Theme 7 The Age of Jackson

The election of Andrew Jackson in 1828 came to symbolize the emergence of a new democratic spirit: an “age of the common man.” Although the Democrats favored limited national gov’t, Jackson forcefully responded to South Carolina’s defiance over the collection of tariffs. The exercise of assertive executive power is best illustrated by Jackson’s veto of rechartering of the national bank and his “war” against the “monopoly.” The removal of Indian tribes from the Southeast to lands west of the Mississippi was vigorously pursued. A new Whig Party emerged in opposition to “King Andrew I.”

Essential Essential Question:Question:Essential Essential Question:Question:

Champion of Champion of the the

“Common “Common Man”?Man”?

““King”King”Andrew?Andrew?OROR

Voting Voting Requirements Requirements in the Early 19cin the Early 19c

Voting Voting Requirements Requirements in the Early 19cin the Early 19c

Voter Turnout: 1820 - 1860Voter Turnout: 1820 - 1860Voter Turnout: 1820 - 1860Voter Turnout: 1820 - 1860

Why Increased Why Increased Democratization?Democratization?

Why Increased Why Increased Democratization?Democratization?

3 White male suffrage increasedWhite male suffrage increased

3 Party nominating committees.Party nominating committees.

3 Voters chose their state’s slate of Presidential electors.Voters chose their state’s slate of Presidential electors.

3 Spoils system.Spoils system.

3 Rise of Third Parties.Rise of Third Parties.

3 Popular campaigning (parades, rallies, floats, etc.)Popular campaigning (parades, rallies, floats, etc.)

3 Two-party system returned in the 1832 election:Two-party system returned in the 1832 election:

3 Dem-Reps à Natl. Reps.(1828) à WhigsDem-Reps à Natl. Reps.(1828) à Whigs (1832) à Republicans (1854) (1832) à Republicans (1854)

3 Democrats (1828)Democrats (1828)

Jackson’s First Jackson’s First Hermitage Hermitage ResidenceResidence

Jackson’s First Jackson’s First Hermitage Hermitage ResidenceResidence

First Known First Known Painting Painting

of Jackson, 1815of Jackson, 1815

First Known First Known Painting Painting

of Jackson, 1815of Jackson, 1815

General Jackson General Jackson During the Seminole During the Seminole

WarsWars

General Jackson General Jackson During the Seminole During the Seminole

WarsWars

The “Common The “Common Man’s”Man’s”

Presidential Presidential CandidateCandidate

The “Common The “Common Man’s”Man’s”

Presidential Presidential CandidateCandidate

Jackson’s Opponents in Jackson’s Opponents in 18241824

Jackson’s Opponents in Jackson’s Opponents in 18241824

Henry ClayHenry Clay[KY][KY]

John Quincy AdamsJohn Quincy Adams[MA][MA]

John C. CalhounJohn C. Calhoun[SC][SC]

William H. CrawfordWilliam H. Crawford[GA][GA]

Results of the 1824 Results of the 1824 ElectionElection

Results of the 1824 Results of the 1824 ElectionElection

A A “Corrupt “Corrupt Bargain?”Bargain?”

A A “Corrupt “Corrupt Bargain?”Bargain?”

The Election of 1824:The Election of 1824:The “Corrupt Bargain”The “Corrupt Bargain”

CandidatePopular

Vote

Electoral Vote

Andrew Jackson

43% 99

J.Q. Adams 31% 32

William Crawford

13% 41

Henry Clay 13% 37

Theme 40: Political Realignments

Overview: The 1820s saw a widening of popular participation in politics and realignment of political parties

The Federalist Party: Virtually ceased to exist after 1816 on the national level

Suffrage (the vote): Was gradually being expanded among adult white males as the property requirement was abandoned• Voter reform came first in the Western states, last in the South, and only in Rhode Island was it accompanied by any violence (Dorr Rebellion, 1843)• The vote of the people replaced state legislatures in selecting presidential electors

Election of 1824: The Republicans failed to agree on one nominee for president, and four factional candidates emerged. A Congressional caucus chose William Crawford (the last time this system was used); Henry Clay of Kentucky won support from Western state legislatures; Secretary of State John Quincy Adams was supported by New England; and Andrew Jackson of Tennessee enjoyed broad national support as a war hero. John C. Calhoun withdrew and became the Vice Presidential candidate.• Jackson received the most popular votes but no one received an electoral college majority• As provided by the 12th Amendment, the choice (from the top 3 candidates) went to the House of Representatives• With the support of Clay, Adams received a majority of state votes in the House. Jackson supporters denounced the supposed “corrupt bargain” as Clay was then named Secretary of State

President John Quincy Adams: Lacking in tact and in willingness to compromise, he faced criticism from Jacksonians throughout his term (his foes controlled Congress after the 1826 elections)• A nationalist, Adams supported internal improvements (roads and canals) at federal expense• Adams expressed concern for the rights of Native Americans• Congress hampered the administration’s plan to attend a Pan-American Conference in Panama, and Adams failed to persuade Britain to reopen its West Indies possession to U.S. trade

Rachel JacksonRachel JacksonRachel JacksonRachel Jackson

Final Divorce DecreeFinal Divorce Decree

Jackson in Mourning for Jackson in Mourning for His WifeHis Wife

Jackson in Mourning for Jackson in Mourning for His WifeHis Wife

1828 Election 1828 Election ResultsResults

1828 Election 1828 Election ResultsResults

The Center of Population in The Center of Population in thethe

Country Moves WESTCountry Moves WEST

The Center of Population in The Center of Population in thethe

Country Moves WESTCountry Moves WEST

The New The New “Jackson “Jackson Coalition”Coalition”

The New The New “Jackson “Jackson Coalition”Coalition”

3 The Planter Elite in the The Planter Elite in the SouthSouth

3 People on the FrontierPeople on the Frontier

3 State Politicians – State Politicians – spoils spoils systemsystem

3 Immigrants in the cities.Immigrants in the cities.

Jackson’s Faith Jackson’s Faith in the in the “Common “Common

Man”Man”

Jackson’s Faith Jackson’s Faith in the in the “Common “Common

Man”Man”3 Intense distrust of EasternIntense distrust of Eastern“establishment,” monopolies, & “establishment,” monopolies, & special privilege.special privilege.

3 His heart & soul was with theHis heart & soul was with the“plain folk.”“plain folk.”

3 Belief that the common man was Belief that the common man was capable of uncommon capable of uncommon achievements.achievements.

The Reign of “King The Reign of “King Mob”Mob”

The Reign of “King The Reign of “King Mob”Mob”

Andrew Jackson as Andrew Jackson as PresidentPresident

Andrew Jackson as Andrew Jackson as PresidentPresident

The The “Peggy Eaton “Peggy Eaton Affair”Affair”

The The “Peggy Eaton “Peggy Eaton Affair”Affair”

The The Webster-Webster-Hayne DebateHayne DebateThe The Webster-Webster-Hayne DebateHayne Debate

Sen. Daniel Sen. Daniel WebsterWebster

[MA][MA]

Sen. Robert Sen. Robert HayneHayne[SC][SC]

1830183018301830 Webster:

Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable. "made for the people, made by the people, and answerable to the people,"

Jackson: Our Federal Union—it must be preserved.

Calhoun: The Union, next to our liberty, most dear.

1832 Tariff 1832 Tariff ConflictConflict

1832 Tariff 1832 Tariff ConflictConflict3 1828 --> “Tariff of

Abomination”

3 1832 --> new tariff

3 South Carolina’s reaction?

3 Jackson’s response?

3 Clay’s “Compromise” Tariff?

Tariff of Abominations 1828Tariff of 1828: In an attempt to embarrass President Adams, the

Jacksonians introduced the Tariff of 1828.• Northern states, which were increasingly industrialized, voted for high

rates• Southern members of Congress, reflecting their states’ growing

reliance on cotton and purchase of manufactured goods, voted against the bill

• The reversal of positions by Daniel Webster and John C Calhoun reflected economic changes in their sections of the nation

• Congress passed the “Tariff of Abominations” and President Adams signed it

Opposition: South Carolina led the sectional opposition to higher tariffs• Vice President John C Calhoun anonymously wrote “The South

Carolina Exposition and Protest,” extolling the principle of state sovereignty.

• The pamphlet branded the tariff unconstitutional and recommended nullification of the laws by states that opposed it

• In his theory of the concurrent majority (a sectional veto power for the minority South), Calhoun sought to protect the interest of a minority South against majority tyranny

• No other states joined South Carolina’s protest, and a nullification vote failed in the legislature

TariffsWebster-Hayne Debate

Webster-Hayne debate 1830: Argument over public land policies developed into a classic debate between Massachusetts and South Carolina senators over the nature of the Union.

• Robert Hayne (South Carolina) defended state sovereignty and the doctrine of nullification

• Daniel Webster (Massachusetts) replied that he union was “one and inseparable” and that nullification was treasonable.

Tariff of 1832

Tariff of 1832: Reduced rates by 10% but still protective• A special South Carolina convention declared the tariff null and

void in that state and threatened secession (Ordinance of Nullification)

• President Jackson responded with a ringing proclamation (“Disunion by armed force is treason”) and threatened to send a military force to enforce tariff collections

• Calhoun resigned as vice president to become South Carolina’s spokesman in the Senate

• Other Southern states refused to support nullification or secession

• Congress passed a “force bill” approving presidential military action if necessary

• Henry Clay’s Compromise on Tariff (for gradual rate reduction) was passed (1833) South Carolina rescinded its nullification ordinance, and the crisis subsided.

Tariffs

Federalism: The proper balance of national and state power and authority was the central issue of the tariff controversy.

• Northern industrial development was aided by higher, protective tariffs

• Northern economic and population growth appeared to threaten the South’s economic, political, and social systems

• The doctrine of nullification restated states rights theory

• Possible secession and disunion were averted by compromise

Native American Lands 1500

Hunter gatherer

Agriculture

Fishing

A Buffer Zone

• Thomas Jefferson proposed the creation of a buffer zone between U.S. and European holdings, to be inhabited by eastern American Indians.

The Cherokees

• Historically, Cherokees occupied lands in several southeastern states.

• As European settlers arrived, Cherokees traded and intermarried with them.

• They began to adopt European customs and gradually turned to an agricultural economy, while being pressured to give up traditional homelands.

• Between 1721 and 1819, over 90 percent of their lands were ceded to others.

• By the 1820s, Sequoyah's syllabary brought literacy and a formal governing system with a written constitution.

Why remove the Cherokee from their lands?

• In 1830--the same year the Indian Removal Act was passed--gold was found on Cherokee lands.

• Georgia held lotteries to give Cherokee land and gold rights to whites.

• Cherokees were not allowed to conduct tribal business, contract, testify in courts against whites, or mine for gold.

History of the Indian Removal

• Once an ally of the Cherokees, President Andrew Jackson authorized the Indian Removal Act of 1830, following the recommendation of President James Monroe in his final address to Congress in 1825.

• Jackson sanctioned an attitude that had persisted for many years among many white immigrants.

• Even Thomas Jefferson, who often cited the Great Law of Peace of the Iroquois Confederacy as the model for the U.S. Constitution, supported Indian Removal as early as 1802.

Jackson’s Plan• Between 1816 and 1840, tribes

located between the original states and the Mississippi River, including Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles, signed more than 40 treaties ceding their lands to the U.S.

• In his 1829 inaugural address, President Andrew Jackson set a policy to relocate eastern Indians.

• In 1830 it was endorsed, when Congress passed the Indian Removal Act to force those remaining to move west of the Mississippi.

•

President Andrew Jackson

Challenging the Court’s Power1830 à Indian Removal Act

3 The Cherokees successfully challenged Georgia in the U.S. Supreme Court.

3 Cherokee Nation v. GA (1831) “domestic dependent nation”

3 President Jackson, when hearing of the Court's decision, reportedly said, "[Chief Justice] John Marshall has made his decision; let him enforce it

now if he can.

Opposition to Removal

• The displacement of native people was not wanting for eloquent opposition.

• Senators Daniel Webster and Henry Clay spoke out against removal.

• Reverend Samuel Worcester, missionary to the Cherokees, challenged Georgia's attempt to extinguish Indian title to land in the state, winning the case before the Supreme Court.

• Worcester v. GA (1832)

The Supreme Court renders its decisions

• Worcester vs. Georgia, 1832, and Cherokee Nation vs. Georgia, 1831, are considered the two most influential decisions in Indian law.

• In effect, the opinions challenged the constitutionality of the Removal Act and the US. Government precedent for unapplied Indian-federal law was established by Jackson's defiant enforcement of the removal.

Between 1830 and 1850, about 100,000 American Indians living between Michigan, Louisiana, and Florida moved west after the U.S. government coerced treaties or used the U.S. Army against those resisting.

Many were treated brutally. An estimated 3,500 Creeks died in Alabama and on their westward journey. Some were transported in chains.

Native American lands in Southeastern US

• The U.S. Government used the Treaty of New Echota in 1835 to justify the removal.

• The treaty, signed by about 100 Cherokees and known as the Treaty Party, relinquished all lands east of the Mississippi River in exchange for land in Indian Territory and the promise of money, livestock, and various provisions and tools.

Effects on the Cherokee Nation

• When the pro-removal Cherokee leaders signed that treaty, they also signed their own death warrants.

• The Cherokee National Council earlier had passed a law that called for the death penalty for anyone who agreed to give up tribal land.

• The signing and the removal led to bitter factionalism and the deaths of most of the Treaty Party leaders in Indian Territory

"I would sooner be honestly damned than hypocritically immortalized"

Davy CrockettHis political career destroyed

because he supported the Cherokee, he left Washington,

D.C. and headed west to Texas.

Native Opposition

• Opposition to the removal was led by Chief John Ross, a mixed-blood of Scottish and one-eighth Cherokee descent.

• The Ross party and most Cherokees opposed the New Echota Treaty, but Georgia and the U.S. Government prevailed and used it as justification to force almost all of the 17,000 Cherokees from the southeastern homelands.

The Forceful Removal• Under orders from President Jackson, the U.S.

Army began enforcement of the Removal Act. • The work was subcontracted to other providers.

Food disappeared. Corruption abounded. • Around 3,000 Cherokees were rounded up in the

summer of 1838 and loaded onto boats that traveled the Tennessee, Ohio, Mississippi, and Arkansas Rivers into Indian Territory.

• Many were held in prison camps awaiting their fate. • In the winter of 1838-39, 14,000 were marched 1,200

miles through Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas into rugged Indian Territory.

Indian RemovalIndian RemovalIndian RemovalIndian Removal

• An estimated 4,000 died from hunger, exposure and disease. The journey became an eternal memory as the "trail where they cried" for the Cherokees and other removed tribes. Today it is remembered as the Trail of Tears

Those who remained . . .

• Those who were able to hide in the mountains of North Carolina or who had agreed to exchange Cherokee citizenship for U.S. citizenship later emerged as the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians of Cherokee, N.C.

• The descendants of the survivors of the Trail of Tears comprise today's Cherokee Nation with membership of more than 165,000

"The Trail of Tears"Painting by Robert Lindneux in the Woolaroc Museum,

Bartlesville, Oklahoma Used with permission.

Jackson’s Professed “Love” Jackson’s Professed “Love” forfor

Native AmericansNative Americans

Jackson’s Professed “Love” Jackson’s Professed “Love” forfor

Native AmericansNative Americans

Jackson’s Use of Jackson’s Use of Federal PowerFederal Power

Jackson’s Use of Jackson’s Use of Federal PowerFederal Power

VETOVETO

1830 à Maysville Road project1830 à Maysville Road project in KY [state of his in KY [state of his political rival, Henry political rival, Henry Clay] Clay]

The National Bank The National Bank DebateDebate

The National Bank The National Bank DebateDebate

NicholasNicholasBiddleBiddle

PresidentPresidentJacksonJackson

Biddle’s Bank: largely owned by foreign “Lords, Dukes,and Ladies,”An ugly emblem of corruption he’d been elected to stop. He was disgusted with Congressmen and Senators who shamelessly took cash from corporations and people like Biddle: “I weep for the liberty of my country.” Presidential Courage by Michael Beschloss

http://uk.geocities.com/haywardlass/_wp_generated/wpd18e0712.jpg

http://loc.harpweek.com/LCPoliticalCartoons/Disk3/5w/3a05364v5w.jpg

Opposition to the 2Opposition to the 2ndnd B.U.S.B.U.S.

Opposition to the 2Opposition to the 2ndnd B.U.S.B.U.S.

“Soft”(paper) $

“Soft”(paper) $

“Hard”(specie) $

“Hard”(specie) $

3 state bankers state bankers feltfeltit restrained it restrained theirtheirbanks from banks from issuingissuingbank notes bank notes freely.freely.

3 supported rapid supported rapid

economic economic growth growth & speculation.& speculation.

3 felt that coin was felt that coin was

the only safethe only safecurrency.currency.

3 didn’t like any didn’t like any bankbankthat issued bankthat issued banknotes.notes.

3 suspicious of suspicious of expansion &expansion &speculation.speculation.

Biddle, providing lavish loansto Congress, felt confident the country could not survive without his bank.He offered to see the debt paid off but lurking within this deal was that Jackson would have to endorse a new charter for the Bank.Without that commitment the country, Biddle warned, would be consumed by, “confusion, anxiety, and speculation.”

Jackson was no gullible backswoodsman. He called Biddle to the White House….Jackson was sensitive to thosewho thought him too rough-hewn

The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!3 Henry Clay introduces rechartering the BUS Henry Clay introduces rechartering the BUS

earlier than necessary; political issueearlier than necessary; political issue

3 1832 à Jackson vetoed the extension of the 1832 à Jackson vetoed the extension of the 2nd National Bank of the United States.2nd National Bank of the United States.

3 Jackson’s veto of the Bank recharter is one Jackson’s veto of the Bank recharter is one one the most important vetoes in American one the most important vetoes in American history.history.

3 Significance: Estb. vast new authority for Significance: Estb. vast new authority for himself and future Presidents. Since G. himself and future Presidents. Since G. Washington vetoes were used as sanctions Washington vetoes were used as sanctions against bills deemed unconstitutional. against bills deemed unconstitutional. Jackson’s action empowered Presidents to Jackson’s action empowered Presidents to stop measures they simply didn’t like.stop measures they simply didn’t like.

The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!3 Jackson’s veto: This came close to declaring Jackson’s veto: This came close to declaring

class war and gave no hint of economic class war and gave no hint of economic dangers approaching if there wasn’t some dangers approaching if there wasn’t some type of substitute financial institutiontype of substitute financial institution

3 Jackson had wisely addressed the American Jackson had wisely addressed the American soul.soul.

3 The The Pittsburg ManufacturerPittsburg Manufacturer said, “With one said, “With one voice, with one arm, mighty and just as that voice, with one arm, mighty and just as that which placed the Hero of New Orleans in the which placed the Hero of New Orleans in the Presidential Chair, let us rise in our might and Presidential Chair, let us rise in our might and sustain his veto on this vampire of our sustain his veto on this vampire of our country’s prosperity” country’s prosperity” (Beschloss, (Beschloss, Presidential Courage)Presidential Courage)

On the Senate floor, Daniel Webster of Massachusetts rose to defy Jackson’s veto

Good thing Americans didn’t know that Webster had just asked Biddle for a $12,000 loan.

http://www.seacoastsearch.com/nhlinks/people/danielwebster/res/danielwebster1.jpeg

“I warn that the “despotic” President is launching “experiments” that will compel a “complete change in our gov’t” with the President seizing he “power of the originating laws.”

If that happens, the Constitution will not survive to “its fiftieth year!”

Beschloss, Presidential Courage

The Downfall of “Mother The Downfall of “Mother Bank”Bank”

The Downfall of “Mother The Downfall of “Mother Bank”Bank”Neither the House nor the Senate could muster the 2/3rd required

votes to override the President’s veto. The Bank was dead and an election loomed.

The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!

3 Jackson vs. Henry Clay for Election of 1832Jackson vs. Henry Clay for Election of 1832

3 Biddle spent $2.3 million in the press to topple Biddle spent $2.3 million in the press to topple the Presidentthe President

3 Pro-Clay newspapers declare; “The Pro-Clay newspapers declare; “The Constitution is gone! It is a dead letter, and Constitution is gone! It is a dead letter, and the will of a DICTATOR is the Supreme Law!”the will of a DICTATOR is the Supreme Law!”

3 Jackson and his running mate Martin Van Jackson and his running mate Martin Van Buren saw “Hickory Clubs” organized across Buren saw “Hickory Clubs” organized across the nation with claims to “Stand by Our Hero” the nation with claims to “Stand by Our Hero” to defeat “Emperor Nicholas”to defeat “Emperor Nicholas”

3 1832 Jackson wins re-elections1832 Jackson wins re-elections

1832 Election 1832 Election ResultsResults

1832 Election 1832 Election ResultsResults

The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!3 Biddle isn’t giving up yet.Biddle isn’t giving up yet.

3 ““pet banks” - Jackson decides to cripple Biddle’s Bank pet banks” - Jackson decides to cripple Biddle’s Bank by removing huge federal deposits held there. He by removing huge federal deposits held there. He places them in favored state banksplaces them in favored state banks

3 His Sec. of Treasury Wm Duane refused - Jackson fired His Sec. of Treasury Wm Duane refused - Jackson fired him! Senate approved hiring of cabinet positions but him! Senate approved hiring of cabinet positions but obviously they didn’t have to approve dismissals! King obviously they didn’t have to approve dismissals! King Jackson enhances power of presidencyJackson enhances power of presidency

3 Biddle calls in loans - financial chaos. Biddle calls in loans - financial chaos.

3 People complain to Jackson. He sends them to BiddlePeople complain to Jackson. He sends them to Biddle

3 1834 HENRY CLAY organizes Senators against “King 1834 HENRY CLAY organizes Senators against “King Andrew the First”. This new party is called the Whigs = Andrew the First”. This new party is called the Whigs = cover for bald Federalismcover for bald Federalism

An 1832 An 1832 Cartoon:Cartoon:

““KingKingAndrew”Andrew”??

An 1832 An 1832 Cartoon:Cartoon:

““KingKingAndrew”Andrew”??

The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!The “Monster” Is Destroyed!

3 1836 à the charter expired.1836 à the charter expired.

3 1841 à the bank went1841 à the bank went bankrupt! bankrupt!

The The Specie CircularSpecie Circular (1836)(1836)

The The Specie CircularSpecie Circular (1836)(1836)

3 ““wildcat banks.”wildcat banks.”

3 buy future federalbuy future federalland only with gold orland only with gold orsilver.silver.

3 Jackson’s goal?Jackson’s goal?

Results of the Specie Results of the Specie CircularCircular

Results of the Specie Results of the Specie CircularCircular

$ Banknotes loose their value.Banknotes loose their value.

$ Land sales plummeted.Land sales plummeted.

$ Credit not available.Credit not available.

$ Businesses began to fail.Businesses began to fail.

$ Unemployment rose.Unemployment rose.

The Panic of 1837!The Panic of 1837!

The 1836 Election The 1836 Election ResultsResultsThe 1836 Election The 1836 Election ResultsResults

Martin Van BurenMartin Van Buren

““Old Kinderhook”Old Kinderhook”[O. K.][O. K.]

The Panic of 1837 Spreads Quickly!The Panic of 1837 Spreads Quickly!The Panic of 1837 Spreads Quickly!The Panic of 1837 Spreads Quickly!

Andrew Jackson in Andrew Jackson in RetirementRetirement

Andrew Jackson in Andrew Jackson in RetirementRetirement

Jackson

• Watching Van Buren being sworn in as president, Jackson told a reporter, that his finest act as President had been to vanquish Biddle’s Bank. With humor, he added a wish that he had also shot Henry Clay

Beschloss, Presidential Courage

Photo of Andrew Jackson in 1844Photo of Andrew Jackson in 1844(one year before his death)(one year before his death)

Photo of Andrew Jackson in 1844Photo of Andrew Jackson in 1844(one year before his death)(one year before his death)

1767 - 18451767 - 1845

Jackson took on the presidency largely ignorant of economics and took little time to learn. Too often he was ruled not by reason but by vindictiveness and fight.

By destroying Biddle’s Bank without some accountable replacement, he fostered the American idea that the country did not need a central bank to ensure sound currency.

Through 80 years of boom and bust, until Congress estb. the Federal Reserve in 1913, millions of Americans suffered.

The Founders worried about demagoguery, but Jackson did not hesitate, distorting complex banking issues into a stark public choice between rich and poor.But his audacity gave later Presidents more power. If he had not broadened the expectations of what the President owed the people and if he had not expanded the power of the veto, the American future would have been very different Beschloss, Presidential Courage