ancient greek lit

7/29/2019 aNCIENT GReek Lit

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Alex Supleo Seno July 11, 2012

BS Nursing III Ms. Maira Mantal

ANCIENT GREEK LITERATURE, CULTURE AND LANGUAGE

Ancient Greek literature refers to literature written in the Greek language until the fourthcentury C.E. This period of Greek literature stretches from Homeruntil the fourth century C.E.and the rise of Alexander the Great. Ancient Greek literature together with the Hebrew Bibleprovides the foundation for all of Western literature.

In addition to history and philosophy, Ancient Greek literature is famous for its epic and lyric

poetry as well as its drama, both tragedy and comedy. Ancient Greektragedy remains among thehighest literary and cultural achievements in Western literature.

Most of the epic poetry and tragedy has its roots in Ancient Greek religion and Greekmythology. Greek mythology has exercised an extensive and profound influence on the culture,arts and literature of Western civilization. Though the ancient Greek religions based upon thesetales have long since faded into obscurity, Greek myths remain alive and vibrant, largely throughthe epic poetry and tragedies of Ancient Greek literature, and are rich sources for Westernfiction, poetry, film, and visual art.

Classical and pre-classical antiquityThe earliest known Greek writings are Mycenaean, written in the Linear B syllabary on claytablets. These documents contain prosaic records largely concerned with trade (lists, inventories,receipts, and so on); no real literature has been discovered. Several theories have been advancedto explain this curious absence. One is that Mycenaean literature, like the works of Homer andother epic poems, was passed on orally, since the Linear B syllabary is not well-suited torecording the sounds of Greek (see phonemic principle). Another theory is that literary works, asthe preserve of an elite, were written on finer materials such as parchment, which have notsurvived.
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Epic poetry

Bust of Homer in the British Museum.Main article: HomerMain article: IliadMain article: OdysseyMain article: Hesiod

At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer, theIliadandthe Odyssey. The figure of Homer is shrouded in mystery. Although the works as they now standare credited to him, it is certain that their roots reach far back before his time (see HomericQuestion). The Iliad is the famous story about the Trojan War. The work examines the warthrough the person ofAchilles, who embodied the Greek heroic ideal.

While theIliadis purely a work oftragedy, the Odyssey is a mixture of tragedy and comedy. It isthe story of Odysseus, one of the warriors at Troy. After ten years fighting the war, he spendsanother ten years sailing back home to his wife and family. During his ten-year voyage, he losesall of his comrades and ships and makes his way home to Ithaca disguised as a beggar. Both ofthese works were based on ancient legends. The stories are told in language that is simple, direct,and eloquent. Both are as fascinatingly readable today as they were in Ancient Greece.

The other great poet of the preclassical period was Hesiod. Unlike Homer, Hesiod speaks ofhimself in his poetry. Nothing is known about him from any source external to his own poetry.He was a native of Boeotia in central Greece, and is thought to have lived and worked around700 B.C.E. His two works were Works and Days andTheogony. The first is a faithful depiction ofthe poverty-stricken country life he knew so well, and it sets forth principles and rules forfarmers. Theogony is a systematic account of creation and of the gods. It vividly describes theages of humankind, beginning with a long-past Golden Age. Together the works of Homer andHesiod served as a kind of Bible for the Greeks. Homer told the story of a heroic past, andHesiod dealt with the practical realities of daily life.
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Lyric poetry

The type of poetry called lyric got its name from the fact that it was originally sung byindividuals or a chorus accompanied by the lyre. The first of the lyric poets was probablyArchilochus of Paros, circa 700 B.C.E. Only fragments remain of his work, as is the case with

most of the lyric poets. The few remnants suggest that he was an embittered adventurer who leda very turbulent life.

The two major lyric poets were Sappho and Pindar. Sappho, who lived in the period from 610B.C.E. to 580 B.C.E., has always been admired for the beauty of her writing. Her themes werepersonal. They dealt with her friendships with and dislikes of other women, though her brotherCharaxus was the subject of several poems. Unfortunately, only fragments of her poems remain.With Pindar the transition has been made from the preclassical to the classical age. He was bornabout 518 B.C.E. and is considered the greatest of the Greek lyricists. His masterpieces were thepoems that celebrated athletic victories in the games at Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and theIsthmus of Corinth.

Tragedy

A Roman bust ofSophoclesMain article: Tragedy

The Greeks invented drama and produced masterpieces that are still reckoned as one of drama'scrowning achievements. In the age that followed the Greco-Persian Wars, the awakened nationalspirit ofAthens was expressed in hundreds of superb tragedies based on heroic and legendarythemes of the past. The tragic plays grew out of simple choral songs and dialogues performed atfestivals of the god Dionysus. Wealthy citizens were chosen to bear the expense of costumingand training the chorus as a public and religious duty. Attendance at the festival performanceswas regarded as an act of worship. Performances were held in the great open-air theater ofDionysus in Athens. All of the greatest poets competed for the prizes offered for the best plays.
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Of the hundreds of dramas written and performed during the classical age, only a limited numberof plays by three authors have survived: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The earliest of thethree was Aeschylus, who was born in 525 B.C.E. He wrote between 70 and 90 plays, of whichonly seven remain. Many of his dramas were arranged as trilogies, groups of three plays on asingle theme. The Oresteia consisting of Agamemnon, Choephoroi (The Libation Bearers), and

Eumenides is the only surviving trilogy. The Persai (The Persians) is a song of triumph for thedefeat of the Persians. Prometheus Bound is a retelling of the legend of the Titan Prometheus, asuperhuman who stole fire from heaven and gave it to humankind.

For about 16 years, between 484 and 468 B.C.E., Aeschylus carried off prize after prize. But in468 his place was taken by a new favorite, Sophocles. Sophocles' life covered nearly the wholeperiod of Athens' "golden age." He won more than 20 victories at the Dionysian festivals andproduced more than 100 plays, only seven of which remain. His drama Antigone is typical of hiswork: its heroine is a model of womanly self-sacrifice. He is probably better known, though, forOedipus the Kingand its sequel, Oedipus at Colonus.

The third of the great tragic writers was Euripides. He wrote at least 92 plays. Sixty-seven ofthese are known in the twentyth century, some just in part or by name only. Only 19 still exist infull. One of these is Rhesus, which is believed by some scholars not to have been written byEuripides. His tragedies are about real men and women rather than the heroic figures of myth.The philosopherAristotle called Euripides the most tragic of the poets because his plays were themost moving. His dramas are performed on the modern stage more often than those of any otherancient poet. His best-known work is probably the powerful Medea, but hisAlcestis,Hippolytus,Trojan Women,Orestes, andElectra are no less brilliant.
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Comedy

Statue of Dionysus, c. 150 C.E. (Museo del Prado, Madrid.)Main article: Comedy

Like tragedy, comedy arose from a ritual in honor ofDionysus, but in this case the plays werefull of frank obscenity, abuse, and insult. At Athens the comedies became an official part of thefestival celebration in 486 B.C.E., and prizes were offered for the best productions. As with thetragedians, few works still remain of the great comedic writers. Of the works of earlier writers,only some plays by Aristophanes exist. His work remains one of the finest examples of comicpresentation and his plays remain popular. He poked fun at everyone and every institution.Aristophanes' plays set the standard for boldness of fantasy, for merciless insult, for unqualifiedindecency, and for outrageous and free political criticism. In The Birds he held up Atheniandemocracy to ridicule. In The Clouds, he attacked the philosopher Socrates. In Lysistrata he

denounced war. Only 11 of his plays have survived.

During the fourth century B.C.E., there developed a new form called New Comedy. Menander isconsidered the best of its writers. Nothing remains from his competitors, however, so it isdifficult to make comparisons. The plays of Menander, of which only the Dyscolus(Misanthrope) now exists, did not deal with the great public themes such as those ofAristophanes. He concentrated instead on fictitious characters from everyday life: stern fathers,young lovers, intriguing slaves, and others. In spite of his narrower focus, the plays of Menander
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influenced later generations. They were freely adapted by the Roman poets Plautus and Terencein the third and second centuries B.C.E. The comedies of the French playwright Molire arereminiscent of those by Menander.

Historiography

Greece's classical age produced two of the pioneers of history: Herodotus and Thucydides.Herodotus is commonly called the father of history, and his "History" contains the first trulyliterary use of prose in Western literature. Of the two, Thucydides was the better historian bymodern standards. His critical use of sources, inclusion of documents, and laborious researchmade his History of the Peloponnesian War a significant influence on later generations ofhistorians.

A third historian of ancient Greece, Xenophon, began his 'Hellenica' where Thucydides ended hiswork about 411 B.C.E. and carried his history to 362 B.C.E. His writings were superficial incomparison to those of Thucydides, but he wrote with authority on military matters. His best

work is the Anabasis, an account of his participation in a Greek mercenary army that tried to helpthe Persian Cyrus expel his brother from the throne. Xenophon also wrote three works in praiseof the philosopherSocrates:Apology,Symposium, and Memorabilia. Although both Xenophonand Plato knew Socrates, their accounts are very different, providing an interesting comparisonbetween the view of the military historian to that of the poet-philosopher.

Philosophy

The greatest achievement of the 4th century was in philosophy. There were many Greekphilosophers, but three names tower above the rest: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. It isimpossible to calculate the enormous influence these thinkers have had on Western society.

Alfred North Whitehead once claimed that all of philosophy is but a footnote to Plato. Socrateswrote nothing, but his thought (or a reasonable presentation of it) is believed to be given byPlato's early socratic dialogues. Aristotle is virtually without rivals among scientists andphilosophers. The first sentence of his Metaphysics reads: "All men by nature desire to know."He has, therefore, been called the "Father of those who know." His medieval disciple ThomasAquinas referred to him simply as "the Philosopher." Aristotle was a student at Plato's Academy,and it is known that like his teacher he wrote dialogues, or conversations. None of these existstoday. The body of writings that has come down to the present probably represents lectures thathe delivered at his own school in Athens, the Lyceum. Even from these books the enormousrange of his interests is evident. He explored matters other than those that are today consideredphilosophical. The treatises that exist cover logic, the physical and biological sciences, ethics,

politics, and constitutional government. There are also treatises on The Souland Rhetoric. HisPoetics has had an enormous influence on literary theory and served as an interpretation oftragedy for more than 2,000 years. With his death in 322 B.C.E., the classical era of Greekliterature drew to a close. In the successive centuries of Greek writing there was never again sucha brilliant flowering of genius as appeared in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. For today'sreaders there are excellent modern translations of classical Greek literature. Most are available inpaperback editions.
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Hellenistic Age

By 338 B.C.E. all of the Greek city-states except Sparta had been conquered by Philip II ofMacedon. Philip's son, Alexander the Great, extended his father's conquests greatly. In so doinghe inaugurated what is called the Hellenistic Ages. Alexander's conquests were in the East, and

Greek culture shifted first in that direction. Athens lost its preeminent status as the leader ofGreek culture, and it was replaced temporarily by Alexandria, Egypt.

The city of Alexandria in northern Egypt became, from the 3rd century B.C.E., the outstandingcenter of Greek culture. It also soon attracted a large Jewish population, making it the largestcenter for Jewish scholarship in the ancient world. In addition, it later became a major focal pointfor the development of Christian thought. The Museum, or Shrine to the Muses, which includedthe library and school, was founded by Ptolemy I. The institution was from the beginningintended as a great international school and library. The library, eventually containing more thana half million volumes, was mostly in Greek. It served as a repository for every Greek work ofthe classical period that could be found.

Hellenistic poetry

Jason and the Golden Fleece, from Apollonius'Argonautica

Later Greek poetry flourished primarily in the 3rd century B.C.E. The chief poets were

Theocritus, Callimachus, and Apollonius of Rhodes. Theocritus, who lived from about 310 to250 B.C.E., was the creator of pastoral poetry, a type that the Roman Virgil mastered in hisEclogues. Of his rural-farm poetry, Harvest Home is considered the best work. He also wrotemimes, poetic plays set in the country as well as minor epics and lyric poetry.

Callimachus, who lived at the same time as Theocritus, worked his entire adult life atAlexandria, compiling a catalog of the library. Only fragments of his poetry survive. The mostfamous work was Aetia (Causes). An elegy in four books, the poem explains the legendary
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origin of obscure customs, festivals, and names. Its structure became a model for the work of theRoman poet, Ovid. Of his elegies for special occasions, the best known is the "Lock ofBerenice," a piece of court poetry that was later adapted by the Roman, Catullus. Callimachusalso wrote short poems for special occasions and at least one short epic, the "Ibis," which wasdirected against his former pupil, Apollonius.

Apollonius of Rhodes was born about 295 B.C.E. He is best remembered for his epic the"Argonautica," about Jason and his shipmates in search of the golden fleece. Apollonius studiedunder Callimachus, with whom he later quarreled. He also served as librarian at Alexandria forabout 13 years. Apart from the "Argonautica," he wrote poems on the foundation of cities as wellas a number ofepigrams. The Roman poet Virgil was strongly influenced by the "Argonautica"in writing his Aeneid. Lesser 3rd-century poets include Aratus of Soli and Herodas. Aratus wrotethe "Phaenomena," a poetic version of a treatise on the stars by Eudoxus of Cnidus, who hadlived in the fourth century. Herodas wrote mimes reminiscent of those of Theocritus. His worksgive a hint of the popular entertainment of the times. Mime and pantomime were a major form ofentertainment during the early Roman Empire.

The rise of Rome

While the transition from city-state to empire affected philosophy a great deal, shifting theemphasis from political theory to personal ethics, Greek letters continued to flourish both underthe Successors (especially the Ptolemies) and under Roman rule. Romans with literary orrhetorical talent looked to Greek models, and Greek literature of all types continued to be readand produced both by native speakers of Greek and later by Roman authors as well. A notablecharacteristic of this period was the expansion of literary criticism as a genre, particularly asexemplified by Demetrius, Pseudo-Longinus and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. The Greek novel,typified by Chariton's Callirhoe and the Hero and Leanderof Pseudo-Musaeus, also emerged.

The New Testament, written by various authors in varying qualities of Koine Greek also hailsfrom this period, and include a unique literary genre, the Gospels, as well as the Epistles of SaintPaul.

Historiography

The significant historians in the period after Alexander were Timaeus, Polybius, DiodorusSiculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Appian of Alexandria, Arrian, and Plutarch. The period oftime they cover extended from late in the fourth century B.C.E. to the second century C.E.

Timaeus was born in Sicily but spent most of his life in Athens. His History, though lost, is

significant because of its influence on Polybius. In 38 books it covered the history of Sicily andItaly to the year 264 B.C.E., the starting point of Polybius' work. Timaeus also wrote the"Olympionikai," a valuable chronological study of the Olympic Games. Polybius was born about200 B.C.E. He was brought to Rome as a hostage in 168. In Rome he became a friend of thegeneral Scipio Aemilianus. He probably accompanied the general to Spain and North Africa inthe wars against Carthage. He was with Scipio at the destruction of Carthage in 146. The historyon which his reputation rests consisted of 40 books, five of which have been preserved along
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with various excerpts. They are a vivid recreation of Rome's rise to world power. A lost book,Tactics, covered military matters.

Diodorus Siculus lived in the first century B.C.E., the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus. Hewrote a universal history,Bibliotheca historica, in 40 books. Of these, the first five and the 11th

through the 20th remain. The first two parts covered history through the early Hellenistic era.The third part takes the story to the beginning of Caesar's wars in Gaul, now France. Dionysiusof Halicarnassus lived late in the first century B.C.E. His history of Rome from its origins to theFirst Punic War (264 to 241 B.C.E.) is written from a Roman point of view, but it is carefullyresearched. He also wrote a number of other treatises, including On Imitation,Commentaries onthe Ancient Orators, and On the Arrangement of Words.

Appian and Arrian both lived in the second century C.E. Appian wrote on Rome and itsconquests, while Arrian is remembered for his work on the campaigns of Alexander the Great.Arrian served in the Roman army. His book therefore concentrates heavily on the militaryaspects of Alexander's life. Arrian also wrote a philosophical treatise, theDiatribai, based on the

teachings of his mentor Epictetus. Best known of the late Greek historians to modern readers isPlutarch, who died about 119 C.E. HisParallel Lives of great Greek and Roman leaders has beenread by every generation since the work was first published. His other surviving work is theMoralia, a collection of essays on ethical, religious, political, physical, and literary topics.

Science and mathematics

Eratosthenes of Alexandria, who died about 194 B.C.E., wrote on astronomy and geography, buthis work is known mainly from later summaries. He is credited with being the first person tomeasure the Earth's circumference. Much that was written by the mathematicians Euclid andArchimedes has been preserved. Euclid is known for his Elements, much of which was drawn

from his predecessor Eudoxus of Cnidus. The Elements is a treatise on geometry, and it hasexerted a continuing influence on mathematics. From Archimedes several treatises have comedown to the present. Among them are Measurement of the Circle, in which he worked out thevalue ofpi; Method Concerning Mechanical Theorems, on his work in mechanics; The SandReckoner; and On Floating Bodies. A manuscript of his works is currently being studied.

The physician Galen, in the history of ancient science, is the most significant person in medicineafterHippocrates, who laid the foundation of medicine in the fifth century B.C.E. Galen livedduring the second century C.E. He was a careful student of anatomy, and his works exerted apowerful influence on medicine for the next 1,400 years. Strabo, who died about 23 C.E., was ageographer and historian. His Historical Sketches in 47 volumes has nearly all been lost. HisGeographical Sketches remain as the only existing ancient book covering the whole range ofpeople and countries known to the Greeks and Romans through the time of Augustus. Pausanias,who lived in the second century C.E., was also a geographer. His Description of Greece is aninvaluable guide to what are now ancient ruins. His book takes the form of a tour of Greece,starting in Athens. The accuracy of his descriptions has been proved by archaeologicalexcavations. The scientist of the Roman period who had the greatest influence on latergenerations was undoubtedly the astronomerPtolemy. He lived during the second century C.E.,though little is known of his life. His masterpiece, originally entitled The Mathematical
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Collection, has come to the present under the title Almagest, as it was translated by Arabastronomers with that title. It was Ptolemy who devised a detailed description of an Earth-centered universe, a notion that dominated astronomical thinking for more than 1,300 years. ThePtolemaic view of the universe endured until Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and other earlymodern astronomers replaced it with heliocentrism.

Philosophy

Later philosophical works were no match for Plato and Aristotle. Epictetus, who died about 135C.E., was associated with the moral philosophy of the Stoics. His teachings were collected by hispupil Arrian in the Discourses and theEncheiridion (Manual of Study). Diogenes Laertius, wholived in the third century, wroteLives, Teachings, and Sayings of Famous Philosophers, a usefulsourcebook. Another major philosopher of his period was Plotinus. He transformed Plato'sphilosophy into a school called Neoplatonism. His Enneads had a wide-ranging influence onEuropean thought until at least the seventeenth century

Legacy

Virtually all of Western literature has been influenced by Ancient Greek literature. Its influenceis so ubiquitous that virtually every major artist, from William Shakespeare to James Joyce is inits debt. In addition to modern literature, its influence has been felt in other ways. Thefoundations of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis originate in the Oedipus complex, which isbased on Sophocles' tragedy.

Social Structure and Government

Social Structure

Greece in the Archaic Period was made up from independent states, called Polis, or city state.The polis of Athens included about 2,500 sq kilometres of territory, but other Polis with smallerareas of 250 sq kilometres.

Greek Society was mainly broken up between Free people and Slaves, who were owned by thefree people. Slaves were used as servants and labourers, without any legal rights. Sometimes theslaves were prisoners of war or bought from foreign slave traders. Although many slaves livedclosely with their owners, few were skilled craftsmen and even fewer were paid.

As Athenian society evolved, free men were divided between Citizens and Metics. A citizen was

born with Athenian parents and were the most powerful group, that could take part in thegovernment of the Polis. After compulsory service in the army they were expected to begovernment officials and take part in Jury Service. A metic was of foreign birth that hadmigrated to Athens, to either trade or practice a craft. A metic had to pay taxes and sometimesrequired to serve in the army. However, they could never achieve full right s of a Citizen, neithercould they own houses or land and were not allowed to speak in law courts.
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The social classes applied to men only, as women all took their social and legal status from theirhusband or their male partner. Women in ancient Greece were not permitted to take part inpublic life.

Government

c.800 BCThe majority of Greek states were governed by groups of rich landowners, called aristocrats; thisword is derived from 'aristoi', meaning best people. This was a system known as 'oligarchy' therule by the few.

c.750 BCAthenian power in the Archaic Period was controlled by Aeropagus, or council. Their policieswere delivered through three magistrates called Archons.

c.500 BC

Democracy was introduced by an aristocrat, Cleisthenes. Who was from family of theAlcmaeonids in 508 BC, after 2 years of civil war, they used the help of Spartans to securepower.

Religion

The ancient Greeks were a deeply religious people. They worshipped many gods whom theybelieved appeared in human form and yet were endowed with superhuman strength and agelessbeauty.

The Iliad and the Odyssey, our earliest surviving examples of Greek literature, record men's

interactions with various gods and goddesses whose characters and appearances underwent littlechange in the centuries that followed.

While many sanctuaries honored more than a single god, usually one deity such as Zeus atOlympia or a closely linked pair of deities like Demeter and her daughter Persephone at Eleusisdominated the cult place.

Elsewhere in the arts, various painted scenes on vases, and stone, terracotta and bronzesculptures portray the major gods and goddesses.

The deities were depicted either by themselves or in traditional mythological situations in which

they interact with humans and a broad range of minor deities, demi-gods and legendarycharacters.


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Funerary Art

The ancient Greeks did not generally leave elaborate grave goods, except for a coin in the handto pay Charon, the ferryman to Hades, and pottery; however the epitaphios or funeral oration(from which epitaph comes) was regarded as of great importance, and animal sacrifices were

made.

Those who could afford them erected stone monuments, which was one of the functions ofkouros statues in the Archaic period before about 500 BCE. These were not intended as portraits,but during the Hellenistic period realistic portraiture of the deceased were introduced and familygroups were often depicted in bas-relief on monuments, usually surrounded by an architecturalframe.

The walls of tomb chambers were often painted in fresco, although few examples have survivedin as good condition as the Tomb of the Diver from southern Italy. Almost the only survivingpainted portraits in the classical Greek tradition are found in Egypt rather than Greece.

The Fayum mummy portraits, from the very end of the classical period, were portrait faces, in aGraeco-Roman style, attached to mummies.

Early Greek burials were frequently marked above ground by a large piece of pottery, andremains were also buried in urns. Pottery continued to be used extensively inside tombs andgraves throughout the classical period. The larnax is a small coffin or ash-chest, usually ofdecorated terracotta.

The two-handled loutrophoros was primarily associated with weddings, as it was used to carrywater for the nuptial bath. However, it was also placed in the tombs of the unmarried,

"presumably to make up in some way for what they had missed in life."

The one-handled lekythos had many household uses, but outside the household its principal usewas for decoration of tombs. Scenes of a descent to the underworld of Hades were often paintedon these, with the dead depicted beside Hermes, Charon or both - though usually only withCharon.

Small pottery figurines are often found, though it is hard to decide if these were made especiallyfor placing in tombs; in the case of the Hellenistic Tanagra figurines this seems probably not thecase. But silverware is more often found around the fringes of the Greek world, as in the royalMacedonian tombs of Vergina, or in the neighbouring cultures like those of Thrace or the

Scythians.

Men

Men ran the government, and spent a great deal of their time away from home. When notinvolved in politics, the men spent time in the fields, overseeing or working the crops, sailing,
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hunting, in manufacturing or in trade. For fun, in addition to drinking parties, the men enjoyedwrestling, horseback riding, and the famous Olympic Games. When the men entertained theirmale friends, at the popular drinking parties, their wives and daughters were not allowed toattend.

Women

With the exception of ancient Sparta, Greek women had very limited freedom outside the home.They could attend weddings, funerals, some religious festivals, and could visit female neighborsfor brief periods of time. In their home, Greek women were in charge. Their job was to run thehouse and to bear children.

Most Greek women did not do housework themselves. Most Greek households had slaves.Female slaves cooked, cleaned, and worked in the fields. Male slaves watched the door, to make

sure no one came in when the man of the house was away, except for female neighbors, andacted as tutors to the young male children. Wives and daughters were not allowed to watch theOlympic Games as the participants in the games did not wear clothes. Chariot racing was theonly game women could win, and only then if they owned the horse. If that horse won, theyreceived the prize.

Children

The ancient Greeks considered their children to be 'youths' until they reached the age of 30!

When a child was born to ancient Greek family, a naked father carried his child, in a ritual dance,around the household. Friends and relatives sent gifts. The family decorated the doorway of theirhome with a wreath of olives (for a boy) or a wreath of wool (for a girl).

In Athens, as in most Greek city-states, with the exception of Sparta, girls stayed at home untilthey were married. Like their mother, they could attend certain festivals, funerals, and visitneighbors for brief periods of time. Their job was to help their mother, and to help in the fields, ifnecessary.

Ancient Greek children played with many toys, including rattles, little clay animals, horses on 4wheels that could be pulled on a string, yo-yo's, and terra-cotta dolls.

Education - Military Training - Sparta

The goal of education in the Greek city-states was to prepare the child for adult activities as acitizen. The nature of the city-states varied greatly, and this was also true of the education theyconsidered appropriate. In most Greek city-states, when young, the boys stayed at home, helping


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in the fields, sailing, and fishing. At age 6 or 7, they went to school. Both daily life and educationwere very different in Sparta [militant], than in Athens [arts and culture] or in the other ancientGreek city-states.

The goal of education in Sparta, an authoritarian, military city-state, was to produce soldier-

citizens who were well-drilled, well-disciplined marching army. Spartans believed in a life ofdiscipline, self-denial, and simplicity. Boys were very loyal to the state of Sparta.

The boys of Sparta were obliged to leave home at the age of 7 to join sternly disciplined groupsunder the supervision of a hierarchy of officers. From age 7 to 18, they underwent anincreasingly severe course of training.

Spartan boys were sent to military school at age 6 or 7. They lived, trained and slept in their thebarracks of their brotherhood. At school, they were taught survival skills and other skillsnecessary to be a great soldier. School courses were very hard and often painful. Althoughstudents were taught to read and write, those skills were not very important to the ancient

Spartans.

Only warfare mattered. The boys were not fed well, and were told that it was fine to steal food aslong as they did not get caught stealing. If they were caught, they were beaten. They walkedbarefoot, slept on hard beds, and worked at gymnastics and other physical activities such asrunning, jumping, javelin and discus throwing, swimming, and hunting. They were subjected tostrict discipline and harsh physical punishment; indeed, they were taught to take pride in theamount of pain they could endure.

At 18, Spartan boys became military cadets and learned the arts of war. At 20, they joined thestate militia--a standing reserve force available for duty in time of emergency--in which they

served until they were 60 years old.

The typical Spartan may or may not have been able to read. But reading, writing, literature, andthe arts were considered unsuitable for the soldier-citizen and were therefore not part of hiseducation. Music and dancing were a part of that education, but only because they servedmilitary ends.

Somewhere between the age of 18-20, Spartan males had to pass a difficult test of fitness,military ability, and leadership skills. Any Spartan male who did not pass these examinationsbecame a perioikos. (The perioikos, or the middle class, were allowed to own property, havebusiness dealings, but had no political rights and were not citizens.)

If they passed, they became a full citizen and a Spartan soldier. Spartan citizens were not allowedto touch money. That was the job of the middle class. Spartan soldiers spent most of their liveswith their fellow soldiers.

They ate, slept, and continued to train in their brotherhood barracks. Even if they were married,they did not live with their wives and families. They lived in the barracks. Military service did


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not end until a Spartan male reached the age of 60. At age 60, a Spartan soldier could retire andlive in their home with their family.

Unlike the other Greek city-states, Sparta provided training for girls that went beyond thedomestic arts. The girls were not forced to leave home, but otherwise their training was similar to

that of the boys. They too learned to run, jump, throw the javelin and discus, and wrestlemightiest strangle a bull. Girls also went to school at age 6 or 7. They lived, slept and trained intheir sisterhood's barracks. No one knows if their school was as cruel or as rugged as the boysschool, but the girls were taught wrestling, gymnastics and combat skills.

Some historians believe the two schools were very similar, and that an attempt was made to trainthe girls as thoroughly as they trained the boys. In any case, the Spartans believed that strongyoung women would produce strong babies.

At age 18, if a Sparta girl passed her skills and fitness test, she would be assigned a husband andallowed to return home. If she failed, she would lose her rights as a citizen, and became a

perioikos, a member of the middle class.

In most of the other Greek city-states, women were required to stay inside their homes most oftheir lives. In Sparta, citizen women were free to move around, and enjoyed a great deal offreedom, as their husbands did not live at home.

Educations in Athens

The goal of education in Athens, a democratic city-state, was to produce citizens trained in the

arts of both peace and war.

In ancient Athens, the purpose of education was to produce citizens trained in the arts, to preparecitizens for both peace and war. Other than requiring two years of military training that began atage 18, the state left parents to educate their sons as they saw fit. The schools were private, butthe tuition was low enough so that even the poorest citizens could afford to send their childrenfor at least a few years. Until age 6 or 7, boys generally were taught at home by their mother.

Most Athenian girls had a primarily domestic education. The most highly educated women werethe hetaerae, or courtesans, who attended special schools where they learned to be interestingcompanions for the men who could afford to maintain them.

Boys attended elementary school from the time they were about age 6 or 7 until they were 13 or14. Part of their training was gymnastics. Younger boys learned to move gracefully, docalisthenics, and play ball and other games. The older boys learned running, jumping, boxing,wrestling, and discus and javelin throwing. The boys also learned to play the lyre and sing, tocount, and to read and write. But it was literature that was at the heart of their schooling.


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The national epic poems of the Greeks - Homer's Odyssey andIliad- were a vital part of the lifeof the Athenian people. As soon as their pupils could write, the teachers dictated passages fromHomer for them to take down, memorize, and later act out. Teachers and pupils also discussedthe feats of the Greek heroes described by Homer.

The education of mind, body, and aesthetic sense was, according to Plato, so that the boys. Fromage 6 to 14, they went to a neighborhood primary school or to a private school. Books were veryexpensive and rare, so subjects were read out-loud, and the boys had to memorize everything. Tohelp them learn, they used writing tablets and rulers.

At 13 or 14, the formal education of the poorer boys probably ended and was followed byapprenticeship at a trade. The wealthier boys continued their education under the tutelage ofphilosopher-teachers.

Until about 390 BC there were no permanent schools and no formal courses for such highereducation. Socrates, for example, wandered around Athens, stopping here or there to hold

discussions with the people about all sorts of things pertaining to the conduct of man's life. Butgradually, as groups of students attached themselves to one teacher or another, permanentschools were established. It was in such schools that Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle taught.

The boys who attended these schools fell into more or less two groups.

Those who wanted learning for its own sake studied with philosophers like Plato who taughtsuch subjects as geometry, astronomy, harmonics (the mathematical theory of music), andarithmetic.

Those who wanted training for public life studied with philosophers like Socrates who taught

primarily oratory and rhetoric. In democratic Athens such training was appropriate and necessarybecause power rested with the men who had the ability to persuade their fellow senators to act.

Pets

Birds, dogs, goats, tortoises, and mice were all popular pets. Cats, however, were not.

Homes - Courtyards

Greek houses, in the 6th and 5th century B.C., were made up of two or three rooms, built aroundan open air courtyard, built of stone, wood, or clay bricks. Larger homes might also have akitchen, a room for bathing, a men's dining room, and perhaps a woman's sitting area.
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Although the Greek women were allowed to leave their homes for only short periods of time,they could enjoy the open air, in the privacy of their courtyard. Much of ancient Greek familylife centered around the courtyard.

The ancient Greeks loved stories and fables. One favorite family activity was to gather in the

courtyard to hear these stories, told by the mother or father. In their courtyard, Greek womenmight relax, chat, and sew.

Diet

Most meals were enjoyed in a courtyard near the home. Greek cooking equipment was small andlight and could easily be set up there. On bright, sunny days, the women probably shelteredunder a covered area of their courtyard, as the ancient Greeks believed a pale complexion was asign of beauty.

Food in Ancient Greece consisted of grains, figs, wheat to make bread, barley, fruit, vegetables,breads, and cake. People in Ancient Greece also ate grapes, seafood of all kinds, and drank wine.

Along the coastline, the soil was not very fertile, but the ancient Greeks used systems ofirrigation and crop rotation to help solve that problem.

They kept goats, for milk and cheese. They sometimes hunted for meat.

Clothing - Accesories

Greek clothing was very simple. Men and women wore linen in the summer and wool in thewinter. The ancient Greeks could buy cloth and clothes in the agora, the marketplace, but thatwas expensive. Most families made their own clothes, which were simple tunics and warmcloaks, made of linen or wool, dyed a bright color, or bleached white. Clothes were made by themother, her daughters, and female slaves. They were often decorated to represent the city-state inwhich they lived. The ancient Greeks were very proud of their home city-state.

Now and then, they might buy jewelry from a traveling peddler, hairpins, rings, and earrings, butonly the rich could afford much jewelry. Both men and women in ancient Athens, and in most of

the other city-states, used perfume, made by boiling flowers and herbs.

The first real hat, the broad-brimmed petasos, was invented by the ancient Greeks. It was wornonly for traveling. A chin strap held it on, so when it was not needed, as protection from theweather, it could hang down ones back.

Both men and women enjoyed using mirrors and hairbrushes. Hair was curled, arranged ininteresting and carefully designed styles, and held in place with scented waxes and lotions.
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Women kept their hair long, in braids, arranged on top of their head, or wore their hair inponytails. Headbands, made of ribbon or metal, were very popular.

Blond hair was rare. Greek admired the blonde look and many tried bleaching their hair. Men cuttheir hair short and, unless they were soldiers, wore beards.

Barber shops first became popular in ancient Greece, and were an important part of the social lifeof many ancient Greek males. In the barber shop, the men exchanged political and sports news,philosophy, and gossip.

Dancing - Music

Dance was very important to the ancient Greeks. They believed that dance improved bothphysical and emotional health. Rarely did men and women dance together. Some dances were

danced by men and others by women.

There were more than 200 ancient Greek dances; comic dances, warlike dances, dances forathletes and for religious worship, plus dances for weddings, funerals, and celebrations.

Dance was accompanied by music played on lyres, flutes, and a wide variety of percussioninstruments such as tambourines, cymbals and castanets.

Story telling

The ancient Greeks loved stories. They created many marvelous stories, myths, and fables thatwe enjoy today, like Odysseus and the Terrible Sea and Circe, a beautiful but evil enchantress.Aesop's Fables, written by Aesop, an ancient Greek, are still read and enjoyed all over the world.

Marriage - Weddings

In ancient Athens, wedding ceremonies started after dark. The veiled bride traveled from herhome to the home of the groom while standing in a chariot. Her family followed the chariot on

foot, carrying the gifts.

Friends of the bride and groom lit the way, carrying torches and playing music to scare away evilspirits. During the wedding ceremony, the bride would eat an apple, or another piece of fruit, toshow that food and other basic needs would now come from her husband.

Gifts to the new couple might include baskets, furniture, jewelry, mirrors, perfume, vases filledwith greenery.


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In ancient Sparta, the ceremony was very simple. After a tussle, to prove his superior strength,the groom would toss his bride over his shoulder and carried her off.

In Vino Veritas: Wine Cups Tell History of Athenian Life Live Science - January 12, 2011Over centuries, the ancient Athenian cocktail parties went full circle, from a practice reserved for

the elite to one open to everyone and then, by the fourth century B.C., back to a luxurious displayof consumption most could not afford.

Slavery

Slavery played a major role in ancient Greek civilization. Slaves could be found everywhere.They worked not only as domestic servants, but as factory workers, shopkeepers, mineworkers,farm workers and as ship's crew members.

There may have been as many, if not more, slaves than free people in ancient Greece. It isdifficult for historians to determine exactly how many slaves there were during these times,because many did not appear any different from the poorer Greek citizens.

There were many different ways in which a person could have become a slave in ancient Greece.They might have been born into slavery as the child of a slave. They might have been takenprisoner if their city was attacked in one of the many battles which took place during these times.They might have been exposed as an infant, meaning the parents abandoned their newborn babyupon a hillside or at the gates of the city to die or be claimed by a passerby.

This method was not uncommon in ancient Greece. Another possible way in which one mighthave become a slave was if a family needed money, they might sell one of the children intoslavery. Generally it was a daughter because the male children were much needed to help outwith the chores or the farm. Kidnapping was another fairly common way in which one couldhave been sold into slavery.

Slaves were treated differently in ancient Greece depending upon what their purpose was. If onewas a household servant, they had a fairly good situation, at least as good as slavery could be.
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They were often treated almost as part of the family. They were even allowed to take part in thefamily rituals, like the sacrifice.

Slaves were always supervised by the woman of the house who was responsible for making surethat all the slaves were kept busy and didn't get out of line. This could be quite a task as most

wealthy Greek households had as many as 10-20 slaves.

There were limits to what a slave could do. They could not enter the Gymnasium or the PublicAssembly. They could not use their own names, but were assigned names by their master.

Not all forms of slavery in ancient Greece were as tolerable as that of the domestic servant. Thelife of a mineworker or ship's crew member was a life of misery and danger.

These people usually did not live long because of the grueling work and dangerous conditions oftheir work.

Often those forced into these conditions were those condemned to death for committing crimesbecause it was understood that they wouldn't live very long under these circumstances. It issurprising to note that the police force in ancient Athens was made up mainly of slaves. Many ofthe clerks at the treasury office were slaves.

Slavery was a very important part of ancient Greece. It played a major role in so many aspects ofGreek civilization from domestic living to the infamous Athenian naval fleet.

The price one might have paid for a slave in ancient Greek times varied depending on theirappearance, age and attitude. Those who were healthy, attractive, young and submissive, couldsell for as much as 10 minae ($180.00). Those who were old, weak and stubborn might have sold

for as little as 1/2 a mina ($9.00). If there happened to be a large supply of slaves on the market,the price automatically went down. This usually happened after winning a large battle, whenthere were many prisoners of war.

Traditionally, studies of Ancient Greece focus on the political, military and culturalachievements of Greek men. Unfortunately, the information we have about ancient Greekwomen is biased because it comes from various sources such as plays, philosophical tracts, vasepaintings and sculptures which were completed by males. From these sources, we can concludethat Greek society was highly stratified in terms of class, race, and gender.

The segregation of male and female roles within ancient Greece was justified by philosophical

claims of the natural superiority of males. As we shall learn, slave women were at a disadvantagein Greek society not only because of their gender but also because of their underprivileged statusin the social hierarchy.

Slave labor was an essential element of the ancient world. While male slaves were assigned toagricultural and industrial work, female slaves were assigned a variety of domestic duties whichincluded shopping, fetching water, cooking, serving food, cleaning, child-care, and wool-


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working. In wealthy households some of the female servants had more specialized roles to fulfill,such as housekeeper, cook or nurse.

Because female slaves were literally owned by their employers, how well slaves were treateddepended upon their status in the household and the temperament of their owners. As a result of

her vulnerable position within household, a female slave was often subjected to sexualexploitation and physical abuse. Any children born of master-servant liaisons were disposed ofbecause female slaves were prohibited from rearing children.

Xenophon's Oceonomicus reveals that slaves were even prohibited from marrying, as marriagewas deemed the social privilege of the elite citizens of Athens.

In addition to their official chores in the household, slave girls also performed unofficialservices. For example, there is evidence that close relationships developed between female slavesand their mistresses. Given the relative seclusion of upper-class women in the private realm oftheir homes, many sought out confidantes in their slave girls. For example, Euripedes' tragic

character of Medea confided her deepest feelings with her nurse, who both advised andcomforted her in her troubled times. Furthermore, slaves always accompanied their mistresses onexcursions outside of the home.

Tombstones of upstanding Athenian women often depict scenes of familiarity between thedeceased and her slave companion. It is likely that a sense of their common exclusion from themasculine world of public affairs would have drawn women together, regardless of class. Theonly public area in which women were allowed to participate was religion.

Slave women were included in some religious affairs and could be initiated to the EleusinianMysteries which celebrated the myth of Persephone.

Thus, the fate of a Greek slave girl was determined by circumstance and more or less rested inthe hands of her owners, who had the power to shape her existence.

Ancient Greek Everyday Life

Men if they were not training in military, or discussing politics went to the Theatre forentertainment. To watch dramas that they could relate to, including tragedies and comedies.These often involved current politics and gods in some form. It is thought that women were notallowed to watch theatre or perform at the theatre, although male actors did play women roles.

Lives of Women in Ancient Greece were closely tied to domestic work, spinning, weaving andother domestic duties. They were not involved in public life or in politics. The live werenormally quite confined to the house although one public duty was acting as a priestess at atemple.

Children in ancient Greece usually occupied their time playing with toys and games.


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Farming and Food

The majority of Ancient Greek people made their living from farming. Citizens often had land outside the

city which provided their income. The Greek landscape and climate was difficult to farm.

Grapes were usually picked around September and either kept for eating or made into wine. Making

wine was done by treading and kept in jars to ferment.

Olives were either picked by hand or knocked out of the tress with wooden sticks. Some

were crushed in a press to produce olive oil and some eaten. This was an important product to the

Greeks that had many uses including; cooking, lighting, beauty products and for athletic purposes. It is

also believed that uprooting an olive tree was a criminal offence. The grain was usually harvest around

October to ensure it would grow during the wettest season. A man drove the ox driven plough, as

second man sowed the seeds behind. In Spring the Crops were harvested using curved knives (sickles).

After harvesting the grain, it was then thrashed, using mules and the help of the wind to separate the

chaff from the grain, the husks were then removed by pounding the grain with a pestle and mortar.

Ancient Greeks usually ate bread (barley or wheat) and porridge,

accompanied with food such as cheese, vegetables, fish, eggs and fruit. Animal such as deer, hare and

boars were hunted only as addition to the food supply. Seasoning usually involved coriander and sesame


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seeds. Honey was probably the only sweetening that existed at the time, importance this is shown as

the beehives were kept in terracotta

Ancient Greek Games

Greek boys played games like hockey, which were not part of the Olympic Games. The Ancient Greek

boys usually played games naked, so girls were forbidden to watch.

Ancient Greek women and girls were not expected to do much physical activity for recreation purposes.

From this pot we can see a young girl, juggling three balls, but there is nothing to presume she was a

performer, as she is dressed like an ordinary girl.

The Ancient Greeks also played games that did not involve much physical activity also, such asmarbles, dice, checkers and knucklebones. Below is a famous vase from the Vatican museumdepicting Achilles and Ajax playing 'Petteia' checkers. The Ancient Greek version of checkerswas similar to what the current game of backgammon is where the Game backgammon is

derived from. The Ancient Greek version of Checkers involved a board, stones and dice.

LANGUAGE

Greek(IPA[elinika]or , IPA[elinici losa]) is an independentbranch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans Western AsiaMinorand the Aegean, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language,spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for themajority of its history; other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, werepreviously used. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script, and was in turn the basis of theLatin, Cyrillic, Coptic, and many other writing systems.

The Greek language holds an important place in the histories ofEurope, the more loosely definedWestern world, and Christianity; the canon ofancient Greek literature includes works ofmonumental importance and influence for the future Western canon, such as the epic poemsIliadandOdyssey. Greek was also the language in which many of the foundational texts ofWesternphilosophy, such as the Platonic dialogues and the works ofAristotle, were composed; the NewTestament of the Christian Bible was written in Koin Greek. Together with the Latin texts andtraditions of the Roman world, the study of the Greek texts and society of antiquity constitutesthe discipline ofClassics.

Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and beyond during

Classical Antiquity, and would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire.In its modern form, it is the official language ofGreece and Cyprus and one of the 23 officiallanguages of the European Union. The language is spoken by at least 13 million people today[12]in Greece, Cyprus, and diaspora communities in numerous parts of the world.

Greekroots are often used to coin new words for other languages, especially in the sciences andmedicine; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of the international scientific vocabulary.Over fifty thousand English words are derived from the Greek language.
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History

Main article: History of Greek

Greek has been spoken in the Balkan Peninsula since around the late 3rd millennium BC.[13]The

earliest written evidence is found in the Linear B clay tablets in the "Room of the ChariotTablets", an LMIII A-context (c. 1400 BC) region ofKnossos, in Crete, making Greek theworld's oldest recorded living languages. Among the Indo-European languages, its date ofearliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages.

The laterGreek alphabet is derived from the Phoenician alphabet (abjad); with minormodifications, it is still used today.

Periods

Proto-Greekarea according to linguist V. I. Georgiev.History of the

Greek language(see also: Greek alphabet)
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Proto-Greek(c. 30001600 BC)

Mycenaean(c. 16001100 BC)

Ancient Greek(c. 800330 BC)Dialects:

Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, Attic-Ionic,Doric, Locrian, Pamphylian,

Homeric Greek,Macedonian

Koine Greek(c. 330 BC330)

Medieval Greek(3301453)

Modern Greek(from 1453)Dialects:

Calabrian, Cappadocian, Cheimarriotika, Cretan,Cypriot, Demotic, Griko, Katharevousa,

Pontic, Tsakonian, Maniot, Yevanic

This box:
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view talk edit

*Dates (beginning with Ancient Greek) fromWallace, D. B. (1996). Greek Grammar Beyond the

Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. GrandRapids: Zondervan. p. 12. ISBN 0310218950.

The Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods:

Proto-Greek: the last unrecorded but assumed ancestor of all known varieties of Greek.Proto-Greek speakers possibly entered the Greek peninsula in the early 2nd millenniumBC. Since then, Greek has been spoken uninterruptedly in Greece.

Mycenaean Greek: the language of the Mycenaean civilization. It is recorded in theLinear B script on tablets dating from the 15th or14th century BC onwards.

Ancient Greek: in its various dialects the language of the Archaic and Classicalperiodsof the ancient Greek civilization.

It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire. Ancient Greek fell into disuse in westernEurope in the Middle Ages, but remained officially in use in the Byzantine world, and was

reintroduced to the rest of Europe with the Fall of Constantinople and Greek migration to the

areas ofItaly.

Koine Greek: The fusion of various ancient Greek dialects with Attic, the dialect ofAthens,resulted in the creation of the first common Greek dialect, which became a lingua franca across

Eastern Mediterranean and Near East. Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and

conquered territories ofAlexander the Great, but after the Hellenistic colonization of the knownworld, it was spoken from Egypt to the fringes ofIndia. After the Roman conquest of Greece, an

unofficial diglossy of Greek and Latin was established in the city ofRome and Koine Greek

became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin ofChristianity can also be

traced through Koine Greek, as the Apostles used it to preach in Greece and the Greek-speaking

world. It is also known as the Alexandrian dialect, Post-Classical Greek or even New Testament

Greek, as it was the original language of the New Testament. Even the Old Testament was

translated into the same language via the Septuagint.

Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek: the continuation of Koine Greek duringByzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Medieval Greek

is a cover phrase for a whole continuum of different speech and writing styles, ranging from

vernacular continuations of spoken Koine that were already approaching Modern Greek in manyrespects, to highly learned forms imitating classical Attic. Much of the written Greek that was

used as the official language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety

based on the tradition of written Koine.

Modern Greek: Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine

period, as early as the 11th century. It is the language used by modern Greeks and apart from Standard

Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it
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ancient greek lit

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