andrea e. janda oxytocin: the chemical bonds of love

8/9/2019 Andrea E. Janda OXYTOCIN: The Chemical Bonds of Love

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1Running Head: OXYTOCIN: THE CHEMICAL BONDS OF LOVE

Oxytocin

The Chemical Bonds of Love

Andrea E. Janda

Portland State University


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2OXYTOCIN: THE CHEMICAL BONDS OF LOVE

Oxytocin Overview

Oxytocin (Oxt), also known as alpha-hypophamine (hypophamine), is a nonapeptide

hormone, (composed of nine amino acids) with a chemical formula represented as

C43H66N12O12S2. It is created and secreted by the hypothalamus and travels down the nerve

fibers to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland where it is released into the circulatory system

(Uvns Moberg, 2003). Oxytocin acts both as a hormone through the bloodstream from nerve

endings to target organs and as a neurotransmitter, a signaling substance in the nervous system

reaching cell receptors and producing specific, localized effects (Du Vigneaud et al, 1953; Uvns

Moberg, 2003, Angier, 2009). Traveling along the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA or

HTPA axis), oxytocins effects are varied including its ability to modulate reactions to stress and

anxiety, to regulate mood, emotion, digestion, and immune function, and to facilitate sexual

response, orgasm, pair-bonding, trust, and maternal behaviors as well as social interaction and

function (Bales, Pfeifer, & Carter, 2004; Carter, Lederhendler, & Kirkpatrick, 1999; Fisher,

2004; Kuchinas, 2009; Leonie, 2008; Uvns Moberg, 2003; Pedersen, 2004; Young & Zuoxin,

2004).

Oxytocin was first discovered by Sir Henry Dale, an English scientist in 1909 who noted its

presence within the pituitary gland. Dale described its uterine-contracting properties and because it

sped up the birthing process, he named it oxytocin from the Greek words for quick and birth

(Uvns Moberg, 2003, p. 3) Oxytocin was also one of the very first hormones to have its

chemical construction mapped within the mid-twentieth century by Vincent du Vigneaud,who


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oxytocins functional roles are being explored and redefined in the human arenas of love, sex,

trust, and socialization.

Fight or Flight vs. Calm and Connection

Descriptively, oxytocins effect on the body runs the gamut between physiological states

and psychological processes. Indeed, the mind body-connection and the age-old fight orflight

response are related to the oxytocin response. Uvns Moberg proposes the calm and

connection system which she describes as the other end of the seesaw or the opposite pole

to the fight or flight reaction, associating it with trust and curiosity instead of fear, and with

friendliness instead of anger (Uvns Moberg, 2003, introduction, p. x). Juxtaposing the calm and

connection system with the stress system features oxytocin as the mirror opposite to adrenaline, a

stress hormone which acts in the short term and the antidote to cortisol, a stress hormone that has

long term effects (Grippo et al., 2007). After the rush of the stress response, oxytocin is partly

responsible for acting as a thermostat, dialing the bodys temperature, balancing the fluids in the

body, stimulating cell division and wound healing and regulating the levels of stress hormones,

namely cortisol. (Uvns Moberg, 2003; Kuchinas, 2009).

Oxytocin is closely related to another peptide hormone, the blood-pressure-raising

vasopressin (Kuchinas, 2009). In fact vasopressin differs only slightly from oxytocin by two

mere amino acids. Despite being so similar, in some ways, theres still a bit of sexualized

hormonal action, reaction and association that oxytocin doesnt escape in terms of evolutionary

adaptations. In women, Kuchinas (2009) discusses how oxytocin is crucial for maternal


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17). Other than kidney, and cardiovascular function, vasopressin induces male aggression,

especially towards other males, and tends to increase anxiety and vigilance (Pitkow et al., 2001).

During times of stress and especially isolation, rather than showing a decrease in levels, the body

instead produces more oxytocin as a signal to seek physical and emotional connections and lower

stress (Kuchinas, 2009; Pitkow et al., 2001; Grippo et al., 2007).

Love, Attachment, & Intimacy

The research of Helen Fisher, Kerstin Uvns Moberg, Karen Bale, Sue Carter and Tom

Insel all provide evidence that oxytocin and vasopressin, produced in both the hypothalamus and

the gonads are responsible for producing many of the behaviors associated with love and

attachment. Young & Zuoxin (2004) corroborate this research, noting the interaction of the

oxytocin, vasopressin and dopamine systems within the brains reward circuitry. Again, here is

where evolutionary biology comes into play. Fisher (2004) describes how ancestral men and

women are driven to prefer, choose, and pursue specific mating partners while remaining

sexually faithful long enough to conceive a child, but after birth, the chemicals of attachment

dampen romantic ecstasy and replace it with a deep sense of union with a mate that is

intricate, interesting and emotionally rewarding (p. 92-93).

Oxytocin, described by Angier (2009) and others as the cuddle hormone invites us to

do just that. As oxytocin is involved in the contractions of the uterus, the flood of oxytocin

released during orgasm may also cause the rhythmic vaginal contractions during climax and the

similar contractions that eject sperm. Those vaginal contractions serve a fascinating, secondary


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intense the sex, the more oxytocin is released, and the greater chance that conception will occur

(Kunz, et al., 2007).

Sexual pleasure exists to assure the human race of procreating and oxytocin plays an

important part in sexual function by travelling to the tissues that control erectile function and

engorgement of the clitoris (Kuchinas, 2009). During orgasm, oxytocin floods the brain and

spinal cord, stimulates the hippocampus, engages short-term and social memory and deactivates

the amygdala, rendering us calm and trusting (Kuchinas, 2009). In effect, we remember the

pleasure and trust associated with the object of our affections and crave repeat performances of

the act which brings us closer to our loved one.

There are so many various types of love: lust, romantic love, attachment . . . all in varying

degrees of intensity during different life phases and with different people. Most interesting and

important is our natural response to physical intimacy. The concept of neural plasticity, the

brains ability to develop, adapt and respond through ever-growing pathways, even after negative

impacts or damage is one of our grandest features. Our development is known to be both nature

and nurture; we are born with the basics and genetics but it is the extent to which our external

experiences shape us in ways that activate, deactivate or modify our genetic activity (Kuchinas

2009, p.12).

These outside experiences are called epigenetic and the development and sensitivity of

oxytocin receptors appear to be epigenetically influencedin essence, we must learn to love

(Kuchinas 2009; Fisher, 2004). The patterns of intimacy and reward are established early in


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affect our brains ability to use oxytocin, hindering our self-image, our attachment styles and

lock us down into hypervigilancea perpetual fear state (Kuchinas 2009). But we can learn to

love and trust again with more experiences and positive social support.

Social Interaction and Trust

Supportive social interactions may be protective against stressors and certain

mental and physical illness, while social isolation may be a powerful stressor.

Prairie voles are socially monogamous rodents that model some of the behavioral

and physiological traits displayed by humans, including sensitivity to social

isolation. (Grippo et al., 2007)

Bates et al (2004) and Grippo et al (2007) studied prairie voles, considered highly social

mammals and a good translational animal model for humans. Kuchinas (2009) refers to this type

of social branch of neuroscience as social endocrinology and delineates significant differences

and changes in the brains chemical responses when we are with people or isolated from them

(p.53). As it turns out, Grippo et al. (2007) noted that disorders such as depression can be

induced or exacerbated by this isolation while Carter (2007) demonstrated that oxytocin acts an

anti-cortisola counter measure against stress.

Angier (2009) cites several recent studies that suggest oxytocins function as a social

lubricant, promoting trust between people.One experiment in particular found that oxytocin

inhaled through an intranasal spray allowed adults playing a trust game to retain their trust in a

stranger who was looking after their money, even though this trust was violated on many


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Future implications

Social phobia and autism spectrum disorders exhibit over activity in the amygdala but

oxytocin inhalation shows promising results in mitigating those factors by lowering amygdala

activity, making people feel more relaxed and promoting social approach, comprehension and

interaction (Gever, 2010; BBC News, 2008; Leonie, 2008; Jacob et al., 2007). Andari (2010)

summarizes that with oxytocin, patients respond more strongly to others and exhibit more

appropriate social behavior and affect, suggesting a therapeutic potential of oxytocin through its

action on a core dimension of autism. In people with social behavior deficits, observing and

understanding how people naturally form trust will give us a better understanding of mental

disorders which feature these symptoms and how to treat them more effectively (Gever, 2010;Leonie, 2008).

There are many barriers to use of oxytocin as a medication. It is primarily used as a

solution under the name Pitocin, to stimulate contraction during child labor or as a nasal spray, to

stimulate milk expulsion in women who experience difficulty in nursing their children.

Noticeable effects are only noted though the non-friendly method of injection, as oxytocin breaks

down quickly in the bloodstream and is unable to cross the blood-brain barrier (Kuchinas, 2009;

Uvns Moberg, 2003). Thus, these isolated effects would be limited to analgesic, stress relief,

anti-inflammatory, wound healing, or growth enhancement as the oxytocin molecule appears to

be linked to these areas of building and repair (Kuchinas, 2009). Larry Young (2004) maintains

that reducing love to its component parts yields an understating of human sexuality, and may


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be eager to invest in oxytocin nasal spray whose efficacy and distribution is not currently

regulated. Uvns Moberg, (2003) suggests instead that we think of our health as an inner

ecology, that we must respect, nurture and replenish our resources, and to do this we must

consciously choose to relax, love and heal in order to balance our stress-oriented culture.

Laughing, spending time with friends and family, making love, taking a walk in nature, enjoying

meditation or massage, taking time for our children and connecting to our fellow human will go

a long way to enervating the calm and connection system of oxytocin already built into our

biology and bringing more love into our lives.

References

Andari, E. (2010, March 3). Promoting social behavior with oxytocin in high-functioning autism

spectrum disorders. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States ofAmerica (0027-8424), 107 (9), 4389.

Angier, N. (2009, November 23). The Biology Behind the Milk of Human Kindness. The New

York Times.

Bales, K. L., Pfeifer, L. A. & Carter, C. S. (2004). Sex differences and developmental

effects of manipulations of oxytocin on alloparenting and anxiety in prairie voles. Developmental Psychobiology, 44(2), 123-131. doi: 10.1002/dev.10165.

Du Vigneaud, V., Ressler, C., Swan, C. J.M., Roberts, C.W., Katsoyannis, P.G., &Gordon, S. (1953, October).J. Am. Chem. Soc, 75(19), 48794880.

doi:10.1021/ja01115a553

Carter, C. S. (2007). Sex differences in oxytocin and vasopressin: Implications for autism

spectrum disorders?Behavioral Brain Research, 176 (1), 170-186.

Carter, C. S., Lederhendler, I. I., & Kirkpatrick, B. (1999). The integrative neurobiology ofaffiliation Cambridge MA MIT Press


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Grippo, A.J., Gerena, D., Huang, J., Kumar, N., Shah, M., Raj Ughreja, R. & Carter, C.S.(2007). Social isolation induces behavioral and neuroendocrine disturbances relevant

to depression in female and male prairie voles. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32 (8-10),966.

Jacob, S., Brune C.W., Carter, C.S., Leventhal, B.L., Lord, C., Cook, E.H. (2007, April).

Association of the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) in Caucasian children and

adolescents with autism.Neuroscience Letters 417 (1), 69.doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2007.02.001.

Kuchinas, S. (2009). The chemistry of connection: How the oxytocin response can help youfind trust, intimacy, and love. Oakland: CA. New Harbinger Publications, Inc.

Kunz, G., Beil, D., Huppert, P., & Leyendecker. (2007). Oxytocin, a stimulator of directedsperm transport in humans.Reproductive BioMedicine Online, 14(1), 32-39.

Leonie, W. (2008). Trust in oxytocin.Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(7), 500.

doi:10.1038/nrn2446.

Pedersen, C. (2004). Unleashing the 'love' hormone.Nature Medicine, 10(2), 122.

doi:10.1038/nm0204-122.

Pitkow, L. J., Sharer, C.A., Ren, X, Insel, T.R., Terwilliger, E.F. & Young, L.J .(2001).

Facilitation of affiliation and pair-bond formation by vasopressin receptor gene transfer into theventral forebrain of a monogamous vole.Neuroscience, 21 (18), 73927396

Trust drug may cure social phobia. (2008, May 21). BBC News. Health. Retrieved from:http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7412438.stm

Uvns Moberg, K. (2003). The oxytocin factor: Tapping the hormone of calm, love, and healing.

Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press.

Young, L., & Zuoxin, W. (2004). The neurobiology of pair bonding.Nature Neuroscience,

7(10), 1048-1054. doi:10.1038/nn1327.


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Oxytocin

Survey


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62responses:SummarySex

Male 21 34%

Female 41 66%

Age

14-18 1 2%

19-25 12 19%

26-32 17 27%

33-39 21 34%

40-46 8 13%

47-53 1 2%

54-60 2 3%

60-66 0 0%

67-73 0 0%

74-80 0 0%

80 or older 0 0%

Prefer not to say 0 0%


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RelationshipStatus

Single 16 26%

Married 20 32%

Coupled or Partnered 18 29%

Second Marriage 3 5%

Third Marriage or beyond 0 0%Divorced 5 8%

Widowed 0 0%

Other 0 0%

Doyouownanypets?

0 18 29%

1 or 2 33 53%

3 or 4 8 13%

5 or 6 1 2%7 or more my house is a zoo! 2 3%

Iconsidermyselftobeanemotionalpersonstrongly disagree 0 0%

disagree 4 6%

agree somewhat 18 29%

agree 26 42%


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I consider myself to be a touchy-feely person

strongly disagree 4 6%

disagree 10 16%


agree 15 24%

strongly agree 8 13%

How affectionate do you consider yourself with your family?

not affectionate at all 6 10%moderately affectionate 29 47%

quite affectionate 21 34%

very affectionate 6 10%

Howaffectionatedoyouconsideryourselfwithyourfriends?

not affectionate at all 3 5%

moderately affectionate 33 53%

quite affectionate 22 35%

very affectionate 4 6%

Howaffectionatedoyouconsideryourselfwithyourloveinterest/partner/mate/spouse?


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Itendtofeel'smothered'byoverlyaffectionatepeople


disagree 19 31%


agree 8 13%


Physicalexpressionofloveintheformofaffectionisimportanttome(i.e. touching, stroking, handholding, hugging, kissing)


disagree 2 3%


agree 21 34%


Ienjoymeetingnewpeople


disagree 1 2%


33 53%


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Ienjoynew/interestingsituations


disagree 0 0%


agree 35 56%strongly agree 18 29%

Itakecomfortinfamiliarroutineandstability


disagree 8 13%


agree 23 37%


Iattendsocialfunctions(i.e. dinner with friends, concerts, parties, meetings with groups / organizations)

rarely 7 11%

often 31 50%

sometimes 23 37%


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Iplansocialfunctionsrarely 19 31%

often 15 24%

sometimes 19 31%

infrequently 8 13%

never 1 2%

Ismileorlaughwithmyfamily&friends

rarely 1 2%

often 56 90%

sometimes 5 8%

infrequently 0 0%

never 0 0%

Ismileorlaughwithmyloveinterest/partner/mate/spouse

rarely 0 0%

often 55 89%

sometimes 5 8%

infrequently 2 3%


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Idolittlespecialthingsformyloveinterest/partner/mate/spouse(i.e. love notes, make something, plan a surprise, take care of something they've been

putting off)

rarely 1 2%

often 36 58%

sometimes 23 37%

infrequently 2 3%

never 0 0%

Myloveinterest/partner/mate/spousedoeslittlespecialthingsforme

rarely 4 6%

often 23 37%

sometimes 24 39%

infrequently 10 16%never 1 2%

Ienjoycookingforothers


disagree 3 5%



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Sexisimportantinahealthyrelationshipstrongly disagree 0 0%

disagree 1 2%

agree somewhat 5 8%

agree 25 40%


Ifsomeonevisitedmyhomeunannouncedonarandomday,they'dfinditorderlyand

clean


disagree 10 16%


agree 15 24%

strongly agree 1 2%

Ibelievethatdesireischemicallybased(attraction, passion, lust)


disagree 5 8%



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Ibelievethatloveischemicallybased(pairbonding, intimacy, sustained relationship)strongly disagree 9 15%

disagree 14 23%


agree 7 11%

strongly agree 4 6%

Ingeneral,Iwoulddescribemylifeashaving...

plenty of love 20 32%

a good amount of love 23 37%

ample love 10 16%

a small sample of love 4 6%

not enough love 4 6%

a love deficit 1 2%

LOVE? bah! who needs

it!?0 0%

Haveyoueverheardoforareyoufamiliarwiththeword"oxytocin?"

4 6%


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Ifyoucouldtakeapilltoencourageloveandtheemotionalfeelingsassociatedwithlove... (emotional enhancement, not sexual dysfunction)

I would definitelytake it

7 11%

I would consider

taking it21 34%

I would not take it 21 34%

I would mistrust such

a claim13 21%


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Discussion:I created this survey as a way to assess the following:

measures of intimate/affectionate contact satisfaction with intimacy/affection levels outward displays and measures of happiness outward displays of affection and care-taking sociability and interest in new people / new experiences

beliefs on chemical basis for desire and love familiarity with term oxytocin interest in medication/intervention to increase emotion

I began the questions with basic metrics on sex, age, marital status to establish my

population. Total sample n=62 with 41 female and 21 male respondents for 28 questions.

Respondents were invited to participate via email (sent to our class roster) and two social

networking sites online (Facebook and Twitter).

I then ran three, brief statistical analyses to see if there were any significant trends with

the following three questions:

1) Do respondents reply consistently regarding their affections levels between family and their

partners?

2) Does sociability level affect respondents opinions on whether they would take a pill to

encourage love and the emotional feelings associated with love? i.e.: would socially anxious


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Iwantedtoseeifaffectionlevelsweresimilarlyreportedforfamilyandpartners.Thischartdemonstratesacorrelationaleffectbetweenrespondentswhoansweredabouttheirlevelsofaffectiontowardsfamilyandtheirpartner.Itwouldhavebeeninterestingtoaskamoretemporalquestiontotrackaffectionovertime;i.e.,askingrespondentstoconsiderhowaffectionatetheyrecalltheirfamilybeingwhilegrowingupandfollowwithaskinghowaffectionatetheyarewiththeirpartnerinordertoexamineiffamilyupbringingaffectsthewaylateradultsrelatetotheirmates.

Respondent's affection towards family and partner (n=62)

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

80.0%

90.0%

not at all (6) moderately (28) quite affectionate (21) very affectionate (5)

How affectionate do you consider yourself with your family?

How

affectionatedoyouconsideryourself

withyourpartner?

not aff ectionate at all

moderately aff ectionate

quite aff ectionate

very af fectionate


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Forthistest,Icombined5questionsrelatedtosocialbehavioraltendenciesandwillingnesstoengageinnewexperiences:1) Iattendsocialfunctions,2)Iplansocialfunctions, 3)Ienjoycookingforothers,4)Ienjoynew/interestingsituations, 5)Ienjoymeetingnewpeople.ThenIassignedanumberedratingscalefromthequalitativedata,combinedthem,andcreatedaSociabilityIndexfromthesampleminimumof7tothemaximumof19witharangeof4,thenrankingthembythreecategoriesofLOW,MEDIUM,andHIGHsociability.FromthereIcomparedtherespondentsanswertoIfyoucouldtakeapilltoencourageloveandtheemotionalfeelingsassociatedwithlove...withfourpossibleanswers.TheresultswerequitetheoppositeofwhatIexpected.ThosewithaLOWSociabilityIndex,NONEreportedadesiretotakeahappypillandareticencetotakeapillwerereportedamongstbothHIGHandLOWSociabilityIndexes.

Happy pill preference by sociability

0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

30.0%

35.0%

40.0%

45.0%

50.0%

low sociability (7-10) n=8 medium sociability (11-14) n=21 high sociability(15-19) n=32

Sociability

Happypillpreference

not take

mistrust

consider

take


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Thischartrepresentsthesameresults,merelycondenseddownintotwogroupsforfurtherclaritytoreducenoise.Hererespondentswhoreportednottakeandmistrustsuchaclaimweregroupedintotheantipillcategoryandthosereportingwouldconsiderandwouldtakeintothepropillcategory.

Happy pill preference by sociability

62.5%

47.6%

59.4%

37.5%

52.4%

43.8%

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

low sociability (7-10) n=8 medium sociability (11-14) n=21 high sociability(15-19) n=32

Sociability

Happy

pillpreference

anti pill

pro pill


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Iwantedtoseeifthelevelsoflovereporteddifferedwithrespecttorelationshipstatus.Someoftheresultsherewerepredictable:thereissomedissatisfactionorreportoflessloveinsinglerespondents,someincoupled/partneredrelationships,andsomeindivorcedwhilethemarriedandthoseonasecondmarriagegenerallyreportadequatelevels.

Respondent's self described love in life by relationship status (n=62)

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

single (16) coupled (18) married (20) second marriage (3) divorced (5)

Relationship status

Selfdescribedloveinlife

love deficit

not enough

small sample

ample

good amount

plenty


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Thischartrepresentsthesameresults,merelycondenseddownintotwogroupsforfurtherclaritytoreducenoise.Hererespondentswhoreportedonthenegativeendofthespectrumdeficit,notenough,smallwereslatedagainstrespondentswhoreportedonthepositiveendofthespectrumample,good,plenty.Here,theresaninterestingeffectinthatthesingleandthecoupledrespondentsshowaverysimilarpatterninthelevelsofdeficitandplenty,whilebothmarriedcategories(weighted)shownodeficitsandequalamountsofplenty,withdivorcedrespondentsroundingoutthesplitatapproximately60(plenty)40(deficit)spilt.

Respondent's self described love in life by relationship status (n=62)

0.0%

20.0%

40.0%

60.0%

80.0%

100.0%

120.0%

single (16) coupled (18) married (20) second marriage (3) divorced (5)

Relationship Status

Selfdescribedlove

inlife

deficit, not enough, small

ample, good, plenty

andrea e. janda oxytocin: the chemical bonds of love

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