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Make the ancient world come alive! "Thousands of years ago in northern Africa, people lived in little villages scattered along the banks of a mighty river. On either side, beyond the river's reach, golden desert sands stretched to the farthest horizon; but the river provided a thin ribbon of green land, and on this land the people grew their crops and built their homes."

Thus begins the fascinating story of Ancient Egypt—a story intertwined with the other civilizations that existed alongside her in the ancient world.

With this captivating narrative, you will explore all that made Egypt famous: her powerful pharaohs; the mystery of her hieroglyphs; her unique art, pervading religion, and towering pyramids.

But you will also discover the stories of her neighbors, far and near, as you read about

• why a tiny carved cylinder was so important to Ancient Sumerians,

• the puzzle of a vanished people in the Indus Valley whose writing we still cannot decipher,

• how a stone finger pointing to the sky in Ancient Babylon influenced our system of justice today,

• why writing on turtle shells assured a lasting dynasty in Ancient China,

• which charging bull the Ancient Minoans could not leap over,• the secrets of a chalk horse and giant stones in Ancient

Britain,• plus, many other neighbors' stories.

Make the ancient world come alive! Spend some time with Ancient Egypt and Her Neighbors!

http://simplycharlottemason.com/

AncientEgyptandHerNeighbors

byLoreneLambert

AncientEgyptandHerNeighbors©2013,LoreneLambert

Allrightsreserved.

ISBN978-1-61634-203-6printedISBN978-1-61634-204-3electronicdownload

PublishedandprintedbySimplyCharlotteMason930NewHopeRoad#11-892Lawrenceville,Georgia30045

ScripturequotationsarefromTheHolyBible,EnglishStandardVersion®(ESV®),copyright©2001byCrossway,apublishingministryofGoodNewsPublishers.Usedbypermission.Allrightsreserved.

Coverdesign:JohnShaferCoverphoto:BjornChristianTorrissen

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Contents

1 TheBlackLandandtheRedThe Geography of Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 LandBetweentheRiversThe Sumerians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3 TheMoundoftheDeadThe Indus Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4 MonumentsofKingsThe Pyramids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

5 SilentGiantsThe Stone Circles of Great Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

6 ThePainter’sRulebookEgyptian Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

7 HammurabitheLawgiverBabylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

8 TurtleShellsandEmperorsAncient China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

9 LeapingtheBullThe Minoans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

10 DesertPrincesThe Hyksos Invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

11 ErasedfromEternityHatshepsut and Hieroglyphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

12 OpeningADoorLongLockedThe Rosetta Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

13 TheTransformationofAkhenatenReligion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

14 HowardCarter’sWonderfulDiscoveryMummies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

15 RamsestheGreatThe Pharaoh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

16 MenofIronThe Hittites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

17 Merchants,Policemen,andKingsThe Nubians of Kush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

18 LiveandDiebytheSwordAssyria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

19 CyrustheGreatThe Persian Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

20 ALastingLegacyThe End of Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

AncientEgyptMap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

WorldMap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

PhotoCredits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

ForFurtherReading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

PronunciationGuide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

SimplyCharlotteMason .com 5

ChapterOne

TheBlackLandandtheRedThe Geography of Ancient Egypt

T housandsofyearsagoinnorthernAfrica,peoplelived in little villages scattered along the banks

of amighty river.On either side, beyond the river’s reach,goldendesertsandsstretchedtothefarthesthorizon;buttheriverprovidedathinribbonofgreenland,andonthislandthepeoplegrewtheircropsandbuilttheirhomes.Eachsummerasthesunclimbedhigherintheskyandthedrywindswitheredthegrassesfartherfromthewater’sedge,thepeoplebegantolooktotheeast.Theyweresearchingforastar.

Earlyonemorninginlatesummer,abrilliantstarwouldappear,lowintheeasternsky.TodaywecallthisstarSirius,theDogStar,thebrighteststarintheheavens.ButthepeoplealongtheriverknewitasSopdet(sahp-DET),whichmeant“sharp” or “bright.” In their artwork, the people picturedSopdetasabeautifulgoddessinareddresswithafive-pointedstaruponherhead.TheyrejoicedwhentheysawSopdet inthesky,fortheappearanceofthestarmeantthatanewyearhadbegun.Thesepeopledividedtheiryearintothreeseasons,andthefirstwasAkhet(awk-HET),theSeasonoftheFlood.Thebirthofthenewyearmeantthattheirriverwasabouttochange.


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Everyyear,likeclockwork,justafterSopdet’sfirstrisingintheeast,theusuallypeacefulriverwouldstarttoroar,risinguptomorethantwiceitsusualheight.Themarshybankscouldnotcontaintheheavingwaters,andtheywouldfloodoverthenearbygrounduntil the riverwas, insomeplaces,asmuchasamilewide.Rolling,muddywatercoveredtheflatplains.

TheSeasonoftheFloodlastedforfourmonths.Thecrestofhighwaterswouldgraduallymakeitswayalongtheriver’scourseuntilthefloodemptiedintotheMediterraneanSeatothenorthandtheriverwaterebbedbackintoitsusualplacidflow. It would leave behind tons of thick, rich blackmud,whichnowadayswecall silt.Thenwouldbegin the secondseasonoftheyear,Peret(Peh-RET),theSeasonofEmerging.The farmerswouldwatch eagerly as the new soil emergedfromtherecedingwaters.Theyhadspentmostofthepreviousmonthreadyingtheirtools,andnowtheycouldbegintoworktheir fields,plowing the looseblackdirt,planting theseedscarefullysavedfromthelastyear’sharvest,andtendingthetendernewplantsastheysprangupoutoftheground.

Fourmonthsofplantingandweedingandcaringforthefieldsledtothethirdandfinalseasonoftheyear,theSeasonof the Harvest, Shemu (SHEM-oo). Now the people couldgatherandstorethecropstheyhadgrown:wheatandbarley,lentils and chickpeas.They could celebrate another year oflifeandprosperityalongsidetheirriver.Theriver’sbountifulblacksilt sustained thepeopleyearbyyear,and theyknewwellhowvaluableagifttheriverbestowedonthem.Therichsoilwassoimportant,infact,thatthepeopleusedittonametheir land.TheycalledtheircountryKemet(keh-MET), theBlackLand,andtheirriver,Ar,whichmeansblack.

HaveyouguessedtheidentityofKemet?Isuspectthatyou have!Todaywe call this landEgypt, and its river, themightyNile. If I ask you to picture Egypt in yourmind, Iwill venture to guess that you are thinking about pyramids



and mummies, golden masks and mysterious hieroglyphicwriting.Butbeforeallofthosethingscametobe,Egyptwasalandofvillages,strungalongtheriverlikebeadsonawidegreen ribbon,waiting for the annual appearance of the starSopdet.

Thelife-givingNileisthelongestriverintheworld.Itarises in the bluewaters of LakeVictoria, far to the southin themodern-day countriesofUganda andRwanda.Fromthereitmeandersnorthwarduntilitisjoinedbyanotherriver,theBlueNile,nearthegreatcityofKhartouminthenationofSudan.Muchlargernow,itflowsevernorthward,throughsixgreatcataracts,whichisawordforwhitewaterrapids—placeswherethewaterisbrokenbymanybouldersandstonesandtinyislands,sothatitcurlsandfoams.Afteritswildandrushing passage through the cataracts, theNile calms itselfandflowssmoothlyonwardthroughthelandofEgyptuntilitreachesthelowlandsborderingtheMediterraneanSea.Thereitbeginstodivideandbraid,spreadingoutintomanystreamsthat together form a great delta, a triangular shaped massofgreen reedsandwater channels, throughwhich the rivereventuallydrains into theSea. Ifyouwill lookatamapofEgypt,youwillseetheNileDeltaatitsnorthernedge,shapedverymuchlikealotusflower,withtheverdantbanksoftheflowingriverstretchingsouthlikeagracefulstem.

Therewereperhapsamillionpeoplelivinginthelittlevillages, at thedawnofEgypt’shistory.Theynestledcloseto theriver, thesourceof life.Beyonditsreach, theSaharadesertwaseverpresent,thousandsofmilesofaridsand.TheEgyptians, the people of the Black Land, called the desertDeshret (DESH-ret),theRedLand;andtheyfeareditspower.Itwasthedeadland,thebarrenland,andonlythepoweroftheriverkeptitatbay.Iftheriverwereevertofail,thedryreddesertwouldcreepinandcovertheirvillagesandfieldswithendlessdriftingsand.



For all of its fearsomeness, the desert was also ablessing to thesemost ancient ofEgyptians. ItmadeEgyptintoanaturalfortress.AlongthebanksoftheNile,therewasperhaps amile or twoof farmland and then, the desert.Tothewest, thedesolateSahara sands stretched formore thanonethousandmiles.Totheeast,theparchedSinaiPeninsulaspreadoutinmilesandmilesoflifeless,brokenrocks.WiththedeepMediterraneanSeaastheirnorthernborderandtheNile’s impassable cataracts and canyons to the south, theancientEgyptianswereprotected fromhostile neighborsorinvading forces. Since the river provided themwith safety,amplewater,andtheannualgiftofblacksilt,thepeopleinthevillagescouldlivealifeofquietcontentment.

They were not necessarily peaceful, though. Theycertainlyhad everything theyneeded tobe a strongnation.Theyallspokethesamelanguage,theyworshipedthesamegods,theylivedthesamesortsoflives,followingtherhythmoftheriver’sthreeseasons.Buttheydidnotpossessasinglegovernment.Overtimetheyhadarrangedthemselvesintotwogroups:onecenteredintheNorth,aroundtheNileDelta,andonein theNileValleyto thesouth.Becausetheriverflowsfromsouthtonorth,theDeltaregioniscalledLowerEgypt

The red crown, double crown, and white crown

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andtherivervalleytothesouthiscalledUpperEgypt.ThepeopleofLowerEgyptmadetheircapitalinthecity

ofMemphis,andtheirleaderworearedcrownwithatallbackslopingtowardthefront,wherethefigureofanuprightcobrareareditshead,readytostrike.UpperEgyptmadeitscapitalinacitythattheycalledNekhen(neh-KEN),anditsleaderworeatall,cone-shapedwhitecrown.UpperandLowerEgyptwereoftenatwar.Manyliveswerelostasthepeoplebattledeachotherforcontrolovertheriver.Theyhadnosinglerulerwhocouldunitethemintoonenation.Thatfeatwasaccomplished,finally,byagreatman,whocametobehonoredthroughoutall of Egypt’s history for his achievement in creating onecountry,onenation.Theknowledgeofthismanandwhathedidwouldhavebeenlostforever,though,ifitwerenotforasinglediscoverymadebyateamofarchaeologistsdigginginEgyptintheyear1898.

Doyouknowwhatanarchaeologistdoes?Heisascientistwhotriestofigureoutwhatlifewaslikeintheancientpastbydiggingupthepast’sremains,thingslikepotsandscrollsandsometimesevenbones.Bystudyingthesethings,hehopestodeterminesomethingabouthowthepeopleinthepastlivedanddied,whattheybelievedandwhattheycaredabout.Heislikeadetective,whomustdiguphisowncluesoutofthegroundandtrytoassemblethemsothattheytellastory.

Theseparticulararchaeologistsin1898werefromGreatBritain, and their nameswere JamesQuibell andFrederickGreen.TheywerediggingintheruinsofagreattempleintheancientcityofNekhen,theoldcapitalofUpperEgypt.Amongagroupofsacredrelicsburiedwithinthetempletheyfoundamostunusualitem:apalette,formedfromasmooth,heavygraystone.Apaletteisashield-shapedobjectuponwhichtheancientEgyptianswouldgrindagreenstonecalledmalachiteintoafinepowder.Theywouldthenmixitwithfatandmakeasmoothgreenpastewithwhichtoadorntheireyelids.Most



Narmer Palette

palettesweresixorsevenincheslong,butthisonewasmuchlarger—more than two feet long—and completely coveredwith elaborate carvings. The archaeologists surmised thatsuchalargeandelaboratepalettecouldnothavebeenusedinsomeone’shome;itmusthavebeenaceremonialobject,usedinatempleforsomesortofservicetothegods.Astheystudieditmoreclosely,andasotherscholarshavestudieditovertheyears,theyrealizedthatincarvingsandpicture-writingittold

agreatstory:thetaleoftheunificationofEgypt.Ononeside,thepaletteshowsalargefigureofaman,

holdinganenemybyhishairwithhisotherarmraisedhightostrike.Picture-writingnearbytellstheman’sname:Narmer(NAR-muhr). The other side of the palette shows Narmeragain, leadingaprocessionof tiny figurescarryingbannersofcelebration,witheachbannersymbolizingacityinUpperEgypt.Most importantly,Narmerwears,ononesideof thepalette, the tall conicalWhite Crown of Upper Egypt, buton theotherhewears theRedCrownofLowerEgypt.Thepictures show that Narmer, in leadership over a group of



southerncommunities,hadledaconquestoverthepeopleofthedelta,givinghimtherighttowearbothcrowns.Narmerwas the first ruler to unite bothUpper andLower into onenation.Forthenext3,000years,Egyptwouldremainone,buttheyneverforgottheirdividedpast.TheyalwaysreferredtotheircountryasTheTwoLands,andtheirkingasthe“LordofUpperandLowerEgypt.”

Narmer established his capital at the city ofMemphisinLowerEgypt,andthatcityremainedacenterofpowerformost of Egypt’s history. There he established a dynasty, arulingfamily.WhenNarmerdied,hissondonnedtheDoubleCrownand ruled theTwoLands inhis stead; andwhenhedied,hepassedthekingdomontohissoninturn.Narmer’sfamilywastheFirstDynasty.Eventually,overthecourseofthousandsofyears,thirty-onedynastieswouldruletheBlackLand,untilatlastEgyptianstrengthfaded,overwhelmedbythemightyempireofRome.

SoasyouthinkaboutEgypt,whileyoureadthechapterstocome,youmustimagineitasitwasandstillis:anationofpeoplestretchedoutalong thegreenNile,ablooming lotusflower of a nation, arching gracefully atop the deserts ofAfrica.



ChapterTwo

LandBetweentheRiversThe Sumerians

CanyoufindtheNileRiveronamapoftheworld?Youwill see it blooming like a lotus flower as

itemptiesintothebroadblueexpanseoftheMediterraneanSea.Nowlooktothenortheast.Doyouseetwomorerivers,stretchingfrombelowtheBlackSeaallthewaysouthtothePersianGulf?ThesearetheTigrisandtheEuphrates,andtheyarejustasimportantinancienthistoryasthemightyNile.

Youcantakeyourfingerandtraceanarc,startingatthePersianGulfandarchingupwardalongthecourseoftherivers,thendownalongthestraightcoastlineof theMediterraneanand through the long green valley of the Nile. The wholeregionthatyourfingertravelediscalledtheFertileCrescent.Canyouguesswhy?Itiscrescent-shaped,ofcourse,justlikeayoungmoon;andit isfertilebecausetheriversnourishedthepeoplewho lived there, providingwater and thick, richsoilfortheircrops.

During the days when the people of the Black Landwere organizing themselves into Upper and Lower EgyptandthenunitingintoonenationunderNarmer’sleadership,another group of people were settling and building alongthebanksof theTigrisandEuphrates.This landwascalled



Mesopotamia,whichmeans“landbetweentherivers.”LiketheEgyptians, theMesopotamiansdepended completelyontheirriverstosurvive.TheTigrisandEuphratesdidnotfloodwiththeclockworkregularityoftheNile,butheavyrainsinthewinteroftenbroughtfloods,sothatthefieldswereblessedwithnewsiltalmosteveryyear.Asthepeoplebegantosettleintovillagesalongtherivers,theydugirrigationchannels,ortrenches—longditchesthatsuckedwateroutoftheflowingriversandranitoutintothefieldssothatthefarmerscouldgrowwheatandbarley,onionsandgarlicandpeas,lettuceandcucumbers.

The firstcitiesbegan toappear in thesouth,along therivers,inadry,flatplainthatcametobecalledSumer.JustliketheearlyEgyptians,theSumerianswerenotoneunifiednation.Instead,eachcitywasitsownindependentkingdom,withthecityatthecenter,andfarmlandandvillagesclusteredaround it. Each city was governed by a group of its mostimportantcitizens,whomettogetherregularlytodiscussthecity’s problems and settle disputes among the people, andalsotochoosethecity’sleader.Thismanwascalledthelugal(LOO-guhl),whichmeans“thebigman.”TheselugalswerethefirstkingsinMesopotamia.Concernedastheywerewiththeirownpower,andwithincreasingthatpowerbybattlingwiththecitiesaroundthem,theydidnotrealizetheadvantageof uniting together into one strong nation. This blindnesswould lead to their downfall. Because just like Upper andLowerEgyptneededNarmertoweldthemtogether,thecitiesofSumerneededonemantomakethemintoanempire.

Thisishowithappened.ThelargeSumeriancityofKishwasruledinthosedays

byamannamedUr-Zubaba(ERzoo-BAH-bah).Likemostancientkings,hehadacupbearer—amanwhosedutyitwasto serve drinks at the royal table. This sounds like a veryhumbleposition,butactuallythecupbearerwasapersonof



highrankinthecourt,becausehemustbeamanwhomthekingcouldtrustcompletely.Hemustguardagainstpoisonintheking’scup.Sometimeshewasevenrequiredtosipfromthecupbeforethekingdid,inordertotestthatthedrinkwassafe.

Ur-Zubaba’scupbearerwasayoungmannamedSargon(SEHR-gohn). He had come to the king’s court from thenorthernpart ofMesopotamia, a region calledAkkad (AK-ad),sayingonlythathewastheadoptedsonofagardeneranddidnotknowthenameofhistruefather.Onenight,afterhehadbeenservingthekingforonlyashorttime,Sargonhadadream.Init,hesawhimselfblessedbytheSumeriangoddessInanna;healsosawthegoddessrejectingtheking.WhenUr-Zubabaheardabout thisdream,hewasveryfrightened.HesummonedSargon,handedhimacarefullysealedclaytablet,andcommandedhim todeliver it to thekingof thecityofUruk (OO-rook). Sargon obediently set forth, unaware thatthetabletcontainedarequestfromUr-ZubabathatthekingofUrukslaytheonewhobroughthimthemessage.UnfortunatelyforUr-Zubaba’swickedplan,thekingofUrukrefusedtodosuchathing,andSargonreturnedtoKishunharmed,muchtotheking’sdismay.

Shortly after, the city of Kish was attacked by aneighboringking.Hisarmywaslargeandthreatening,andUr-Zubabafledthecity.Withnooneelseprovidingleadership,Sargongathered thearmyofKisharoundhimselfandwentouttodobattlewiththeattackers.Sargonwasvictorious,andwhenhereturned,henamedhimselfkingofKish.Ur-Zubabawasneverheardfromagain.

Afterthat,Sargonwasunstoppable.Hemarchedsouth;eachofthecitiesontheplainofSumertriedtoriseupandmeethim,butonebyonetheyfailed.Heconqueredeachcityin turn, until hewas lord of all Sumer and the entire plainwashis.Bythispoint,hehadcomeallthewaysouthtothe



PersianGulf.So,hislegendstellus,hewadedintothequietsurfandwashedhisweaponsinthesaltwater,asasymboltoall theSumerians that he haddefeated them.Thenhebuilthimself a fabulousnewcapital city, not far fromKish, andnameditAgade(ah-gah-DAY).Inordertopreventanyoftheconqueredcities fromrisingup inrebellionagainsthim,hekepthisarmyclose.Aninscriptiononaclay tabletboastedthat“5,400warriorsatebreaddailybeforehim.”

SargonwasnotcontenttoremaininAgade,feastingandloungingabout.BecausethelandoftheSumerianshadveryfewnaturalresources—nometal,nowood,norock—Sargonknew that they must rely on trade with their neighbors toobtain those things, andhedid not likebeing at themercyofforeigners.Sohemarchedhisarmynorthandwest,alongthearchoftheFertileCrescent,conqueringallthecitiesandbringingthemunderhisowncontrol.Inthisway,heassuredthathisSumerianempirewouldalwaysbewell-suppliedwiththe goods his people needed andwould always receive theverybestpricesfromtheforeignmerchants!

Sargonreignedoverhisempirefor56years,andunderhis rule Sumer becamewealthy and powerful.Many yearslaterthescribesofBabylondescribedSargonthisway:

Sargon had neither rival nor equal . His splendor, over the lands it spread . He crossed the sea in the east . He conquered the western land to its farthest point . He brought it under one authority . He set up his statues there .

SupposeyoucouldwhiskbackintimeandvisitthecityofUr,Sumer’sgreatestcity.Yourtimemachinemightdeposityou in thevery centerof the city, and there, toweringoveryou, isaziggurat—ahugestructurewithseveral levelsandstaircaseszigzaggingtheirwaytothetop.Theziggurat isatemple,builttallandmassivebecausetheSumeriansbelieved



theymustclimbclosertotheskyinordertoworshiptheirgods.ThetemplewasalwaysbuiltintheexactcenterofaSumeriancity.TheSumeriansworshiped thousandsofdifferentgods,buteachcitywouldhaveonegodthatitespeciallyhonored.HereinUr,thisgreatziggurathonorsNannu(NAH-noo),thegodofthemoon.Surroundingthetemplearemanybuildingsdedicatedtoservingthetemple:workshopsfullofcraftsmen,storeroomstoholdthefoodandwinethatwouldbebroughtintothecityfromthetemple’sfarmsandorchardsoutsidethecitywalls,apartmentsand livingquarters forall the templepriests,treasuriestosafeguardthetemple’sriches,orphanagesforchildrenwhoareinthetemple’scare.

TheSumeriansbelieved that theirgodswere, inmanyways, just like people. They needed food and drink and aplacetolive.Soagodintheformofawoodenstatuewouldliveinthetemple,andthepriestswoulddailycareforit.Theywouldbathethestatueanddressitandserveittwomealsaday.Thosemealswerenotlittlesnacks,either.Aclaytabletfoundintheruinsofatempletellsusthatonemealforthegodmight include forty sheep, eight lambs, seventy ducks,and fifty-four jugsofwine.To theSumerianpeople, itwasabsolutelynecessarythatthepriestsprovidewellforthegods.

Ziggurat at Ur

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When the gods were happy, the people believed that theyblessedthecityandbroughtgoodcropsandlovelyweather.Whenthegodswereupsetorneglected,inthepeople’sminds,itwastheywhobroughtdroughtandstormsandenemyarmiesdownuponthecity.

Ifyouweretostrollawayfromthetemple,youwouldenter the city’s marketplace, the bazaar. There, booths andstallslinethestreet,offeringeverythingapersonmightwantorneed.Merchantssoldallsortsoffood:fruits,vegetables,chickens, dried fish, cheese, and spices of all kinds. Othershopkeeperswouldofferclothingorpotteryorcopperkettles.Allofthesegoodscameintothecityeitherfromnearbyfarmersandshepherdsorfromfarawaylands,broughttoSumeronthebacksofcamelsinlongcaravansorinthehullsofmerchantshipssailingtheMediterraneanSeaorthePersianGulf.

Thetworiverswerelikehighways,bringingwoodandmetalfromAkkadin thenorthonlongbarges,whilecamelcaravans trudged upstream along the rivers’ hard-packedbanks, their saddlebags full to thebrimwithSumer’sgrainandwooltotradewiththeirnorthernneighbors.

Youmightnotice that theshoppersareallpayingwithbagsofgrainorsmallsquaresofsilver,andyoudon’thaveeitherofthosethings,soyoudecideyouwon’tbedoinganyshoppingtoday.

Leavingthebazaar,youfindyourselfonamuchquieterstreet.Acrossfromyouisanopen-frontedstall,andthereyouseeamanhunchedoverasmall,lowtable,workingcarefully.Wanderingcloser,youcanseethatheholdsatinycylinderofsomehardwhitematerial.Could itbe ivory?He iscarvingit delicately with tiny pointed tools: a chisel and drill. Henoticesyourgazeand,withasmile,gesturesforyoutocomeandwatchhiswork.Youcan see that the cylindermust bealmostcomplete.Hehascarvedatinyhuntingsceneontoitwithlionsandantelopeandminiaturearchersandspearmen.



Itisabeautifullittlething,butyoudon’treallyunderstandituntilhefinishesthefinaldetailandthendemonstratesitforyou.Heshowsyoualargejarofoliveoilthatsitsnearby.Hesmoothsabandofsoftclayalongtherimofthejarandrollsthe littlecylinderover it.Thehuntingsceneappearsasonecontinuouspatternintheclay,almostlikemagic.Yousmileandapplaud,andthentheartistgesturestothecylinder,thejar,andhimself,andnowyouunderstand.Thepatternmadeby the littlecylinder is likea signature; itmarks this jarasbelongingtothismanandthismanonly.

The little cylinder is called a seal. Seals from SumerandMesopotamiaarestillbeingfoundbyarchaeologistsallover the ancient world. Because they showed ownership,everymerchantandshopkeeperwouldhaveoneanduseittomarkwhich thingswerehis, especially important if severalmerchantswere joining their camels and goods together toformalongcaravan.

Afteryounodyourthankstothesealartist,youcontinueontotheendofthestreet.Thereyoufindalittleopensquareandalarge,ratherimportant-lookinghouse.Throughtheopen

Cylinder seal

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doorway,youcanseeagroupofboys,notmucholderthanyourself, all focusing intently on aman at the front of theroom.A school,youthink,andyouareright.Asyouwatch,theteacherfinisheshisinstructionandalltheyoungmenbendovertheirwork.Theyarepressingsmall,wedge-shapedsticksintotabletsofsoftclay.Theyarewriting,yourealize.

Thewriting they are doing is called cuneiform, and itmightbethemostimportantthingyouseetodayinthecity.Cuneiform writing began as picture-writing; but as timewentby,theSumeriansstartedtousewedge-shapedsymbolsinsteadofpictures,becauseitisquickertostampoutapatternwiththelittlewedge-shapedstickthanitistodrawpicturesinthedampclay.Eachwedge-shapepatternstandsforanobjector idea. Cuneiform isn’t an alphabet, like you are reading

Cuneiform writing on a stone sales contract

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right now,where each letter represents a sound and canbecombinedinanywaytomakewords.Instead,thecuneiformshapesstandforthenamesofthings,andthesename-soundscanbecombinedtosaywhateverisneeded.ItwouldbelikeifyoulivedinthetownofFishCreek,andtowritethenameofyourtownyoudrewalittlefishandasymbolformovingwater:FishCreek.That’showcuneiformworked;thesymbolscouldmeaneitheranobjectitselforthesoundofthatobject’sname.

Whew!Isthatconfusing?Itwasadifficultlanguagethentoo.Cuneiformhasmorethansixhundredsymbols!TheonlyoneswhocouldreadandwriteinSumerwerethekingsandnoblemenandthescribes,whowenttoschoolformanyyearsinordertolearnhowtodoit.

Cuneiformisimportant,though,becauseitisoneoftheoldestexamplesofwrittenlanguagethatarchaeologistshavefound,andtheyhavefoundlotsofit!Becausecuneiformwaswrittenonclaytablets,itcansurviveforthousandsofyears.Fires,floods,burialindeepsand—noneofthesecandestroyclaytablets,sothewritingsoftheSumerianshavelastedrightupuntiltoday.WhilethescribesinSumerwerepressingtheirwedge-sticksintotheclay,downinEgyptthepeopleoftheBlackLandhadstartedtodeveloptheirowntypeofwritinginmuchthesameway,asyoushallsee.

After leaving theschool,youwalkout toward thecitygateandthethickcitywalls.Yourvisithereisalmostcomplete.Lookingback,youcansee thepeoplemovingbusilyabouttheirday,themerchantscarefullyweighingsilver,thepriestsdutifully serving the gods, the artists delicately carving,theboys studying the complicated cuneiform. It looksverydifferent from your life; but then again, perhaps not sodifferent.Afterall,acityisacity,isn’tit?Peoplelivethereandworkandeatandsleepandplay.Let’sgolookatanotheroneandseeifitisthesame!


ancient egypt and her neighbors sample · pdf file"thousands of years ago in northern...

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