redundant. All itsremaining activities are to be wound up or transferred to the EU by June 2011.

[edit] Overseas deployments

Main article: Overseas interventions of the European Union

The first deployment of European troops under the ESDP, following the 1999 declarationof intent, was in March 2003 in the Republic of Macedonia. "EUFOR Concordia" used

 NATO assets and was considered a success and replaced by a smaller police mission,EUPOL Proxima, later that year. Since then, there have been other small police, justiceand monitoring missions. As well as Macedonia, the EU has maintain its deployment of  peacekeepers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as part of EUFOR Althea mission[5].

Between May and September 2003, "Operation Artemis" began in the DemocraticRepublic of the Congo (DRC) under UN Security Council Resolution 1484. This laid outthe "framework nation" system to be used in future deployments. The EU returned to theDRC during July–November 2006 with EUFOR RD Congo, which supported the UNmission there during the country's elections.

Geographically, EU missions outside the Balkans and the DRC have taken place inGeorgia, Indonesia, Sudan, Palestine, and Ukraine-Moldova. There is also a judicialmission in Iraq (EUJUST Lex). On 28 January 2008, the EU deployed its largest andmost multi-national mission to Africa, EUFOR Tchad/RCA[6]  . The UN-mandated missioninvolves troops from 25 EU states (19 in the field) deployed in areas of eastern Chad andthe north-eastern Central African Republic in order to improve security in those regions.EUFOR Tchad/RCA reached full operation capability in mid-September 2008 and isexpected to hand over security duties to the UN in mid-March 2009.

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[edit] Current content and structure

• European Defence Agency• Helsinki Headline Goal• European Gendarmerie Force•

European Union battle groups• European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS) [1] 

The following permanent political and military bodies were established after the approvalof the European Council.

• Political and Security Committee or PSC• European Union Military Committee or EUMC• European Union Military Staff or EUMS• Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management or CIVCOM• European Union Satellite Centre

The CSDP is furthermore strongly facilitated by the European External Action Service.

From 1 January 2007, the EU Operations Centre began work in Brussels. It can commanda limited size force of about 2000 troops (e.g. a battlegroup).

In addition to the EU centre, 5 national operational headquarters have been madeavailable for use by the Union; Mont Valérien in Paris, Northwood in London, Potsdam,Centocelle in Rome and Larissa. For example, Operation Artemis used Mont Valérien asits OHQ and EUFOR's DR Congo operation uses Potsdam. The EU can also use NATOcapabilities.[7]