* OUR ANATOMY *

Looking Inward

Anatomical awareness as a powerful tool

Maybe sometimes we build up our position base on how we see it from the outside, in a superficial way, so we try to copy what we see and to fit our body, forcefully, into that external image.

We invite you to focus on that look inward and to build up our posture from there. We

are going to create a positive image more refined, more subtle, more detailed each time. “The images are like bombs of big expansion wave in that, when they explode, they tear difficulties apart#### (hacen pedazos) and create the desired change.

” Whatever is contained in that inner image, the body will reproduce it.” Anatomy can help us to visualize the structure in the positions, to the pure instruction we

add the intention. “Before practice, theory is useless. After practice, it’s obvious.” Anatomy, in the end, is a fascinating, profound and funny opportunity to know ourselves. “If you teach an individual to be aware of his/her physical organism and to use it in the

way it was designed for, very often you can change completely his/her attitude towards life and heal his/her neurotic tendencies.” Aldous Huxley

Index

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Our Anatomy

INDEX

ABC ANATOMY

The structure

1. Anatomic position (p. 1) .......................................................................................................1

☯ Introduction 1 ☯ Principal systems 1 ���� Bones ���� Articulations ���� Muscles

2. Planes of movement (p. 2) ................................................................................................... 2

☯ Median or midsagittal 2

���� Flexion, dorsiflexion ���� Extension, plantarflexion

☯ Frontal or coronal (p. 3) 3

���� Adduction ���� Abduction ���� Lateral flexing or side-bending ���� Fingers and toes ���� hand ���� foot

☯ Transverse or horizontal (p. 4) 4

���� Lateral rotation, supination ���� Medial rotation, pronation ���� Right/left rotation

☯ Other anatomical reference terms (p. 6) 5

���� Anterior ���� Posterior ���� Superior ���� Inferior ���� Medial ���� Lateral ���� Internal or deep ���� External or superficial ���� Proximal ���� Distal

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BONES AND WIRES

The structure

1. Talking about bones in general ........................................................................................... 1

☯ Ideas from B4L (Bones for Life) 1

���� Mobile framework & rigid support ���� Gravity ���� Organization ���� Dynamic movement ���� Bone growth

���� pressure ���� configuration ���� cooperation ���� transmission, domino effect ���� structure and function ���� positioning ���� alignment ���� restorative ability ���� biological optimism

☯ Ideas from Anatomy of Hatha Yoga 1

���� The scar of evolution ���� Characteristics

���� the upright posture ���� the capacity to hold it up

���� Relaxation and balance ���� the lock in the knees

� relaxation � extension

���� instructors ���� students ���� NO lock

���� Alignment, the plumb line of gravity

���� through the cervical spine ���� through the lumbar spine ���� behind the axial centre of the articulations of the hips ���� in front of the locked articulations of the knees ���� centre of the heel

���� Appendicular and axial skeleton

���� appendicular ���� axial ���� both together

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���� Appendicular skeleton

���� upper extremities ���� lower extremities

���� Axial skeleton

���� skull ���� vertebral spine ���� rib cage ���� sternum

☯ Ideas from Anatomy of Movement 7

���� Skeleton (p. 7)

���� basic shapes ���� components ���� subjected to pressure

���� Internal anatomy of a bone (p. 8)

���� alveolar (spongy) structure ���� hollow structure ���� marrow ���� periosteum ���� compact bone ���� articular cartilage

���� Joints (p. 9)

���� different degrees of mobility ���� articulating surfaces ���� congruency ���� articular cartilage and synovial cavity ���� dislocation o luxation

���� Cartilage (p. 11)

���� types of stress ���� may be damaged ���� blood vessels ���� other formations

���� Joint capsule (p. 12)

���� what is it? ���� reinforcements ���� areas ���� outer layer ���� inner layer

���� Ligaments (p. 13)

���� what are they? ���� function in the joint ���� proprioceptive sensitivity ���� excessive movement or trauma

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2. Vertebral column (p. 30) .................................................................................................... 15

☯ Introduction 15

���� Vertebral spine ���� Human spine

���� primary, kyphosis ���� secondary, lordosis

���� Primary curve, a bit of prehistory ���� undulations ���� parallels

���� In the individual development

☯ Intrinsecum equilibrium 19

���� With no muscles ���� Deep changes ���� Energy waste against gravity

☯ Vertebral structure (p. 32) 20 ���� Shapes ���� Two main parts ���� posterior, VERTEBRAL ARCH ���� anterior, VERTEBRAL BODY

���� Vertebral holes foramen ���� Intervertebral foramina ���� Vertebral linkage (p. 33) ���� 1 intervertebral disc ���� 2 articular facets

☯ Ligaments of the spine (p. 34) 23

���� Continuous ���� anterior longitudinal ligament ���� posterior longitudinal ligament ���� supraespinous ligament

���� Discontinuous

���� ligament flava ���� intertransverse ligaments ���� interspinous ligaments

���� The 24 vertebrae

���� vertebral bodies ���� arches

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���� Structural elements ���� compression forces ���� tension forces

☯ Vertebral movements (p. 36) 25

���� Effect in discs and ligaments

���� sthira y sukha ���� in flexion ���� in extension ���� in lateral flexion ���� in rotation

���� Let´s go deeper ���� compression and decompression forces ���� if compression force is too strong ���� asymmetrical movements ���� pushing back � anterior longitudinal ligament � posterior longitudinal ligament

���� Types of spinal movement

���� 4 possible movements ���� flexion and extension, primary and secondary curves, exhalation and inhalation � basic movement � perspective � breathing

���� spatial and spinal perspective in forward/backward positions

� flexion y extension � forward and backward

���� spatial and spinal perspective in lateral movements and twists

� TRIKONASANA � PARIVRITTA TRIKONASANA

���� Axial extension, bandhas, mahamudra

� axial extension � bandhas � mahamudra

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3. Shoulder and shoulder girdle (p. 97) …......................................................................... 31

☯ Introduction 31

���� Shoulder

���� glenohumeral (p. 112) ���� acromioclavicular (p. 108) ���� sternoclavicular (p. 106)

���� Shoulder girdle (p. 105) ���� differences ���� what is it?

☯ Movements of the scapula (p. 109) 34

���� Scapula ���� Mobility ���� elevation ���� depression ���� abduction or protraction ���� adduction or retraction ���� downward rotation ���� upward rotation

���� The great mobility of the arm ���� Gliding planes

☯ Movements of the arm (p. 101) 36

���� Flexion ���� Extension ���� Abduction ���� Adduction ���� External rotation ���� Medial rotation

☯ Ligaments 38 ���� Glenohumeral joint (p. 112)

���� from the bone point of view ���� the capsule ���� reinforcement ���� instability ���� resting position of the joint

���� Sternoclavicular joint (p. 106)

���� location ���� movements ���� ligaments

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���� Acromioclavicular joint (p. 108)

���� location ���� movements

� gliding � opening and closing

���� the capsule and 4 ligaments

� superior � inferior � coracoclavicular ligaments � trapezoid � conoid

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4. Thoracic cage: breathing I (p. 81) .................................................................................... 43

☯ Introduction 43

☯ Elements 44

���� Ribs + sternum ���� Ribs + vertebrae

���� the 12 thoracic vertebrae ���� head, neck, tubercule of the rib ���� vertebral level

���� The bucket handle (p. 83)

���� movement ���� different levels ���� direction � superior thoracic vertebrae � inferior thoracic vertebrae

���� lower part of the sternum

���� Mobility in the dorsal region (p. 54)

���� D.1 to D.7 ���� D.8, D.9 and D.10 ���� special mobility in the dorsal-lumbar region

� D.12 and L.1 � D.11 and D.12

☯ Breathing I 49

���� Introduction

���� about breathing ���� breathing, spine and ribs ���� in the yoga practice ���� about Sukha y Dukha

���� Breathing, gravity and yoga

���� in the uterus ���� birth ���� initial expansion ���� the weight of the body in the space ���� postural development ���� breathing and posture

���� Definition of breathing

���� what is it? ���� the two cavities

� similarities � differences � inverse proportion

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���� Volume and pressure ���� inhalation ���� exhalation ���� active exhalation

���� 3D changes in the shape in breathing

���� volume and shape in the chest ���� shape in the abdomen ���� influence on each other ���� during breathing

���� Amplified definition of breathing ���� More elements in the mechanism of breathing ���� lungs � air � lungs � heart

���� breathing and circulation

� metabolism � oxygen

���� moving oxygen

���� Mental aspects

���� neurons ���� the path ���� remedy for stress ���� mental benefits of a correct breathing

� concentration and mental clarity � handle difficulties without stress � emotional control and balance � physical control and coordination

���� the two brains � right side � left side

���� Pranic benefits ���� Chakras

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5. The pelvic girdle: the bowl in balance ............................................................................. 62

☯ Introduction (p. 40 + p. 175) 62

☯ Elements 63

���� Iliac (p. 41) ���� lateral view ���� symphysis pubis ���� shapes and pelvic proportions (p. 43)

���� Sacrum and coccyx (p. 45)

���� lateral view ���� relation with L5 ���� pendulum movements ���� constant micro-movement ���� coccyx or tailbone

���� Sacroiliac joint (p. 47)

���� what is it? ���� combined movement of sacrum and ilium � top of sacrum backwards=contranutation � anterior superior iliac spine forward � s.I. stability

���� Sacroiliac ligaments (p. 48)

���� posterior ���� anterior-inferior ���� sacrum-cranial connexion ���� traumatism and consequences ���� pain ���� prevention

���� Lumbosacral joint (p. 51) ���� instability factors ���� bad postures ���� why does it hurt? Some ideas � acute � chronic � frequently, sudden movements � sprain � lumbosacral pinching

���� Hip joint (p. 175)

���� what is it? ���� femur (p. 178)

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� transversal axis � anterior-posterior axis � vertical axis � neck axis and body axis, inclination angle � neck axis and knee axis, declination angle � long type � short type

���� Articular surfaces of the hip (p. 180)

���� femoral head ���� acetabulum � transmission area � central area

���� Capsule and ligaments (p. 184)

���� articular capsule � in the iliac � in the femur

���� ligaments � ligamentum teres � reinforcing the capsule

���� anterior ligaments in the movement (p. 185) � in flexion-extension � in lateral-medial rotation � in adduction-abduction � its role in the articular stability

☯ Movements of hip 85

���� Pelvis is fixed and the femur is moving (p. 186)

���� flexion ���� extension ���� adduction ���� abduction ���� rotation

���� Movements of the pelvis at the hip joint and femur fixed (p. 190)

���� anteversion ���� retroversion ���� lateral flexion ���� medial flexion ���� medial rotation ���� lateral rotation

���� Sacroiliac joints ���� Gravity centre

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6. Arms and hands: Tools of movement I …………................................................................95

☯ Parts of the arm 95

���� Views

���� anterior ���� posterior ���� lateral

���� Elbow (p. 131) ���� joint ���� transversal section of the forearm

� right ulna (anterior view) � proximal ulna (anterior view) � right ulna (posterior view) � distal ulna (lateroinferior view) � right radius (posterior view)

���� ligaments

���� Hand (p. 147) ���� bones ���� ligaments ���� joints (anterior view) ���� joints (posterior view)

���� Elbow charts

���� humeral ulnar joint ���� humeral radial joint ���� radioulnar proximal joint ���� radioulnar distal joint

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7. Legs and feet: Tools of movement II ............................................................................... 109

☯ Parts of the leg 109

���� Views

���� anterior ���� posterior

���� Knee (p. 192) ���� ligaments

� intrinsic � extrinsic

���� joints

� ventral view � posterior view

���� Tibia ���� Fibula ���� Bones of the foot

���� phalanges ���� calcaneus ���� talus ���� joints

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MUSCLES, TENDONS AND WILL

Movement

1. Talking about muscles in general (p. 14) ........................................................................... 1

☯ Movements 1 ☯ Origen and insertion 1 ☯ Tendon 1 ☯ Myofibers 2 ☯ Contraction 2 ☯ Elasticity 2

���� Passive property ���� Tendency to return

2. Muscle shapes (p. 16) .......................................................................................................... 3

☯ Different attachments 3

���� Muscle fibers ���� Aponeurosis (broad tendon) ���� Tendon ���� Tendon under a fibrous band

☯ Several origins (heads) 4

☯ Multiple insertions (rare) 4

☯ Sizes and shapes 4

☯ Orientation 4

☯ Long and short 4

☯ Monoarticular 4

☯ Polyarticular 4

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3. Muscle contraction (p. 20) ................................................................................................... 5

☯ Agonist and antagonist 5 ☯ Synergetic 5 ☯ Resistance 5

���� Gravity ���� Some external weight ���� The force of another person ���� Tension of the antagonist

☯ Few extra things 9

���� Contractions ���� Muscle cells ���� Types of muscles ���� Motor unit

���� agonists ���� antagonists ���� synergists

4. Types of contraction (p. 22) ............................................................................................... 15

☯ Concentric shortening and eccentric lengthening 15

���� Concentric contractions ���� Eccentric contractions ���� Daily activities

☯ Isotonic and isometric activity 16

���� Isotonic ���� Isometric

☯ Relaxation, stretching and mobility 17 ☯ Factors related to SSC (Stretching Shortening Cycle) 18 ☯ Golgi tendon organ 19

���� What is it? ���� Body ���� Mechanism ���� Training ���� Protection

☯ Effects of agonist shortening 22

���� Stretching a muscle ���� Relaxing a muscle ���� Strengthening a muscle

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5. Phasic muscles and postural muscles .............................................................................. 23

☯ Restorative alignment 23

���� Deficient alignment ���� Excessive/insufficient use ���� Importance of stretching

☯ Two groups 24

���� Phasic, movement ���� Postural, stability ���� Complementary work

☯ Common muscle imbalances 25

���� Standard patterns ���� Upper body patterns

���� neck, middle and upper back, and shoulder griddle ���� opposite muscle groups ���� shoulders ���� common patterns

���� Lower body patterns

���� lumbar and pelvic areas ���� tight hip flexors ���� chain reaction

6. Deep back muscles (p. 64) ............................................................................................... 28

☯ Long and short muscles 28

☯ Usually action 29 ☯ Shoulder girdle action 30 ☯ Weak points 30 ☯ Strengthening 32 ☯ Stretching 33

7. Lateral muscle of the lumbar spine: Quadratus lumborum (p. 63) ................................ 35

☯ Function 35

☯ What affects its role 35 ☯ Its action in Trikonasana 35

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8. Abs and the rest. Anterolateral muscles of the abdomen ............................................. 37

☯ Place and function 37

☯ Transversus abdominis (p. 92) 38

���� Location and function ���� Action

���� if the vertebrae are fixed ���� if the aponeurosis is the fixed point

☯ Internal oblique (p. 93) 39

���� Location and origin ���� Action ���� unilateral contraction ���� bilateral contraction ���� if both the vertebrae and pelvis are fixed

☯ External oblique (p. 94) 40

���� Location and origin ���� Action ���� unilateral contraction ���� bilateral contraction

☯ Synergic action in Trikonasana 40

���� Vertical fibers plus quadratus lumborum ���� Obliques in synergy ���� Fulcrum in rotation ���� Inner abdominal pressure ���� Action in the lower back

☯ Rectus abdominis, 6-pack (p. 95) 41

���� Location ���� Action

☯ Using gravity force 42 ☯ Flexion in the trunk 42 ☯ Leg abdominal work 42

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9. Deep hip muscles I (p. 208) ............................................................................................... 45

☯ Group of six muscles 45 ☯ Piriformis (p. 209) 45

���� Location ���� Action

���� if the sacrum is fixed ���� if the femur is fixed

� bilateral contraction � unilateral contraction

���� Structures ���� Sciatic nerve ���� Function ���� Piriformis syndrome ���� Symptoms ���� Sacrum rotation ���� Somatic dysfunctions ���� Tensions ���� Injures ���� Difficulties ���� More symptoms ���� Right leg, driving

☯ Quadratus femoris (p. 210) 53

���� Location ���� Action

���� if the iliac is fixed ���� if the femur is fixed

� bilateral contraction � unilateral contraction

☯ Obturator internus (p. 210) 53

���� Location ���� Action

���� if the iliac is fixed ���� if the femur is fixed

� bilateral contraction � unilateral contraction

☯ Gemellus superior and inferior (p. 211) 54

���� Location ���� Action

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☯ Obturator externus 54 ���� Location ���� Action

���� if the iliac is fixed ���� if the femur is fixed

� bilateral contraction � unilateral contraction

☯ Obturators and gemelli: the hammock (p. 212) 54 ���� Location ���� Action

���� if the pelvis is fixed ���� if the femur is fixed

� bilateral contraction � unilateral contraction

���� Either way

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10. Deep hip muscles II ........................................................................................................... 55

☯ Iliopsoas (p. 62-213) 55 ���� Psoas major and iliacus, location ���� Psoas or psoas major ���� arises ���� action

� if the vertebrae are fixed � if the femur is fixed (bilateral contraction, unilateral contraction)

���� Iliacus

���� arises ���� action

� if the iliac is fixed � if the femur is fixed (bilateral contraction, unilateral contraction)

���� Relations ���� Action

���� if the vertebrae are fixed ���� if the femur is fixed � unilateral contraction � bilateral contraction

☯ Gluteus minimus (p. 216) 63 ���� Location ���� Action ���� if the iliac is fixed ���� if the femur is fixed

� bilateral contraction � unilateral contraction

☯ Gluteus medius (p. 215) 63 ���� Location ���� Action ���� if the iliac is fixed ���� if the femur is fixed

� bilateral contraction � unilateral contraction

Index

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11. Deep hip muscles III (+ 1 of the hip and knee): The adductors (p. 224) ...................... 64

☯ Group of five muscles 64

���� Location ���� Action ���� These muscles

☯ Pectineus 65 ☯ Adductor brevis 65 ☯ Adductor longus 66 ☯ Adductor magnus (p. 225) 66

���� The anterior portion ���� The posterior portion

☯ Gracilis 67 ☯ Action of the group as a whole 67

���� If the iliac is fixed ���� If the femur is fixed

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12. Hip and knee muscles I: The superficial ......................................................................... 70

☯ Tensor fasciae latae (229) ☯ Gluteus maximus (228) ☯ Deltoid gluteus (superficial portion of gluteus maximus and tensor fasciae latae)(p. 22)

13. Hip and knee muscles II ................................................................................................... 71

☯ Quadriceps femoris (p. 217) 71 ���� As a whole ���� Vastus intermedius ���� Vastus medialis and lateralis ���� Rectus femoris ���� if the pelvis is fixed ���� if the femur is fixed

���� For stretching

☯ Sartorius (p. 220) 75 ���� Location ���� Action

���� if the iliac is fixed ���� if the femur is fixed

� bilaterally � unilaterally

14. Hip and knee muscles III: The hamstrings (p. 221) ......................................................... 76

☯ Location 76

☯ Action as a whole 76 ☯ For stretching 77 ☯ Differentiated action 78 ☯ Polyarticular muscles 78 ☯ Problems due to lack of de flexibility 78

Shoulder girdle muscles .................................................................................................... 79

☯ Intro 79 ☯ Importance of its mobility for the arm mobility 79 ☯ Common dysfunctional pattern 79

☯ Working in pairs 80

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15. Shoulder muscles (p. 114) ................................................................................................. 81

☯ A group of five muscles 81

���� From 1 to 5, from the deepest to the most superficial

���� 2 towards the front of the chest ���� 3 in the back

���� Its important role in inversions

☯ Serratus anterior 82

���� Location ���� Origins

���� upper portion ���� middle portion ���� lower portion

���� Insertions

���� upper fibers ���� middle fibers ���� lower fibers

���� Function

���� if the ribs are fixed

� upper fibers � middle fibers � lower fibers

���� if the scapula is fixed

☯ Pectoralis minor (p. 116) 84

���� Location ���� Action

���� if the ribs are fixed ���� if the scapula is fixed

☯ Rhomboids (p. 117) 84

���� Location ���� Action

���� if the spine is fixed ���� if the scapula is fixed

☯ Levator scapulae (p. 117) 86

���� Location ���� Action

���� if the spine is fixed ���� if the scapula is fixed

� bilateral contraction � unilateral contraction

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☯ Trapezius (p. 74-118) 88 ���� Location ���� Origins

���� upper fibers ���� middle fibers ���� lower fibers

���� Insertions

���� upper fibers ���� middle fibers ���� lower fibers

���� Function

���� if the spine is fixed

� simultaneous contraction of all the fibers � upper fibers � middle fibers � lower fibers

���� if...what does it...?

���� Between T.7 and T.10 ���� In the shoulders ���� Arms ���� Articular trauma ���� Actions and excessive use

☯ Subclavius (p. 116) 92 ���� Location ���� Action ���� Questions about its utility

☯ Sternocleidomastoid (p. 116) 93 ���� Location ���� Origin ���� Insertion ���� Nerves ���� Actions

���� when the skull is fixed ���� when the thoracic cage is fixed

� unilateral contraction � bilateral contraction

���� Stretching

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16. Deep glenohumeral (scapulohumeral) muscles of shoulder joint (p. 120) ................. 96

☯ Subscapularis 96 ☯ Supraspinatus 96 ☯ Infraspinatus (p. 121) 96 ☯ Teres minor 96 ☯ Rotator cuff muscles (p. 122) 96 ���� Coracobrachialis

���� description ���� location ���� action

☯ Biceps brachii (p. 123-139) 97

���� Location ���� Two origins ���� Insertion

���� short head ���� long head ���� insertion

���� Function

���� proximal radioulnar joint ���� humeroulnar joint ���� glenohumeral joint

☯ Triceps brachii (p. 123-140) 99

���� Location ���� Origin

���� long head ���� lateral head ���� medial head (deep head)

���� Insertion ���� Function

���� on the shoulder joint ���� on the elbow ���� the lateral head

���� Antigravitational ���� In synergy ���� Connecting shoulder and elbow ���� Other movements

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17. Glenohumeral joint muscles ........................................................................................... 105

☯ Pectoralis major (p. 124) ☯ Latissimus dorsi (p. 125) ☯ Teres major (p. 125) ☯ Deltoid (p. 126)

18. Breathing II ...................................................................................................................

19. Legs + knee + .................................................................................................................

20. Arms + elbow + ...............................................................................................................

21. Few extra things... .......................................................................................................

ABC Anatomy Our Anatomy

Looking Inward 1

ABC ANATOMY

1. Anatomical position (p. 1)

☯ It’s a REFERENCE position as a starting point to describe movements.

☯ The anatomy of movement involves 3 main systems:

���� BONES, elements of the skeleton ���� ARTICULATIONS, the link between bones ���� MUSCLES, that move the bones

ABC Anatomy Our Anatomy

Looking Inward 2

2. Planes of movement (p. 2)

☯ MEDIAN OR MIDSAGITTAL plane

We see the movements in profile; the middle line divides the body into symmetrical right and left halves

���� Forward, FLEXION (ankle: DORSIFLEXION)

���� Backward, EXTENSION (ankle: PLANTARFLEXION)

ABC Anatomy Our Anatomy

Looking Inward 3

☯ FRONTAL OR CORONAL plane (p. 3)

It divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

���� Towards the median plane, ADDUCTION ���� Away from the median plane, ABDUCTION ���� For the trunk or neck, lateral flexion or side-bending ���� Fingers and toes, the reference is: ���� axis of the hand (middle finger) ���� axis of the foot (2d toe)

ABC Anatomy Our Anatomy

Looking Inward 4

☯ TRANSVERSE OR HORIZONTAL plane (p. 4)

It divides the body into superior and inferior (upper and lower) parts

���� Outward, LATERAL ROTATION (forearm: SUPINATION) ���� Inward, MEDIAL ROTATION (forearm: PRONATION) ���� For the trunk or neck, right/left rotation

ABC Anatomy Our Anatomy

Looking Inward 5

☯ Other anatomical reference TERMS (p. 6)

���� ANTERIOR: facing toward or located at the front ���� POSTERIOR: “ “ “ “ at the back ���� SUPERIOR: “ “ “ “ at the top ���� INFERIOR: “ “ “ “ at the bottom ���� MEDIAL: closer to the median plane ���� LATERAL: further for the median plane ���� INTERNAL or DEEP: inside the body (note: the deep muscles of the foot form the

superior layer and the superficial ones the inferior layer) ���� EXTERNAL or SUPERFICIAL: surface of the body ���� PROXIMAL: closer to the trunk or some major joint ���� DISTAL: further from “ “ “ “

ABC Anatomy Our Anatomy

Looking Inward 6

BONES AND WIRES Our Anatomy

Looking Inward 1

BONES AND WIRES

The structure

1. Talking about bones in general

� Ideas from B4L (Bones for Life)

���� The bones support the whole body. The SKELETON is a mobile framework of bones providing rigid support for the body.

���� Strong bones are built by dynamic confrontation with gravity (((bbbuuummm---bbbuuummm)))

���� The SKELETON outsmarts gravity by UNIFYING the whole body in an ORGANIZATION that supports SPRINGY walk. We need to develop an organization for a good alignment in our POSTURE.

���� At a cellular level, DYNAMIC MOVEMENT enables the blood that is filled with nutrients and oxygen to penetrate the bone and support the growth of new cells.

���� DYNAMIC MOVEMENT that STIMULATES BONE GROWTH:

���� springy, rhythmic PRESSURE(= dynamic walking) ���� CONFIGURATION of movement derived from evolution that are EFFICIENT and

ECONOMICAL ���� COOPERATION of ALL the body in HARMONY ���� transmission of pressure (from one polarity to another) in a DOMINO EFFECT ���� STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION-� are INTERDEPENDENT, we need to avoid

COMPRESSION and DESVIATION ���� primary condition: SECURE a SAFE POSTURE ���� align posture into safe-weight-bearing uprightness ���� to develop the ability to RESTORE the equilibrium. ���� enhance pleasure of moving � BIOLOGICAL OPTIMISM

☯ Ideas from Anatomy of Hatha Yoga

���� “The scar of evolution” (Elaine Morgan)

The first bipedalists were not semi human creatures. They were animals opting to walk on their hind legs. It was a costly option for them to take up, and we are still paying the price

���� Two defining characteristics of the modern human form:

���� the upright two-legged posture ���� the ability to stand erect with minimal muscular activity in our thighs, hips and

backs

���� We can relax when we stand because we can lock our knees and balance on our hip joints without much muscular activity. We can balance our weight on top of the relaxed thighs.

���� “locking the knees” has 2 implications:

� hamstrings will be relaxed � additional extension will be stop by ligaments

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���� usually instructors advise against this, but not all is negative ���� students, too frequently, rather than experimenting with the nuances of partially

relaxing hamstrings, alternating this with tightening both quads and hamstrings at the same time, take the “easy” way out by simply locking their knees, ending up with a sense of vague discomfort in their knees the students, (they may use a combination of active quads and relaxed hamstrings, or they may hyperextend their knees and support the posture with no more than bony stops and ligaments)

���� so…NOT locking, but EXTENSION of the KNEES (connected to the idea of pushing

from the heels to stretch the sitting bones…)

���� Our relatively relaxed upright posture is possible because a plumb line of gravity drops straight down from head to foot:

���� through the cervical spine ���� through the lumbar spine ���� behind the axial centre of the hip joints ���� in front of the extended knee joints ���� centre of the heel

Because the ankle joints do not lock, keeping balance requires holding some tension in

calf muscles and in the front. You can both relax or tense in standing poses…

“From the perineum to the crown, through all the chakras and parallel hips that go well with the ribs and the shoulders middle line. We move around that axis” (Iyengar)

Standing poses extension

Sitting poses flexion

Lying poses rotation

forward Inversions

backward

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���� APPENDICULAR AND AXIAL SKELETON

���� appendicular

The bones of the appendages (upper and owe extremities). It is appended to the axial

skeleton, the upper extremities attached to the sternum at the STERNOCLAVICULAR joints and the lower to the sacrum at the SACROILIAC joints.

���� axial

The bones that lie in the central axis of the body, skull, vertebral column and rib cage

including the sternum.

���� together, the two units form the frame upon which the entire body is organized.

Hip joints (sites for flexing, extending and rotating thighs) do NOT form axial-appendicular junctions, both femur and pelvic bone are appendicular skeleton and the pelvic bone alone articulates with the axial skeleton

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���� The APPENDICULAR SKELETON

���� LOWER extremities � form the foundation for standing positions

� pelvic bones � with the sacrum comprise the pelvic bowl

which is thus an axial-appendicular combination of 3 bones

� femur � patella (kneecap) � tibia (the shine is the anterior border of it) � fibula (laterally, deep to calf muscles) � bones of ankle and feet including tarsals,

metatarsals and phalanges

���� UPPER extremities � used for manipulating objects and often an important accessory for bracing difficult standing poses

� clavicle (collarbone) � the only bone of upper extremities that

forms a joint (sternoclavicular joint) with the axial skeleton. It is the most commonly broken

� humerus (bone of arm) � radius (thumb side) � ulna (little finger side) � the last two are the bones of the

forearm:

* in supination: they are parallel * in pronation: they form a long skinny X

� bones of wrist and hand including:

carpals, metacarpals and phalanges

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���� AXIAL SKELETON

Forms the bony axis of body

���� skull

���� vertebral spine

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���� rib cage

���� sternum

When alignment fails…later on problems with muscles.

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☯ Ideas from Anatomy of Movement

���� SKELETON (p. 7)

It is a mobile framework of bones providing rigid support for the body. The bones also serve as levers for the action of muscles

���� 3 basic shapes: � long (ulna) � short (talus) � flat (scapula)

���� components: � 2/3 mineral (mostly calcium salts) RIGIDITY � 1/3 organic ELASTICITY

���� subjected to mechanical strain: � gravitational pressure from the body itself � movement (muscle contraction)against resistance (lifting a heavy object) � gravitational pressure (traction) from external objects (supporting a heavy

object)

Let’s do a research on the weight of the different parts of the body

���� Internal anatomy of a BONE (p. 8)

Bones have evolved to withstand all these types of strain

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���� alveolar (spongy) structure: fibers are arranged in rows along the lines of greatest mechanical stress

���� hollow tube: sturdier than a solid structure ���� marrow (contained in the dyaphisis): red in children becomes yellow in adults.

Where blood cells are manufactured ���� periosteum: covers the external surface, carries blood vessels and functions in

bone repair ���� compact bone: thickest in the middle section of the dyaphisis where

mechanical strains are greatest

���� articulating cartilage: that covers articulating surfaces

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���� JOINTS (p. 9)

Joints are areas where bones are linked together

���� different degrees of mobility

� little: bones are linked simply by fibrous connective tissue or cartilage (ribs-sternum) ANPHIARTHROSES

� freely-movable joints: discontinuous joints or DIARTHROSES. There is space in between them, a fluid-filled cavity. The components are enclosed in a sleeve like structure. The outer layer is composed of dense connective tissue and represents a continuation of the periosteum; they are the ligaments that hold the bones together. The inner layer, the SYNOVIAL membrane, secretes synovial fluid which fills the articular cavity and lubricates the joint. That’s why they are called synovial joints

� nothing: the bones are in close contact separated only by a thin layer of fibrous connective tissue (cranium bones)SINARTHROSES

���� articulating surfaces (sometimes called facets)

These surfaces are shaped to fit together but also allow movement

���� congruency

The articulating surfaces do not always make a snug fit, some joints are more stable and

less likely to be injured than others: shoulder � shallow, looser (less stable) hip � deep, snug-fitting (more protected)

���� articular cartilage and synovial cavity Gap (virtual) between the articulating ends of the two bones in a joint (area of the articular cartilage and synovial cavity NOT opaque to X-rays)

���� dislocation or subluxation

A bone is moved completely or partially from its normal position due to some trauma. There is associated damage to ligaments. The most common dislocations

are in fingers, thumb and shoulder joints.

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���� CARTILAGE (p. 11) Shiny, whitish connective tissue that covers articulating surfaces

Its composition is similar to the bone but more hydrated and elastic. It protects the underlying bone.

���� types of stress:

� gravitational pressure � friction from the movement itself

It is well-adapted to these stresses, being strong, resilient and smooth. Thus it can absorb

shock allow some sliding of the bones relative to each other

���� may be damaged

� trauma � excessive wear (when the ends of the bones do not provide a good “fit”)

OSTEOARTHRITIS, REUMATOID ARTHRITIS Inflammation, pain, stiffness of the joints and surrounding muscles

���� it does not contain blood vessels. It receives nutrients from the synovial fluid and from blood vessels of the perichondrium and periosteum

���� FIBROCARTILAGE contains high concentration of collagenous (white) fibers and

is specially adapted for absorbing shock. It is found in:

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� intervertebral disks

� hip

� menisci

� symphysis pubis They protect and improve articulating congruency

Look for different types of cartilage

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���� JOINT CAPSULE (p. 12)

���� sleeve like structure enclosing the joint that prevents loss of fluid and binds together the ends of the articulating bones (watertight)

���� it is stronger where movement must be prevented. Fibers of the outer capsule are often arranged in parallel bundles (ligaments)

���� the capsule may be arranged loosely or in folds where movement is allowed

���� the outer layer is composed of dense connective tissue and represents a continuation of the periosteum

���� the inner layer (SYNOVIIAL membrane) is composed of loose connective tissue.

This membrane secrets SYNOVIAL fluid, which fills the articular cavity. This fluid lubricates the joint, provides nutrients to the cartilage and contains phagocytic cells which remove debris and microorganisms from the cavity

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���� LIGAMENTS (p. 13)

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���� they are dense bundles of parallel collagenous fibers. They are often derived from the outer layer of the joint capsule but they can be outside as well as inside of it

���� they strengthen and stabilize the joint in a PASSIVE way, they cannot actively

contract nor can they stretch (except for a few ligaments which contain a high proportion of yellow elastic fibers)

���� PROPRIOCEPTIVE SENSITIVITY � Ligaments contain numerous sensory nerve cells

capable of responding to the speed, movement and position of the joints, as well as to stretching or pain. This cells constantly transmit such information to the brain, which in turn sends signals to the muscles via motor neurons

���� excessive movement or trauma

Sprain or rupture of ligaments

Collagen

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2. Yoga and the Spine (p. 30)

☯ Introduction

���� The skeleton spine, a protective structure that allows for free movement but is stable enough to offer protection to those vital yet delicate tisúes, is perhaps nature´s most elegant and intrincate solution to the dual demands of sthira y sukha

���� Human spine is unique among

all mammals in that it exhibits both primary and secondary curves

���� PRIMARY CURVES � kyphotic: thoracic and sacral

���� SECONDARY CURVE � lordotic: cervical and lumbar

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Only true biped requires both pair of curves (primates have some cervical curve, but no lumbar lordosis, which is WHY THEY CANNOT WALKCOMFORTABLY on TWO LEGS for LONG)

���� The primary (kyphotic) curve was the first FRONT-BACK spinal curve to emerge as

aquatic creatures made the transition to land.

���� the lateral undulations (fish, snake…) cease to be useful for a creature that supports its belly off the ground on four limbs. The successful early quadrupeds would have been those that arched their bellies away from the earth so that the weight-bearing and movement forces were distributed INTO THE LIMBS and away from the vulnerable center of the spine

���� this parallels the fact that the cervical spine was the site of the first development

of a secondary curve as our quadrupeds ancestors found a survival benefit to LIFTING their HEAD and gazing from the ground immediately in front of them, out to the horizon

���� In the individual development:

���� in uterus � the entire spine is a primary curve

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���� head goes through the birth canal � the neck experiences its secondary (lordotic) curve for the very first time, negotiating the 90° turn from the cervix into the vaginal passage

And what if they are delivered in a caesarean section?

���� 3-4 months � postural development proceeds from the head downward, the cervical curve continues to develop after you learn to hold up the weight of your head

���� 3-9 months � cervical curve fully forms when you learn to sit upright

���� 9-12 months � after crawling and creeping on the floor four months, you must acquire a lumber to bring your weight over the feet

What might happen if there is no crawling?...

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���� 12-18 months � as you begin to walk the lumbar spine straightens out of its primary, kyphotic curve

���� 18 months-3 years � lumbar spine starts to become concave forward (lordotic) ���� 5-8 years � that lordotic curve will be outwardly visible ���� after 10 � the lumbar curve fully assumes its adult shape

From an engineering perspective, humans have the SMALLEST BASE of SUPPORT, the HIGHEST CENTER of GRAVITY and the HEAVIEST BRAIN. As the only true biped mammals on the planet, humans are also the least mechanically stable creatures. The disadvantage is offset by the advantage of having that big brain: it can FIGURE OUT HOW to make the whole thing work efficiently

The STRUCTURAL BALANCING of the forces STHIRA y SHUKA in your living body relates to

the principle called INTRÍNSIC EQUILIBRIUM: a deep source of support that can be uncovered through yoga practice

The skeleton in Tadasana

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☯ Intrinsic equilibrium

���� Remove all the muscles that attach to the spine � it does not collapse, WHY? ����

INTRINSIC EQUILIBRIUM. That is why the spine is a self-supporting structure and also why any spinal movement produces potential energy that returns the spine to neutral (same arrangement in rib cage and pelvis which are bound together under mechanical tension) ����This fact about the CORE STRUCTURES of the AXIAL SKELETON reveals a DEEPER TRUTH about how yoga practice appears to LIBERATE POTENTIAL ENERGY from the BODY.

���� True to the principles of yoga and yoga therapy, the most profound CHANGES OCCUR WHEN THE FORCES OBSTRUCTING THIS CHANGE ARE REDUCED. In the case of intrinsic equilibrium, a deep level of built-in support for the core body is involved ���� this does not depend on muscular effort because it is derived from the relationship between the non-contractile tissues of cartilage, ligaments and bone ���� when this support assists itself, it is ALWAYS because SOME EXTRANEOUS MUSCULAR EFFORT HAS CEASED TO OBSTRUCT IT

���� It takes a lot of energy to fuel our constant, unconscious muscular exertion against

gravity ���� that is why the release of that effort is associated with a feeling of LIBERATED ENERGY and an INCREASED VITALITY in the body.

Yoga, the restorative work on the MITRA, can help you to release the STORED POTENTIAL

ENERGY of the axial skeleton by identifying and releasing the less efficient EXTRANEOUS MUSCULAR EFFORT that can OBSTRUCT the expression of these DEEPER FORCES

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☯ Vertebral structure (p. 30)

���� Individual vertebrae are different in size and shape based on the functional demands of the varying regions of the spine

There are, however, common elements:

1. VERTEBRAL BODY

2. POSTERIOR ARCH

3. 4. ARTICULAR FACETS 5. 6. TRANSVERSE PROCESSES

7. SPINOUS PROCESS

8. 9. PEDICLES 10.11. LAMINA

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���� TWO MAIN PARTS: ���� posterior, VERTEBRAL ARCH

2 pedicles 2 articular processes (with its cartilaginous articulating surfaces or facets) 2 laterally-projecting transverse processes 2 laminae unite posteriorly to form � 1 spinous process

���� anterior, VERTEBRAL BODY more or less cylindrical 6 facets

���� VERTEBRAL FORAMEN It is the opening between the body and the arch. Many vertebrae lined up form the

VERTEBRAL CANAL through which the SPINAL CORD passes

1. VERTEBRAL CANAL

2. SPINOUS PROCESS

3. INTERVERTEBRAL

FORAMINA

4. ARTICULAR FACETS

5. TRANSVERSE PROCESS

6. SPINAL CORD

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���� INTERVERTEBRAL FORAMINA The spaces between the pedicles of adjacent vertebrae form a series of openings. As

spinal NERVES branch off the spinal cord they exit through these foramina

���� VERTEBRAL LINKAGE (p. 33)

Each vertebra is attached to its neighbour by three joints (except atlas/axis, p. 60):

���� 1 intervertebral disc (between the bodies)

1. ANNULUS FIBROSUS: concentric rings of

fibrocartilage

2. NUCLEUS PULPOSUS: the centre, made of

gelatinous substance

Shock absorber and weight bearer

���� 2 articular facets (the 2 inferior of the top vertebra contact the 2 superior of the bottom one), they are small and serve mainly to guide movements

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☯ VERTEBRAL LIGAMENTS (p. 34)

���� Continuous � 3 extending the length of the vertebral column (from occipital to sacrum)

���� ANTERIOR longitudinal ligament (front of the vertebral bodies) �

a brake to extension

���� POSTERIOR longitudinal ligament (back of the bodies) � a brake to flexion. In flexion it absorbs the thrust from the disc nuclei

���� SUPRAESPINOUS ligament (along the tips of the spinous process) �

a brake to flexion ���� Discontinuous � the rest

���� ligamenta FLAVA (from lamina to lamina) �

they are elastic and can be pierced during a spinal tap

���� INTERTRANSVERSE ligaments (connect the transverse processes) � sidebending stretches the opposite side

���� INTERSPINOUS ligaments (connect spinous processes)

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���� THE 24 VERTEBRAE AND ELEMENTS OF LINKIAGE

They are bound to each other with intervening zones of cartilaginous discs, capsular joints and spinal ligaments, alternating zones of hard and soft tissue, network of ligaments of spine that connect the arches of adjacent vertebrae

Bony tissue � passive, stable (STHIRA) vertebrae Soft tissue � active, moving (SUKHA) discs, facet (capsular) joints, network of ligaments

The intrinsic equilibrium can be found in the INTEGRATION of the passive and active

elements

���� column of vertebral bodies � deals with weight-bearing, compressive forces (gravity)

���� column of arches � deals with the tensile forces (movements)

���� Within each column, in the dynamic relationship of bone to soft tissue, there is a

BALANCE of STHIRA and SHUKA. The STRUCTURAL elements of the spinal column are involved in an INTRINCATE DANCE that PROTECTS the CNS by NEUTRALIZING the forces of TENSION and COMPRESSION

���� Vertebral bodies transmit COMPRESSIVE forces to discs and these resist

compression by PUSHING BACK ���� The column of arches transmits TENSION forces to all the attached ligaments

which resist stretching by PULLING BACK

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☯ VERTEBRAL MOVEMENTS (p. 36)

Movement of individual vertebrae are compounded such the entire structure has considerable mobility in 3 dimensions. Type and extend of mobility varies with different spinal regions

���� Effect in discs and ligaments: ���� SSSTTTHHHIIIRRRAAA and SSSUUUKKKHHHAAA are revealed in the components of an intervertebral disc. In a

healthy disc, the nucleus is completely contained all around by the annulus and the vertebra. The annulus fibrosis is itself contained front and back by the posterior longitudinal ligaments. This results in a strong TENDENCY for the nucleus to always RETURN to the CENTRE of the disc, no matter in which direction the body’s movement propel

���� in FLEXION, the nucleus moves toward the back, tension in the ligaments in the

back of the vertebra

���� in EXTENSION, the nucleus moves forward, tension in the anterior ligament

���� in LATERAL FLEXION, the nucleus moves to the opposite side, tension in the

ligaments of that side as well

���� in ROTATION, some layers are stressed while others are relaxed. Because of the torsion effect on the fibers, there is a reduction in overall height of the disc (slight compression). The connecting ligaments between the transverse and spinous processes are in tension

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���� LET’S GO DEEPER ���� compression and decompression forces

Weight-bearing activities and axial rotation (twisting movement) � produce symetrical (axial) COMPRESSIVE forces that FLATTEN the nucleus into the annulus which pushes back � DESCOMPRENSSIVE REACTION

���� if compressive force is high � the nucleus will loose some of its moisture to the

porous bone of the vertebral body.

When weight is taken off the spine, the HYDROPHILIC nucleus drags water back in, and the disc returns to its original thickness. That is why humans are a bit taller right after getting out of bed� connect it with Brigitte’s work

���� the movements of flexion, extension and lateral flexion produce asymmetrical

movements of the nucleus; the result is the same: wherever the vertebral bodies move toward each other, the nucleus is pushed in the opposite direction, where it meets the counterpush of the annulus, which causes the nucleus to push the vertebral bodies back to neutral

���� assisting in this counterpush � the long ligaments that run the entire length of the spine, front and back.

� the ANTERIOR LONGITUDINAL LIGAMENT runs all the way from the upper front

of the sacrum to the front of the occiput, and it’s fixed tightly to the front surface of each intervertebral disc. When stretched in backward bending tend to spring body back to neutral and the increased tension at its attachment to the disc helps to propel nucleus back to neutral

� POSTERIOR LONGITUDINAL LIGAMENT runs from the back of the sacrum to the back of the occiput, stretched in forward bend

Note that all this activity occurs in tissues that behave INDEPENDETLY of the circulatory, muscular and voluntary nervous system � their actions do NOT present an energy demand on these other systems.

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���� TYPES OF SPINAL MOVEMENT

���� 4 possible movements: FLEXION, EXTENSION, AXIAL ROTATION (twisting) and LATERAL FLEXION (side bending). They occur more or less spontaneously in life. There are yoga postures that emphasize these movements as well. A more through look shows a 5th possibility: AXIAL EXTENSION. This doesn’t happen spontaneously. You have to learn how to make it happen intentionally

Talking about the first four movements:

���� FLEXION AND EXTENSION, PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CURVES, EXHALATION AND INHALATION.

� the most basic movement of the spine is the one that emphasizes its primary

curve: FLEXION. Yoga pose: Child’s Pose-Dharmikasana, replicates the primary curves of the unborn child

A simple way to identify all the primary curves: notice all the parts of body in contact with the floor in Shavasana. Consequently: secondary curves are present in all the body parts off the floor

� from this perspective:

Spinal flexion � increases primary curve, decreases secondary curve Spinal extension � increases secondary curve, decreases primary curve

As far as movement is concerned, the relationship between primary and secondary curves is RECIPROCAL. The more you increase or decrease one, the more the other will do the OPPOSITE. Classic yoga exercise: cat/cow or Vidalasana. Supported at both ends by arms and thighs, spine’s curves can move freely in both directions, producing the shape changes of FLEXION and EXTENSION

� as definition of breathing shows:

SPINAL CHANGE IS = BREATHING SHAPE CHANGE

Flexion is EXHALATION Extension is INHALATION

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���� SPATIAL and SPINAL PERSPERCTIVES in FORWARD/BACKWARD-BENDING POSES

� flexion and extension � refer to the relationship of the spinal curves to each

other � forward/backward bending � refer to movement of the body in space

They are NOT interchangeable: Uttkattasana

The body flexes forward but the spine is extended. Spine could be in flexion while body moves backward

Distinguish movement of spinal curves in relation to each other from the movement of

torso in space

Exercise from B4L to create curves awareness, 1-III-10, Angelita

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���� SPATIAL and SPINAL PERSPECTIVES in LATERAL and TWISTING MOVEMENTS

� TRIKONASANA Often referred to as lateral stretch and it’s

true insofar as it lengthens the connective tissue pathway that runs along the side of the body. It is, HOWEVER, POSSIBLE to ENGTHEN the LATERAL LINE without ANY APPRECIABLE LATERAL FLEXION

for more lateral line stretch � wide spacing of feet and intention to initiate movement primary from pelvis while maintaining the spine in neutral position � this is also more hip-opener

for more lateral flexion � closer spacing of feet � more stabilization of

the relationship between PELVIS and THIGHS (which would require the movement to come from lateral bending of spine) � PARIVRITTA TRIKONASANA

The lumbar spine is almost

entirely incapable of axial rotation (only 5°), which in this pose means that it will go wherever the sacrum leads it � for the lower spine to twist in the direction of this pose � pelvis would have to turn same direction

if hips are restricted, lumbar spine appears to be moving in the opposite direction of rib cage and shoulders girdle rotation, and then, most of the twist will originated from first joints above sacrum that can freely rotate: the lower thoracic, T11-T12 and above. In addition the twisting of the shoulder girdle around the rib cage can create the illusion that the spine is twisting more than it really is. So, the body can indeed be twisting in space, but a CAREFUL OBSERVATION of the spine may tell WHERE EXACTLY the twisting is (or IS NOT) coming FROM

if the pelvis is free to rotate around the hip joints (femur-iliac), this pose will exhibit a more evenly distributed twist throughout the spine (rather than an overloading T11-T12). The lumber spine will fully participate because the pelvis and sacrum are also turning; the neck and shoulders will be free, and the rib cage, upper back and neck will be open along with the breathing.

Connect it with Trikonasana from Bri plus hip alignment

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Talking about the 5th movement:

���� AXIAL EXTENSION, BANDHAS and MAHAMUDRA

� axial extension, the 5th spinal, is defined as simultaneous reduction of both primary and secondary curves of the spine, which lengthens the spinal column beyond its neutral alignment

¿How would you illustrate/draw an axial extension?

The “natural” movements of flexion/extension � primary and secondary curves have a RECIPPROCAL relationship.

The “unnatural” axial extension � it bypasses this reciprocal relationship by REDUCING ALL 3 curves at ONCE

Axial extension does NOT happen all on its own, requires

CONSCIOUS EFFORT and TRAINING

� that action involves a SHIFT in the TONE and ORIENTATION of the BREATHING STRUCTURES known as the BANDHAS – pelvic, respiratory and vocal – the 3 DIAPHRAGMS and surrounding musculature become more STHIRA � the ability of abdominal and thoracic cavities to change shape is more limited in axial extension � overall effect: ↓ breathing volume, ↑ in length

� it’s possible to do it from many positions (seated, standing, in arm supports…). Overall yogic term to describe that state of spine and breath: MAHAMUDRA. This seated posture adds twisting action to axial extension and the bandhas. It is considered a supreme accomplishment to do this practice with all 3 bandhas, because it represents a complete merging of asana + pranayama

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3. Shoulder and shoulder girdle (p. 97)

☯ Introduction INTRO ���� When we talk about the shoulder it’s important to understand that the scapula

(p. 107), clavicle (p. 105) and humerus (p. 111) joints function as a biomechanical unit. The forces generated from one or in one of the segments affect the other two

It involves three joints:

���� glenohumeral joint

Shoulderblade + humerus (p. 112)

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���� acromioclavicular joint

Shoulderblade + clavicle (p. 108)

���� sternoclavicular joint Clavicle + sternum (p. 106)

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We define two regions with different functions:

The scapulothoracic region The scapulohumeral region

���� The shoulder girdle (p. 105) is formed by the sternum (front), the clavicles (front) and the scapulae (back)

���� unlike the pelvic girdle, the shoulder girdle is incomplete. The scapulae have only tenuous and indirect connection to the sternum through the small acromioclavicular joints along with the small sternoclavicular joints.

���� the shoulder girdle is merely a framework, even so, it still acts as a foundation for

the arms, forearms and hands; and for coming into the headstand that foundation must support the weight of the body (see Bri inversions). How can it do this? � The SCAPULA is the key

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☯ MOVEMENTS OF THE SCAPULA (p. 109)

���� The scapula lies very closet o the back of the rib cage (at the level of the 2nd to the 7th ribs) but it doesn’t articulate with it. It “floats” behind it, suspended in a net of muscles and ligaments

���� If we add the sternoclavicular and acromioclavicular mobility, the scapula can

move in the ribcage in many directions

���� ELEVATION:

The scapula moves upward and away from the ribcage (like balancing on the top of the shoulder)

���� DEPRESSION:

It moves downward and fits more snugly against the ribcage

���� ABDUCTION (protraction):

The medial border moves away from the vertebral column and the lateral angle moves anteriorly; it’s not a purely frontal movement because the ribcage is convex (45°)

���� ADDUCTION (retraction):

The medial border moves closer to the vertebral column and the lateral angle moves posteriorly (narrowing the shoulders)

���� DOWNWARD ROTATION:

The inferior angle moves superomedially while the lateral angle moves inferolateraly, the glenoid cavity is moving downward

���� UPWARD ROTATION:

The inferior angle moves superolaterally and the superior angle inferomedially, the glenoid cavity moves upward

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���� With all these mobility the glenoid can move in many directions, increasing in this way the range of glenohumeral movements, giving the shoulder a great capacity of movement in space

���� The free movement of the scapula is aided by TWO GLINDING PLANES (fatty layers) (p. 115): between serratus anterior muscle and the ribcage and between subscapularis and serratus anterior muscles

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☯ MOVEMENTS OF THE ARM (p. 101)

���� FLEXION:

Anteriorly. Taken to the extreme provokes vertebral extension and ribcage aperture

���� EXTENSION:

Posteriorly, much smaller range. To the extreme: tendency to dorsal flexion and closed ribcage

���� ABDUCTION:

Laterally. To the extreme: lateral thoracic flexion of the opposite side + aperture of the ribcage on the same side

���� ADDUCTION:

Medially, combined with extension (behind the body) or flexion (in front of the body). To the extreme: lateral thoracic flexion on the same side + ribcage closed on the same side

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���� LATERAL ROTATION:

Of the humerus on its axis (best visualized with the elbow bent). To the extreme: rotation of the spine

���� MEDIAL ROTATION:

Same as above, the forearm moves behind

externa

interna

There will be more in the muscles section

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☯ LIGAMENTS

���� Glenohumeral joint (p. 112)

���� from the bone point of view it’s a very movable and instable Joint. The size of the articulating surfaces is disproportionate

The function of the glenoid labrum (fibrocartilaginous ring) is to increase the depth of the glenoid cavity creating in such way a better stability in the shoulder joint.

The glenohumeral ligaments (whose function is to secure the upper part of the arm to the shoulder) as well as the capsule are attached to the glenoid labrum

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���� the capsule (quite loose) attaches around the glenoid cavity and around the head of the humerus. Weak points: especially anteroinferiorly where the three glenohumeral ligaments leave in between them a capsule sector with no support from muscles or ligaments (oval foramen), where the head of the humerus can move anteromedially and get dislocated

���� reinforcement:

� superior: coracohumeral ligament, the strongest

� anterior: glenohumeral ligaments

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���� ligaments of the capsule of the shoulder as a whole is not very strong � dislocation, most common: anteromedial movement of the humeral head

The ligaments, like security belts, limit excessive translation and rotation of the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity. The main one, the inferior glenohumeral ligament, is similar to a hammock.

In rotation, the ligament moves back and forward to keep the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity

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Much of the stability comes from the compression of the head of the humerus into the cavity by the rotator cuff muscles whose tendons bend with the capsule. The ligaments provide a static stability by limiting passively extreme movements, while the rotator cuff muscles provide a dynamic stability by contracting and pushing the head and the glenoid together.

���� resting position of the joint (allowing maximal relaxation of the ligaments): arm in slight flexion, abduction and internal rotation

���� Sternoclavicular joint (p. 106)

���� the medial end of the clavicle corresponds with the first costal cartilage and fits in the manubrium

���� its movements generally are produced automatically by the movement of the scapula:

� flexion/extension � elevation/depression � limited rotation on its axis

���� ligaments: anterior and posterior

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���� Acromioclavicular joint (p. 108)

���� between two oval surfaces, in the acromion and in the lateral end of the clavicle. Sometimes includes a meniscus

���� movements:

� gliding � opening and closing of the angle formed by the two bones

���� the capsule is loose and there are 4 ligaments:

� superior � inferior � the extrinsic coracoclavicular ligaments, anterolateral (trapezoid) that

prevents the closure of the angle and � posteromedial (conoid)that prevents the aperture of the angle

This light is going to encourage you to start breathing, enjoy it because that was our intention when we created this manual. The main thing is to enjoy what we do and to breath properly…I started collaborating and I got hook on, the same will happen to you Idoia, de toda la vida “la niña”

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4. Thoracic cage: breathing I (p. 81)

☯ Introduction INTRO

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☯ Elements

���� RIBS + STERNUM, Bones, cartilages and ligaments

STERNUM

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Anteriorly, the joint of the costal cartilage is of synovial kind (except for the 1st rib), which allows some freedom of movements. This disposition varies depending on the level of the rib and decreases with age.

RIBS

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���� RIBS + VERTEBRAE, bones and ligaments

Posteriorly most ribs articulate with two thoracic vertebrae at three points.

���� the 12 dorsal vertebrae are located in the posterior wall of the ribcage, each articulating with two ribs. The vertebral bodys are heart-shaped

���� the head and tubercle of the rib are involved in the articulation. The two facets

on the head contact the demifacets on the vertebral bodies, so the head of the rib is attached to the intervertebral disc, and the tubercle contacts the transverse process

���� the vertebral level of the anatomical reference points in the front of the ribcage

is variable and depending on the phase of breathing can slightly change. In general, the superior border of the manubrium is at 2-3T and the sternum angle is in front of 4-5T and the xiphoid-sternum connection at 9T

Each one of the first 7 pairs of ribs forms, together with the corresponding vertebra and

the sternum, a ring directed anteroinferiorly.

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���� THE BUCKET HANDLE (p. 83)

���� the movements of a rib can be compared to those of a bucket handle

As the rib moves up, increases the space inside. The movements of the ribs and the sternum change the diameter of the thoracic cage; those variations are produced by adding together the movements, in fact quite limited, that each rib is able to do.

���� the movement of the rib depends a little bit on its location, since it pivots on an

axis passing through the two joints where it contacts the body and transverse process of the vertebra

���� because the shape of the vertebrae changes, the direction of those joints

changes, changing in this way the movement

In inhalation the ribs are elevated:

� the diameter of the UPPER thoracic cage is increased in an anterior direction, there is more space between the spine and the chest

� that of the LOWER thoracic cage is increased in a lateral direction, there is more space from side to side

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���� the lower part of the sternum is where there is more movement, since the movement from III to VIII ribs is greater than the generated at I and II rib level. The lower ribs, IX, X and XI, move laterally, which tends to widen the base of the thorax

Exercise B4L ribs adjust with hands, 7-1-10/Huevo

Movement of the sternum toward the hands, stretching the sternum, cartilage and ribs, Bri

The Mitra effect

���� MOBILITY IN THE DORSAL REGION (p. 54)

���� D.1 to D.7 (between the scapulae), little mobility because the ribs are connected to the sternum by short pieces of cartilage

���� D.8, D.9 and D.10 the “false” ribs, with longer costal cartilage, mobility is greater

���� D.11 and D.12, special mobility in the dorsal-lumbar region. D.12 is like a dorsal

vertebra on the top and like a lumbar one from below

� between D.12 (short spinous process and cylinder-shaped articular processes) and L1, lumbar type of mobility: good flexion-extension, good lateral flexion and very little rotation

� between D.11 and D.12, same mobility as in the dorsal region, amplify by the

freedom from the floating ribs: good flexion-extension, (the spinous in D.11 is short), good lateral flexion and good posibilities for rotation

Starting from below, D.12 is the first rotator hinge important for the vertebral column, and sometimes we force it too much in some twists

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☯ BREATHING- I

���� Introduction

���� breathing is the most important thing in life. Everything else can wait. It acts as a regulator of the whole psychophysical structure. When you decelerate the tempo of your breathing the mind clams down and the body relaxes more. When you accelerate the tempo, thoughts become more agitated and the body is tense. Breathing is both at the same time a tool and a expression of the structural change

���� we need to understand the relation between breathing and the spine and the

ribs. Anatomical awareness, a deep appreciation and joy for how the human system is built up, is a powerful tool for keeping our bodies safe and our minds grounded in reality

���� in the yoga practice we observe the intentional integration of mind, breath and body, the balance between prana and apana (that what comes in and that what comes out), between sthira and sukha (tension and relaxation), dukha and sukha (good space and bad space)

���� about SUKHA and DUKHA:

Pathways must be clear of obstructing forces in order for PRANA and APANA to have a healthy relationship. If we interpret SUKHA as “good space” and DUKHA as “bad space”, we give attention to the blockages or obstructions in the system to improve function. When we make more “good space”, our pranic forces will flow freely and restore normal function. The body has all it needs, it doesn’t need anything from the outside.

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���� Breathing, gravity and yoga

���� in the uterus oxygen is delivered through the umbilical cord. Lungs are nonfunctional and mostly collapsed. The circulatory system is largely reversed. Humans even have blood flowing through vessels that won’t exist alter Barth, because they will seal off and become ligaments

���� being born means being severed from the umbilical cord. The very first of these actions declares your physical and physiological independence, IT IS THE 1st BREATH, and it’s the most important and forceful INHALATION you will ever take in your life

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���� the initial inflation of the lungs causes essential changes to the entire circulatory system. The 1st breath causes blood to surge into the lungs, the right and left side of the heart to separate into two pumps and the specialized vessels of fetal circulation to shut down and seal off. It needs to overcome the initial surface tension of the collapsed and amniotic-fluid-filled lung tissue. The force required (NEGATIVE INSPIRATORY FORCE) is 3-4 times greater than that of a normal inhalation

���� it’s also another 1st time experience the WEIGHT of the body in space. Stability and mobility are an issue. Right away you have to start doing something (food!) which involves the complex action of simultaneously breathing, sucking and swallowing � the muscles involved create the 1st postural skill � supporting the weight of the head (coordinated action of many muscles), and –as with ALL postural skills- a balance between mobilization and stabilization

���� postural development continues from the head DOWNWARD, until you begin walking (around the 1st year) culminating with the completion of lumbar curve (around 10 years)

���� life on this planet requires an integrated relationship between breath

(prana/apana) and posture (sthira & sukha). When things go wrong with one, by definition they go wrong with the other. When the body is upright with a good alignment, there is space enough for the organs so the breathing can massage them, same with the spine. Correcting the inadequate use, the excessive muscular tension will disappear. The action of the diaphragm and the ribs in breathing will, automatically, take care of itself. Breathing supports movement and movement supports breathing

When you don’t let your chest collapse and sink, a slight vacuum is created in the lungs and the air will be pushed into it

The effect of the Mitra improving that relation

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���� Definition of breathing

���� BREATHING- the passage of air into and out of the lungs- is MOVEMENT, one of the fundamental activities of living things. Specifically, breathing involves movement in two cavities: thoracic and abdominal

���� the 2 CAVITIES:

� both contain vital organs, are bound posteriorly by the spine, are open at one

end (top and bottom) to the external environment, share the DIAPHRAGM (floor and roof) and are mobile: they CHANGE SHAPE

important for breathing � differences: ABDOMINAL cavity changes SHAPE, like a water balloon,

noncompressible, while the THORACIC cavity changes SHAPE and VOLUME, like a flexible gas-filled container, compressible and expandable

� any increase of volume in the abdominal cavity will produce a corresponding

decrease in the volume of the thoracic cavity

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���� Volume and pressure

They are inversely related

���� INHALATION � because air flows toward areas of lower pressure, increasing the volume inside the thoracic cavity will decrease pressure and cause air to flow into it

You ARE NOT PULLING air INTO the body, on the contrary, air IS PUSHED INTO the body by ATMOSPHERIC pressure that ALWAYS surrounds you. The increasing volume of the thoracic cavity pushes downward on the abdominal cavity, which changes shape. Taking care of the EXHALACIÓN, the INHALACIÓN will take care by itself

���� EXHALATION � (passive recoil) during relaxed breathing, exhalation is a passive reversal of the process above. Thoracic cavity and lung tissue (stretched open in inhalation) spring back to their initial volume, pushing the air out and returning the thoracic cavity to its previous shape

Reduction in elasticity of tissues � decreases body’s ability to exhale passively � respiratory problems

���� ACTIVE EXHALING � the musculature surrounding the two cavities contracts in a way that the abdominal cavity is pushed upward into the thoracic cavity, or the thoracic cavity is pushed downward into the abdominal cavity, or any combination of the two

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���� 3 dimensional shape changes of breathing

���� the inhalation increases the volume of the chest cavity in 3 dimensions. The exhalation decreases the volume in 3 dimensions

���� that shape change in the thoracic cavity

changes the shape (NOT VOLUME)in 3-D in the abdominal cavity

���� that’s why the condition of the abdominal

region has such an influence on the quality of breathing, and the quality of breathing has a powerful effect on the health of abdominal organs

���� abdominal shape during breathing: Inhalation = spinal extension Exhalation = spinal flexion Expanded definition of breathing

Breathing, the process of taking air into and expelling it from the lungs, is caused by a 3-

D changing of shape in the thoracic and abdominal cavity

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���� More elements of the mechanism of breathing

���� lungs � the air comes in through the nostrils, it takes the temperature of the body and

dust is held in the nasal hair while the mucosa from the walls moistures it. The trachea leads the air to the lungs. The esophagus (tube originated in the lower part of the mouth) crosses the trachea, the epiglottis closes the passage

� the pair of lungs, semiconoid-shape organ, takes most of the thoracic cavity and seems to rest on the ribs. It is constituted by many small air-bags (alveoli), which walls have a thin and rich blood-vessel net, not forgetting the nerves that lead all their movements. The PLEURA, a serous membrane that surrounds the lungs, segregates a lubricating fluid to relieve friction

� the heart is inlaid between the two lungs

Observe that the upper tip of the lung reaches the clavicle level Observe as well the position of the liver and the stomach under the lungs, both separated from the latter by the diaphragm (that is not shown here)

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���� respiration and circulation

� we derive our fuel from the food we eat. Cells in the body break down the chemical in food into simpler compounds, releasing energy and producing water and carbon dioxide as a waste products � METABOLISIM

� this requires oxygen. When we inhale air fills our lungs and oxygen is absorbed

into the blood stream. At the same time, the waste carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the lungs to be exhale. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart and is then pumped to all parts of the body to be used in metabolism

���� moving oxygen

Oxygen is transported in the blood by the red blood cells � they contain a protein called HAEMOGLOBIN which binds with oxygen and carries it in the bloodstream to the parts of the body that need it and then released so it can be used. Haemoglobin contains iron and turns red when combined with oxygen

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���� Mental aspects ���� the NEURONS (brain cells) have a high rate of metabolism, so the brain requires

much more oxygen relatively than any other organ of the body

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���� the path: the diaphragm moves down, air is drown into � exchange of gases to and from the blood in the lungs � the arteries carry oxygen-rich blood to all parts of the body � the common CAROTID artery supplies the head and neck with oxygenated blood � the JUGULAR veins bring oxygen-depleted blood from the head back to the heart via the superior media cava � Veins take the blood from the body back to the heart…

���� REMEDY for STRESS � BREATH DEEPLY

To provide enough oxygen to the brain is the most important tool to deal with tension. Insufficiency of oxygen means the loss of mental balance, concentration and control of the emotions

���� MENTAL BENEFITS of PROPER BREATHING

� Improved concentration and greater clarity of thoughts � Increased ability to deal with complex situations without stress � Better emotional control and equilibrium � Improved physical control and coordination

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���� THE 2 BRAINS. As well as controlling the opposite sides of the body, the 2 halves of the brain have specific functions and deal with different aspects of our life. Here we see some of the characteristics of the 2 hemispheres. YOGIC BREATHING exercises help you to keep them in BALANCE

� RIGHT side:

Calming-intuitive-simultaneous-holistic-inner directed-emotional-subjective-feminine-cool-moon-Shakti-Yin-Ida Nadi-spacial and non-verbal activities � LEFT side:

Aggressive-logic-sequential-analytical-outer directed-rational-objective-masculine-hot-sun-Shiva-Yan-Pingala Nadi-mathematical and verbal activities

���� Pranic benefits

Breath is the outward manifestation of prana, the VITAL FORCE OR ENERGY that flows through the physical body but is actually in the astral body.

By exercising control over breathing you can learn to control the subtle energies within the body and ultimately gain full control over the mind.

Consciously controlled prana is a POWERFUL, VITALIZING and REGENERATING force. It can be manipulated for self-development, for self-healing of seemingly incurable diseases and for healing others

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���� Chakras

The areas in the Pranic sheath of the astral body where many nadis, or astral nerves come together.

Each chakra has many “wires” leading in and out. They represent the vibratory level of the astral body, becoming more subtle as they ascend. Through breathing exercises (Pranayama) the yogi tries to raise her vibratory level.

SUSHUMNA NADI corresponds to the spinal cord in the physical body. PINGALA NADI and IDA nadis flow through the right and left nostrils and run down each side of the SUSHUMNA NADI. 7 energy centres (chakras) are located along the SUSHUMNA (central canal).

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An energy blockage in these astral tubes or meridians may result in physical and mental disease, so yoga exercises work in a similar way to acupuncture to purify and strengthen the nadis. Of the 72.000 nadis, Sushumna, Ida and Pingala are of prime importance. During ordinary activity, the majority of prana flows through either the Ida or Pingala. Only DURING MEDITATION does it come into the Sushumna. Yoga breath exercise help to balance the energies.

Experiment and observe the effects of practicing pranayama on the Mitra with the body more free of blockages

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5. The pelvic girdle: the bowl in balance

Before anything else, the PELVIS is the bowl, and the HIP joint is the connection of that bowl with the legs.

☯ INTRO (p. 40 + p. 175)

���� It´s a girdle formed by the sacrum and the coccyx (a vestige of a tail at the end of

the sacrum) posteriorly, and laterally and anteriorly by the two iliac bones (connected with the previous one through the sacroiliac joints). Together with the muscles of the pelvic floor it’s like a basin which supports the spine and the weight of the upper part of the body. The pelvis is the middle point of the body and is here where our gravity centre is.

���� It’s like a big bowl on the top of a small one (the true pelvis). The superior and

inferior openings of the lesser pelvis are called pelvic inlet and pelvic outlet.

���� It’s the transition between the trunk and the legs, it’s where the femur articulates with the trunk, hidden among big masses of muscles. Its stability and the strength of its muscles make standing and walking possible.

���� It’s a pressure-transmission element:

���� pressure for the weight of the upper body ���� contrapressure from the floor through the lower extremities

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☯ ELEMENTS

���� ILIAC (p. 41): a kind of helical bone, consists of three fused parts, the ilium, ischium and pubis, linked by a Y-shaped cartilage centered in the acetabulum

���� observe the lateral view:

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Note: the iliac crest (2), the acetabulum (1), the ischiopubic ramus (6), the ischial tuberosity (sitting-bone, 1 next pic), the symphysis pubis (pubic bone), internal and external (8) iliac fossa, anterosuperior iliac spine (3), greater (4 next pic) and lesser (2 next pic) sciatic notch (back of the iliac)

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���� symphysis pubis

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���� pelvic shape(p. 43)

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���� SACRUM AND COCCYX (p. 45)

���� from a lateral view, we observe the concave shape of the sacrum in front, which

corresponds with sacral kyphosis posteriorly. Unlike the dorsal kyphosis, this one is not mobile since the vertebrae which compose the sacrum are fused

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���� worth noting that the obliquity or horizontality of the sacrum is going to depend on the relation with L5. We measure this relation with the lumbosacral angle (LSA); in this way we can determine its position

The wider the lumbosacral angle is, as compensation, the more stressed the lumbar lordosis will be, which requires more work for the supporting muscles and this can create discomfort, fatigue and even pain (look at the left spine). If the lumbosacral angle is decreased, the lordosis is less accentuated and the muscles do not have to work so hard (look at the right spine). Placing a foot on the top of a step or elevated surface is a good resting posture for the column.

���� The sacrum breaths performing the movements of nutation and

counternutation. They are sacroiliac rail-and-groove slippages of the sacrum between the pelvic bones, like a pendulum. This movement is synchronized with that of the occiput via a rigid meningeal$$$ tube that acts as a central link between both

���� actually, the sacrum is a place of constant micro-movements connected with lung breathing, marching or physical exercise and with the primary respiratory movement. There is sacroiliac joint osteoarthritis and when there are misalignments and blockages can generate multiple disorders, such as sciatic nerve pain, lumbosacral pain, urinary and genital perturbances, hormonal disturbances, headaches, balance disturbances, etc. The sacral angle is very important for the lumbar lordosis, is the structural base on which the rest of the vertebral column will sit

���� coccyx or tailbone

Remember it when we talk about activating certain muscles of the pelvic floor

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���� SACROILIAC JOINT (p. 47)

���� it is an ellipsoid synovial joint; formed between the auricular surfaces of the sacrum and the ilium, presents an articular capsule. This capsule is often confused in most of its extension with the intrinsic ligaments of the joint, the anterior sacroiliac ligament and the posterior sacroiliac ligament

���� in our classes, in general, we will use the following dynamic in the combined movement of sacrum and ilium:

� the sacral base (the top border) moves posteriorly (navel toward the back),

helped in the movement by the action of the muscles of the pelvic floor which will pull from the coccyx making it to recoil= counternutation movements. Observe the effect of this movement in the iliolumbar ligaments (which run from the transverse process of L4 and L5 up to the iliac crest) in p. 52: the upper one (from L4) is stretched and the lower one (from L5) is relaxed. The vertebrae open in the back and are no so compressed in the front, where a excessive tilt forward of the base of the sacrum can make the L5 slide forward

� at the same time, the anterosuperior iliac spines move forward while the ischia move and stretch backward (if we place the hands on the waist with the thumbs pointing Howard the spine, the thumbs push both sides of the waist forward)

� In this way the sacroiliac joints are stabilized and we are not “hanging” from the sacroiliac ligaments

Sacroiliac on the Mitra 12-4-10/Ángel and on the brick

Lower back roll

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���� SACROILIAC LIGAMENTS (p. 48)

���� the sacrum is suspended between the two iliac bones through the sacroiliac ligaments. The posterior ligaments are thick and strong and their fibers are orientated in multiple directions

Back view of the pelvis ligaments

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���� we can imagine it bilaterally like the ropes in a swing. The anterior and inferior sacroiliac ligaments seem to hold the sacrum from below, as if it were the sit of a child swing

���� the sacrum can fit into a cupped hand, in decubitus position, prone (lying face downward) or supine (lying on the back). With a slight compression you can feel an oscillatory to and fro movement of the base and the apex of the sacrum, synchronized with the movement of flexion and extension that can be perceived in the cranium

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���� many of us have suffered from a blow or traumatism in the sacrum, in the pelvis on in the legs. It’s quite probable that these traumatisms have had repercussions in the sacrum or in the pelvic or lumbar areas. The primary breathing mechanism and its corresponding cranial rhythmic impulse are affected by blows or traumatisms, diseases, stress, strong emotional circumstances or mental blockages, bad sport practice or insufficient or decompensated breathing

���� the lower back and leg pain are a widespread problem in this society. The

problems with the sciatic nerve, the psoas muscle and the sacrum are in most of cases the responsible for these pains. In order to relieve this ailments we have to adjust the sacrum

���� the key for injure prevention in the yoga practice is to relax before moving with awareness, moving connecting the spinal movement with shoulder and hip movement. The sacroiliac joints give us freedom and lightness in the asanas. The good performance of the different elements helps in the flow of the transmission of the movement

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���� LUMBOSACRAL JOINT (p. 51)

���� different factors make the lumbosacral region much more vulnerable than other regions, diverse destabilizing forces involved in holding the upright posture. Such destabilizing forces have one only origin: gravity. This alteration is very frequent in people with sedentary life, specially those who work sitting for long periods

���� the causes of most of the acute and chronic lumbar pain are the alteration in the biomechanics of the vertebra column, provoked by bad postures at work and outsider work, muscle weakening, specially the abdominal muscles, ligaments and tendons shortened due to chronic retraction, mechanical overload and inflammation of posterior joints in different degrees of osteoarthritis aggravated by inadequate and unusual efforts, work performed in the same constant posture, usually sitting, inadequate use of chairs and a high degree of stress

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���� why does it hurt? Some ideas

� the acute pain is due to the sudden alteration of the bony structures with its immediate consequences of edema, liberation of histamine and bradykinin (halogen substances)and reflex muscle spasm

� the chronic pain is more complex because different somatic and psychic

chained events involved can maintain it. Among them, emotional tension, physical traumatisms, infections, etc. The pain produces muscle tension and this triggers ischemia [from Greek, “stop” and “blood”, cell suffering caused by the blood supply decrease and consequent decrease of oxygen supply, nutrients and metabolism products elimination], edema, halogen substance release and inflammation. The last one limits the articular mobility, everything leading to functional incapacity, creating a vicious circle in which the organic and psychological facts overlap or can keep the pain indefinitely

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� more frequently, the pain is produced by sudden movements such as torsion, hyperextension or flexion, as when lifting up a heavy object while rotating. Palpation and percussion are very painful; the forced extension of the thigh of the same side triggers pain and allows us to differentiate it from the one produced in the lumbar region

� sprains generally occur in the articular facets between L5 and S1 due to strain or sudden movements (p. 51). In the moment of the effort we can hear a click followed by intense, deep pain, like a twinge in the lower lumbar region, which totally immobilized the person who needs help to stand up. This episode is followed by an intense muscle spasm and there is acute pain to palpation and percussion on the affected vertebra. The pain recedes sooner or later with rest

� the lumbosacral impingement is due to the displacement of the vertebra

sliding toward one side compressing the sciatic nerve. This affects the whole nerve branch that runs along the lumbar, gluteus, hamstrings area, knee and tibia, producing an acute pain and numbness in the leg

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���� HIP JOINT (p. 175)

���� the hip is a proximal joint of the leg that links the femur with the pelvis. It’s hard to recognize it because it’s hidden among big muscles. We need it to be stable and strong and at the same time to have certain range of motion. When is blocked, the lack of flexibility may affect the lumbar area, the knees and feet

It has less range of motion than the glenohumeral joint, but more stability. In anatomical position, the head of the femur is not completely covered by the acetabulum; in kneeling position, the femoral head fits better into the acetabulum.

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���� femur, the longest and heaviest bone in the human body (p. 178)

The femoral head represents about ¾ of a sphere. The three axis of the joint pass through its geometrical centre:

� transversal axis in the frontal plane: movements of flexion-extension � anterior-posterior axis in the sagittal plane: abduction-adduction movements � vertical axis: external-internal rotation movements

The neck of the femur supports the femoral head and ensures its union with the diaphysis (the shaft)

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� the axis of the femoral neck forms an inclination angle with the shaft of the femur of 125º. If the angle is superior to 135° is called coxa valga, and less than 120° is coxa vara

� the axis of the neck also forms a declination or anteversion angle of 12°-20°

with the bicondylar axis (in the distal end)

Depending on the shape of the neck and head we talk about two different

types: � LONG TYPE

Inclination angle125º. Declination angle 25º. This morphology favours a great range of articular movement and corresponds

to an adaptation to marching speed.

� SHORT TYPE Inclination angle 115º. Declination angle 10º.

The articular amplitude is smaller, but what is lost in speed it’s gained in solidity, it’s morphology of strength.

Summarizing AXIS, we have:

o an anatomical axis that passes through the axis of the shaft of the femur o a mechanical axis that goes from the centre of the hip joint to the centre of the

knee join o an inclination angle formed between the anatomical axis and the femoral

neck axis o a declination angle formed in a horizontal plane between the femoral neck axis

and the bicondylar axis

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���� ARTICULAR SURFACES OF THE HIP (p. 180)

���� FEMORAL HEAD

Of about 5 cm of diameter, covered with thick cartilage except at the fovea where the ligamentum teres is attached. It has a fine structure that distributes in an evenly way the loads and withstands tension. Due to misalignment of the articulation, these tensions are not evenly distributed and there are areas or points in the femoral head which are overloaded, this gives the conditions for a degenerative process, as osteoarthritis. Any misalignment of the skeleton can originate areas of excessive pressure, with initially microscopic ruptures in the articular cartilage that posteriorly generate osteoarthritis.

���� ACETABULUM (small bowl)

It receives the femoral head. Located in the external face of the iliac bone, is directed laterally, anteriorly and inferiorly. It’s a hemispherical cavity with two differentiated parts:

� a load transmission area, covered with cartilage

which contacts the femoral head and is called the fascia lunata

� a central area, occupied by the ligamentum

teres, which does not contact the head, called the acetabular notch

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1. Labrum 2. Femoral head with articular cartilage 3. Acetabulum(faceta lunata) with

articular cartilage 4. Ligamentum teres 5. Obturator membrane

The contact of the femur with the acetabulum is precarious; it there is a fibrocartilaginous ring (the labrum) around the rim which helps to increase the effective depth of the socket and is reinforced by a transverse ligament which bridges the inferior opening of the notch.

���� CAPSULE AND LIGAMENTS (p. 184)

���� ARTICULAR CAPSULE

The capsule is very strong and is not luxable, is very thick (up to 1 cm) because its function is the stability. It’s bigger in the anterior face, and is attached above the anterior inferior iliac spine and in the transverse ligament. In the femur it’s attached anteriorly to the intertrochanteric line and posteriorly a little bit above the intertrochanteric crest. In the inferior face forms a cavity that allows flexion. Limits of the capsule attachments:

� In the iliac: the external face of the labrum � In the femur: the intertrochanteric line anterior and posterior to the femoral

head

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���� LIGAMENTS � ligamentum teres (or round ligament)

It goes from the fovea capitis (an ovoid depression in the femoral head) to the bottom of the acetabulum. It’s a fibrous band of about 3 cm long and gives the femur a stabilizing strength. It has little importance in the limitation of the movements of the hip.

In a normally aligned position it’s in moderate tension and the femoral insertion occupies a middle position in the back of the acetabulum. Depending on the movement (flexion, extensión, etc.) it will adopt a different position but always in the back of the acetabulum. It’s made tense when the thigh is semiflexed and the limb then abducted or rotated outward; it is relaxed when the limb is adducted.

� outside, reinforcing the capsule:

� anteriorly:

Iliofemoral ligament or the Y-ligament or the ligament of Bigelow, located in the anterior surface of the capsule in the shape of an inverted Y. Its trunk is attached to the anterior inferior iliac spine, and the two branches (one longitudinal and the other transversal) to the anterior intertrochanteric line. It’s the strongest ligament in the human body and in a standing posture prevents the trunk from falling backward and the posture is maintained without the need for muscular activity. The pubofemoral ligament, in the medial and inferior part of the capsule, is attached, above, to the iliopubic eminence; below, it blends with the capsule and with the deep surface of the vertical band of the Iliofemoral ligament in such a way that they resemble a Z (or N).

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� posteriorly:

The ischiofemoral ligament runs from the ischium (below the acetabulum) to the neck of the femur. Its fibers are oblique and are not as strong.

Deep circular fibers surround the articular capsule cuff reinforcing the central

part giving it an hourglass-shape.

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���� ANTERIOR LIGAMENTS IN THE MOVEMENT (p. 185) � IN FLEXION- EXTENSION

� In anatomical position the ligaments are slightly taut (fig. 27).

� Extension: the Iliofemoral and pubofemoral are taut (fig 28).

� Flexion: they become slack(fig 29), there is less stability

� IN LATERAL - MEDIAL ROTATION

� Lateral: all become taut (fig. 30-31-32).

� Medial: all are slack (the

ischiofemoral will be taut) (fig. 33-34-35).

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� IN ADDUCTION-ABDUCTION

� Adduction: the upper Iliofemoral is taut while the pubofemoral is slack (ischiofemoral is slack) (fig. 37-39).

� Abduction: the opposite occurs (fig. 38-40).

� its role in the articular stability depends on the position:

� in anatomical position or in extension the ligaments are tense and

keeps the femoral head pressed into the acetabulum so there is more stability

� in flexion, the distension makes the articular position less stable � in a combination of flexion and adduction (sitting with one leg crossed

over the other) it’s an unstable position, so a slight blow on the femur axis can provoke a posterior dislocation of the hip

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☯ MOVEMENTS OF HIP

���� PELVIS IS FIXED AND THE FEMUR IS MOVING (p. 186)

���� FLEXION

It’s the movement that takes the anterior face of the femur towards the trunk. It’s closely related to the position of the knee:

� active flexion with extended knee: 90º (fig. 1) � active flexion with flexed knee: 120º (fig. 2) � passive flexion with flexed knee: 140º (fig. 4) � passive flexion with extended knees: less than the previous ones (fig. 3)

When the knee is flexed the hamstrings are relaxed, allowing more flexion in the hip.

In the passive flexion of both hips together with flexion in the knees, the anterior face of the thighs have a broad contact with the trunk because the coxofemoral flexion combines with the backward tilt of the pelvis the lumbar lordosis straightens up) (fig. 5).

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���� EXTENSION

The posterior face of the thigh moves closer to the trunk. ROM for extension is more reduced compared to flexion because is limited by the Iliofemoral ligament in the front.

� active extension. It’s not as broad as the passive one:

With extended knee: 20º With flexed knee: 10º. The hamstrings loose their efficiency as hip extensor muscles since they are using part of their power of contraction in the flexion of the knee and the rectus femoris (front of the thigh) elasticity is limited as well.

� passive extension: 30º. It takes places when we move one foot forward and

lean the trunk forward and open forward the groin of the foot that stays behind.

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���� ADDUCTION

Adduction alone does not exist. There are movements of relative adduction when from abduction position we take the leg towards the median plane.

There are movements of adduction combined with hip flexion/extension. In these positions the maximum ROM is 30°.

Sitting with one leg crossed over the other is an adduction combined with flexion and lateral rotation. This is the position of minimum stability for the hip.

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���� ABDUCTION

In abduction the thigh moves away from the median plane.

The maximum angle of abduction for the lower limbs is 90°, so we deduce that 45° is maximum ROM for one hip There are trained people who can achieve 180° abduction, but it’s a combination of abduction-lateral rotation-flexion.

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���� ROTATION

Reference position: decubitus prone (laying face downward) and leg in 90° flexion to the thigh (fig. 18).

� lateral rotation: movement of the femur that moves the tip of the foot laterally, 60º (fig. 20)

� medial rotation: the tip of the foot moves medially, 30º (fig. 19)

Sitting on the edge of a table, hip and knee flexed in 90° angle, we can rotate laterally (with more ROM because the Bertin ligament –ischiofemoral- is distended) as well as medially (fig. 21 and 22). Yoga practitioners manage to force lateral rotation to the point where the axes from the legs are parallel, superimposed and horizontal (Lotus position, fig. 23).

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���� MOVEMENTS OF THE PELVIS AT THE HIP JOINT AND FEMUR FIXED (p. 190)

The pelvis has a varied range of basic movements. These movements can combined among themselves generating compound movements. We focus on the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS: A) as a reference point.

���� ANTEVERSION, The ASIS (A)moves forward and the ischial tuberosities (sitting-bones), backward (B), which increases lordosis of the lumbar spine

���� RETROVERSION, (A) moves backward and (B) forward, decreasing lumbar lordosis

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���� LATERAL flexion (inferolaterally)

���� MEDIAL flexion (superomedially)

���� MEDIAL rotation

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���� LATERAL rotation

The independence of the pelvis with regard to the femur is fundamental for the freedom of movement of the pelvis; in this way, broad movements can be generated in the torso.

���� SACROILIAC JOINTS

The rail of the iliac auricular surface can slide in the groove of the auricular surface of the sacrum. In this way the sacrum can tilt. In nutation the promontory of the sacrum (on the top) is thrust forward and the apex backward. Contranutation is the opposite movement. The sacrum has eight axis of movement which allow the lateral flexion and rotation of the trunk.

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���� GRAVITY CENTRE

The centre of gravity of an upright standing person falls in the pelvic cavity slightly underneath the little promontory formed by the vertebral sacrum angle in the pelvis. It takes a little deviation from the gravity centre to change the way we compensate tension in our body and with it our posture and breathing. That is why exercises of balance – rocking, falling and pendulum – are important for breathing, because they facilitate the awareness of our centre of gravity and the sensation of keeping the back straight. During the practice imagine that we are stretching and growing upward. With simple exercises, performed consciously with perseverance, we can rebalance the anatomical structure. When one of the joints is out of alignment, the distribution of weight on the coxofemoral joints is uneven, accumulating more stress in the joint that is out of alignment; moreover, the concern for balance keeps the deviated joint rigid (mere illusion of strength which is just the opposite)

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See simple drawings 10-3-10/Ángel, pelvic gridle on big paper + exercise on the MITRA for alignment, little sand-bag on the navel, also sitting agaist the wall …

Pelvic girdle bones on the lower back roll

Alexander, leg and hip movement, San Antonio

Sotai alignment

Felden blocks 26-1-10 Huevo

Triko and warrior against the wall for the dynamic of the hip, 21-1-10/Huevo

Classes: 23-1-09, 30-1-09/Ruby & Ciclo

Stretching hip ligaments, 31-3-09/Ruby&Bony

Emphasis on the parallel pelvis 29-1-10 Huevo

Also the exercise of warrior prep against the wall with brick between knee and the wall

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6. ARMS AND HANDS: TOOLS OF MOVEMENT I

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ELBOW

HUMERO-ULNAR JOINT

TYPE

Trochlear

ARTICULAR SURFACE

Humerus (humeral trochlea and humeral condyle) + Ulna (trochlear and radial notch) + Radius (radial articular fossa)

LIGAMENTS

Oblique ligament if the elbow Posterior ligament Ulnar collateral ligament Cooper ligament (anterior, middle, posterior) Radial collateral ligament Radio annular ligament Quadrate ligament

MOVEMENTS

Flexion (160º)-Extension (0º)

HUMERORADIAL JOINT

TYPE

Enarthrosis

ARTICULAR SURFACE

Humerus (humeral trochlea and condyle) + Ulna (trochlear and radial notch) + Radius (radial articular fossa)

LIGAMENTS

Oblique ligament if the elbow Posterior ligament Ulnar collateral ligament Cooper ligament (anterior, middle, posterior) Radial collateral ligament Radio annular ligament Quadrate ligament

MOVEMENTS

Flexion (160º)-Extension (0º)

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RADIOULNAR PROXIMAL JOINT

TYPE

Pivot

ARTICULAR SURFACE

Humerus (humeral trochlea and condyle) + Ulna (trochlear and radial notch) + Radius (radial articular fossa)

LIGAMENTS

Radial annular ligament

MOVEMENTS

Supination Pronation (arm in flexion-90º) (elbow in extension-180º)

RADIOULNAR DISTAL JOINT

TYPE

Pivot

ARTICULAR SURFACE

Radius (ulnar notch of the radius) + Ulna (head of the ulna) + Articular disc

LIGAMENTS

Radioulnar ligament (anterior and posterior)

MOVEMENTS

Supination Pronation

LIGAMENTS

Collateral ligaments (lateral and medio) Palmar ligament Dorsal ligament

MOVEMENTS

Flexion-Extension

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7. LEGS AND FEET: TOOLS OF MOVEMENT II

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���� KNEE (p. 192)

It’s a synovial joint or diarthrosis that connects the femur (thigh) with the tibia (leg) in a bicondyle articulation and the femur with the patella (kneecap) in a trochlear articulation.

It’s a mobile troche-ginglymus (i.e. a pivotal hinge joint), which permits flexion and extension as well as a slight medial and lateral rotation.

In human beings they are vulnerable to serious injuries and osteoarthritis, since the lower limbs bear most of the weight of the body. The knee joint is very important because is fundamental for a normal walking movement. It has also a function of support for the body when it’s not in movement. In this way it presents two characteristics incompatible at first glance: stability and movement.

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The complex fibrous capsule, its intrinsic ligaments and the internal ligaments give great stability to the knee. Nevertheless, we must not forget the transcendental role of the muscles in keeping this stability. All these factors allow the lower limb to become a true column when knee is in extension, which is fundamental to stand on the feet. Despite its stability, the knee presents great mobility, expressed in the movements of flexion-extension, blocking and unblocking and a slight axial rotation. The ligaments and meniscus, together with the muscles that cross the joint, prevent the movement beyond the ROM allowed for the knee.

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���� ligaments of the knee

� intrinsic

� anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), resists anterior translation and medial rotation of the tibia

� posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), resists forces pushing the tibia posteriorly

� transverse or (anterior) meniscomeniscal ligament, connects both menisci from the inside

� anterior meniscofemoral ligament � posterior meniscofemoral ligament

� extrinsic

Anterior surface

� quadriceps tendon � patellar ligament � meniscopatellar ligament � alar ligament

Posterior surface

� condyle fibrous shell � oblique popliteal ligament � arcuate popliteal ligament

Internal surface

� patellar alar ligament � meniscopatellar ligament � medial collateral ligament (tibial)

External surface

� external patellar alar ligament � external meniscopatellar ligament � external capsular reinforcement � lateral collateral ligament (fibular) � tendon of the popliteus muscle (more posteriorly)

kknneessss

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���� TIBIA

Shinbone or shankbone, it’s the strongest weight bearing bone in the body. It’s in the anterior and interior part of the leg, parallel beside the fibula, it’s a long and voluminous bone that receives the body weight from the femur and transmits it to the foot through the talus.

It articulates with the femur (knee) superiorly and with the talus (ankle) inferiorly and with the fibula laterally.

The end that articulates with the femur is wide (tibial plateau) and it has the medial and lateral condyles or glenoid surfaces which articulate with the femoral condyles, The intercondyle eminence fits into the femoral intercondyle fossa like a piece from a jigsaw. Its lateral condyle articulates (superior tibiofibular articulation, syndesmosis joint) with the fibula through the fibular articular surface, and the lower end with the lateral side of the lower end of the fibula (inferior tibiofibular articulation, syndesmosis.

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Its anterior surface has a tibial tuberosity which is a roughened protrusion that we can feel under the skin, it has the shape of an italic S, it’s very exposed to traumatisms due to its superficial anterior subcutaneal placement; laterally we find a little tubercule (Gerdy) where the fascia lata inserts. The forward flat part of the tibia is called the fibia, often confused with the fibula where the sartorious, gracilis and semitendinosus muscles insert. The distal extremity is prolonged downward in a strong process, the medial malleolus, which articulates with the talus. The tibia is connected to the fibula by an interosseous membrane (syndesmosis joint). In the superior posterior area of the tibia there is a line where the soleus muscle inserts. This surface has oblique canals medially orientated for the tendons of the plantar foot and toes flexors.

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���� FIBULA

Or calf bone, one of the bones of the leg, it’s a slender, splint-like bone slightly expanded at both ends, with 3 surfaces, lateral, medial and posterior; three borders, anterior, medial and lateral (the medial one, interosseous border, is where the interosseous membrane inserts) and two extremes, superior or head, with the styloid apex (1) (where the biceps femoris inserts) and the inferior end or lateral malleolus (4).

This calf bone is located on the lateral side of the tibia, with which is connected above and below: in the superior and inferior tibiofibular articulations (the last one forming, together with the talus, the tibiofibulotalar articulation). Inferiorly narrows into a tip from which the calcaneofibular ligament descends to the calcaneus

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���� BONES OF THE FOOT

���� PHALANGES

Each toe has three phalanges, except for the 1st (big toe) that has only two. The 1st or proximal phalanges articulate with the metatarsals. The 2nd or middle phalanges (no present in the big toe) connecting the previous one with the next, the 3rd or distal phalanges, the toe tips.

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���� CALCANEUS

It’s the bone of the heel and it’s short, asimetric, irregular. It articulates with the talus superiorly and with the cuboid anteriorly. It has six articular surfaces and the posterior rough face is where the Achilles tendon attaches one.

���� TALUS It’s the only bone from the tarsal region that articulates with the tibia and the fibula to form the ankle joint. It also articulates with the calcaneus and the navicular. It has six articular surfaces

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We work on the awareness of the contact of the base of the feet on the floor. We observe the triangle formed by the center of the heel, the Roman sandal point (B4L) and the point in the little padding underneath the 5th toe

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Movement

1. Talking about muscles in general (p. 14)

☯ Movements of the human body result from contraction of muscles (here voluntary or striated muscles) which attach to the bones

☯ Typically a muscle is attached to two different bones (except facial muscles and sphincters). For a given body movement, the proximal bone, ORIGIN, is fixed and the distal bone, INSERTION, moves as a result of muscle contraction. The distal bones supposed to move freely in the space

☯ Muscle is composed of BUNDLES of FIBERS (primary, secondary, tertiary), held together and compartmentalized by FIBROUS partitions, APONEUROSIS, called (on a progressively smaller scale) deep fascia, epimysium, perimysium and endomysium. These connective tissue partitions (which are continuous with each other) allow easy movement of one muscle or muscle group relative to another. They can be extended beyond the muscle to form a strong fibrous CORD called TENDON which is continuous with the periostium of a nearby bone

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☯ Individual muscle cells (MYOFIBERS) are extremely long and contain many nuclei. Each cell contains many functional units called SARCOMERES, divided by boundaries called Z lines. Each sarcomere contains thick filaments (made of the protein MYOSIN) and thin filaments (protein ACTINE); the thin filaments are anchored to the Z lines

☯ In repose, the myosin and actin filaments are separated. When the muscle is

stimulated by a nerve, a series of chemical reactions involving calcium, ATP and magnesium takes place, causing the thin filaments to "slide" along the thick filaments. As a result, the Z lines move closer together, and each individual sarcomere (and therefore the entire muscle) becomes shorter. This is the basis of muscle CONTRACTION, the muscle PULLS from the attached bones

☯ Muscle elasticity (p. 15)

���� Besides their (active) ability to CONTRACT, muscles have a (passive) property of ELASTICITY

���� So, a muscle can be stretched to certain point, moving its insertion points further

apart, doing the reversed movement of its action. Example: the anterior neck muscles, when they contract, are FLEXORS of the neck. During EXTENSION of the neck, they become stretched. When this happens, because of their elasticity, they tend to return to their initial length, returning the head to its anatomical position

2. Muscle shapes (p. 16)

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☯ Muscles attach to bones in several manners:

���� Directly via muscle fibers (usually in broad insertion). Ex.: subscapularis

���� Via an aponeurosis (broad tendon). Ex.: quadratus lumborum

���� Via a regular tendon. Ex.: brachioradialis

���� Sometimes the tendon passes under a fibrous band. Ex.: tibialis anterior

☯ A muscle can have several bellies or heads. Ex.: biceps (2 heads), triceps (3 heads), quadriceps (4 heads)

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☯ Some muscles can have several origins, which may be in more than one bone (i.e.: the flexor digitorum superficialis originates from both the radius and ulna). Multiple insertions are less common than multiple origins and usually involved finger and toe bones (i.e.: interosseous muscles end, in a complex way, at the 1st phalanx and the extensor tendon of the toe)

☯ Muscles have different sizes and shapes: the fiber bundles of muscles are arranged in

many shapes

☯ Depending on the orientation and attachment of their fibers, muscles may act in one

or several directions. Ex.: fibers of rectus abdominis run essentially parallel to each other � flexes the trunk; fibers of external oblique arranged like a fan � anterior flexion, side-bending or rotation of the trunk

☯ LONG muscles are usually kinetic (able to produce visible external motion). SHORT,

deep muscles (those inserting on the vertebrae or foot bones) tend to be responsible for precise, small-scale adjustments

☯ MONOARTICULAR � a muscle that crosses a single joint

☯ POLIARTICULAR � a muscle that crosses more than one joint. Ex.: rectus femoris (hip

and knee) flexor of the hip, extensor of the knee; it will be stretched in situations involving simultaneous extension of the hip + flexion of the knee

3. Muscle contraction (p. 20)

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☯ Speaking of a particular movement, the muscle which produces it is called AGONIST, and the muscle which produces the opposite movement is called an ANTAGONIST. Ex.: flexion of the hip, psoas is agonist and gluteus maximus is antagonist

☯ SYNERGETIC: different muscles which cooperate to produce the same action. Ex: dorsiflexion of the ankle = tibialis anterior + extensor hallucis longus + extensor digitorum longus. Mutually opposing muscles often function together to fix or stabilize a bone. Ex.: serratus anterior + rhomboids and middle trapezious. By contracting at the same time, they work together to fix the scapula

☯ When a muscle contracts, it tends to draw its origin and insertion points closer together. Anything opposing this � RESISTANCE. Ex.: brachialis + biceps b., major flexors of elbow. Their action can be opposed by several types of resistance:

���� The weight of the forearm (gravity) ���� The weight of some external object attached to forearm ���� The force of another person pulling on your arm ���� The tension in the muscles that oppose flexion (triceps, elbow extensor),

contraction of antagonist muscles

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☯ Few extra things

���� Contractions are controlled by the Central Nerve System (CNS), the brain controls the voluntary contractions, while the spinal cord controls the involuntary reflexes

���� Muscle cells (muscular fibers), produce the contractions that move the body parts,

including inner organs. The associated connective tissue transports nerve and capillary fibers to the muscle at the same time it wraps it up in bundles or sheaves. Muscles also give shape to the body and generate heat

���� Three types of muscles:

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TYPE OF

MUSCLE LOCATION ASPECT TYPE OF ACTIVITY STIMULATION

Skeletal

or

striated

It attaches to the bone and to the fascia of the limbs, body walls and head/neck

Cylinder-shaped fibers, large, very long, no branched, transversely striated, disposed in parallel bundles; many nuclei in the periphery

Powerful contraction, Fast and intermittent on the basal tone; serves, above all, to produce movement or to resist gravity

Voluntary by the somatic nervous system

Cardiac

Muscles of the heart and nearby portions of the great vessels

Branching network fibers, many cells linked together, striated appearance from its orderly arrangement of myofilaments; a single, centrally located nucleus

Powerful contraction, fast, constant and rhythmical; pumps up the blood from the heart

Involuntary; intrinsic stimulation and propagation; speed and strength of the contraction controlled by the autonomic nervous system

Smooth

Viscera walls, urinary system, some respiratory passageways, certain reproductive organs and blood vessels, iris, glands, etc

Elongated, spindle-shaped appearance, in thin sheets or small individual bundles, smaller than the other types, nonstriated; single central nucleus

Weak contraction, slow, rhythmical or sustained; serves above all to impel substances and to restrain the flow

Involuntary by the autonomic nervous system

���� The structural unit of the muscle is the muscle fiber. The motor unit is the functional unit composed by the motoneuron and the muscle fibers enervated by it. When the nerve impulse reaches the motoneuron in the spinal cord, another impulse is generated which determines the simultaneous contraction of all the muscle fibers innerved by that motor unit. The number of muscle fibers in each motor unit goes from one to few hundreds. The number of fibers changes depending on the size and function of the muscle. Movements obey the activation of a progressive number of motor units. Revising:

���� agonists work doing the movement ���� antagonists oppose the action of the agonists; when the agonist contracts, the

antagonist relaxes progressively inducing a smooth movement ���� synergists restrain the movement of the articulation inserted between when an

agonist crosses more than one joint; these muscles complete the action of the agonist

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ATP: adenosine triphosphate is a fundamental nucleotide to obtain cellular energy.

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4. Types of contraction (p. 22)

☯ Concentric shortening and eccentric lengthening

���� Concentric contraction

When the muscle is stimulated by a nerve and the muscle responds by shortening. Ex.: biceps brachii in the forearm shortens concentrically when lifting up a book, because the origin and insertion points of the muscles are drawn together so the muscle is shorter in length or contracted

���� Eccentric lengthening

When we put the book down, we do not ordinarily drop an object we have just lifted, we set it down carefully by slowly extending the elbow, and we accomplish that by allowing the muscle as a whole to become longer while keeping some of its muscles fibers in a state of contraction; in fact can be a bit delicate for the extra work concentrated on those few fibers. Whenever a muscle increases in length under tension while resisting gravity, that movement is eccentric lengthening, typically in actions where we try to slow down a load. It’s usually called lengthening under tension. This “lengthening” can give way to confusion since, although the muscle is lengthening and extending, it’s doing it under pressure and doing no more than going back to its natural resting position

���� We see both actions in most natural daily activities: when walking up a flight of stairs, the muscles lifting us up are shortening concentrically; when walking back down the stairs the same muscles are lengthening eccentrically Ito control our descent.

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In Hatha yoga we see both constantly, as when the back muscles shorten concentrically to lift the torso up from a standing forward bend. Then as we slowly lower back down into the bend, the back muscles resist the force of gravity that is pulling us forward, lengthening eccentrically to smooth our descent

☯ Isotonic and isometric activity

���� Isotonic

Meaning (iso: equal, same - tonic: tone, tension) constant tension. Muscle fibers shorten under a constant load, but this rarely happens in reality. Over time the term has become corrupted to apply generally to exercise that involve movement, usually under conditions of minimal or moderate resistance. Ex.: raising and lowering a book repetitively is an isotonic exercise for the biceps brachii and its synergists. Most athletic activities involve isotonic exercise because they involve movement

���� Isometric

Meaning (iso: equal, same - metric: measure/length) constant measure or length. It’s holding still, often under conditions of substantial or maximum resistance. Ex.: holding the book still, neither allowing it to fall nor raising it is an isometric exercise for the same muscles mentioned above. Any and every Hatha yoga posture that we are holding steadily with muscular effort

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☯ Relaxation, stretching and mobility

The relaxation is the moment when the contraction is over. The different myofibers (actin and myosin) move back into their place and the H zone widens back again. Relaxation is the result of the end of the nerve impulse in the neuromuscular plaque. With certain training we can learn to relax most of our skeletal muscles completely. If a relaxed muscle is gently stretched we can easily go with the stretch provided we have enough flexibility. But if we pull too suddenly or there is any appreciable pain, the nerve system will resist relaxation and keep the muscle tense. Finally, if you allow yourself to remain near your limit of passive but comfortable stretch for a while longer, you may feel the muscles relax again, allowing you to stretch a bit more. This is easier working with partners because stretching on your own is more demanding because you are concentrating on two tasks at the same time: creating the necessary conditions for the stretch, and relaxing into that effort. But the same rules apply, if you go too far and too quickly, pain inhibits lengthening, prevents relaxation and spoils the work

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☯ Factors related to SSC (Stretching Shortening Cycle))

The combination of eccentric contractions (when the muscle is active while stretching) and the concentric phase that follows forms a type of natural muscular function called Stretching-Shortening Cycle (SSC).

The characteristic of the SSC is that the last contraction of the cycle (concentric phase) is more powerful when immediately preceded by an eccentric contraction than when doing it isolated.

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☯ Golgi tendon organ

���� It is a sensory propioceptive receptor placed in the tendons of the skeletal muscles (near musculotendinous junctions).

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���� The body of the Golgi tendon organ is made up of strands of collagen, connected at one end to the muscle fibers, and at the other merge into the tendon proper.

���� When muscles shorten (probably due to the stretch reflex), tension is felt in the point where the muscle is connected to the tendon, place of the Golgi tendon organ. This registers the change in the tension and the proportion of such change and sends signals to the dorsal spine to save this information. When this tension exceeds certain threshold, activates the myotatic reflex than inhibits the shortened muscles and forces them to relax

���� One of the reasons to keep a stretch for a prolonged period of time is that in this

way the spindle of the muscle gets used to the new length and reduces its signals. Gradually, its stretching receptors can be trained to allow to increase the length of the muscles

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���� This basic function of the Golgi tendon organ helps to protect the muscles, tendons and ligaments from injures. The reaction of the myotatic reflex is only possible because the signal from the Golgi tendon organ to the spinal cord is powerful enough as to overcome the signal from the skeletal muscles that leads to muscle shortening

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☯ When an agonist shortens to cause the desired movement, it usually forces the antagonist to relax.

���� To lengthen, it is easier to stretch a muscle that is relaxed than a muscle that is

shortening. Using these situations, when the reciprocal inhibition occurs, we can achieve a more efficient stretch inducing the antagonist to relax during the stretching due to the reduction of the agonists

���� We can also relax any muscle used as synergist by the muscle we are trying to

stretch ���� The elongation helps to strengthen the muscle because the capacity of muscle

shortening (that is, of generating strength) depends on the initial length. The more the initial muscle length, the better will be the muscle contraction generating more strength

(*No olvides estirarte primero)

When we have problems to relax, isometric tension-relaxation exercises with reference to the Golgi tendon organ 14-5-10/Ángel

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5. Phasic muscles and postural muscles

☯ Restorative alignment

���� Deficient alignment is practically always associated with an imbalance in the

surrounding musculature; the maintained bad alignment results in the shortening of some muscles and the constant overstretching of others.

���� When certain muscles are used more frequently than others (at work, doing sports and other activities from daily life), they become more rigid and strong, while the opposite muscles, less used in comparison, become weaker. The consequence is a bad position in the articulation or articulations involved.

���� Most of the therapeutic concepts focus mainly on strengthening the muscles

without taking into account the importance of stretching the shortened muscles as well.

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☯ Two groups: phasic and postural

���� Phasic muscles, for movement, are the most superficial and tend to be polyarticular. They are basically formed by fast fibers that produce strength but have little resistance. With time and use tend to become shorter and tight

���� Postural muscles, for stability, on the contrary, they are deeper, cross only one joint

and are made by slow fibers, good for endurance. They tend to become weaker and to lengthen with time. Their function is to take part in the maintenance of the posture and work against gravity

���� Initially both groups complement each other to stabilize and move; in time the

phasic muscles can inhibit the action of the tonic muscles and try to accomplish that function themselves. This inhibition of the stabilizing muscles and the preferential recruitment of the moving muscles is fundamental in the development of imbalance and it is the essence of what wants to be detected and if possible, reverted

TONIC MUSCLES

PHASIC MUSCLE

Neck, shoulder girdle & arm

Sternocleidomastoid

Rhomboids

Pectoralis major Trapezium (ascending)

Levator scapularis

Trapezium (horizontal)

Trapezium (descending) Triceps brachii

Biceps brachii

Scalenus

Trunk

Erector spinae, lumbar and cervical region

Erector spinae, central thoracic region

Quadratus lumborum Abdominal

Pelvis- thighs

Biceps femoris Vastus medialis

Semitendinous

Vastus lateralis

Semimembranosus

Gluteus medius

Iliopsoas

Gluteus maximus

Rectus femoris

Gluteus minimus

Adductors

Gracilis

Piriformis

Fascia lata tensor

Calf & foot

Gastrocnemius

Tibialis anterior

Soleus

Peroneus

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☯ Common muscle imbalances

���� Many people develop a similar muscular imbalance configuration, almost standardized. While there are many individual variations due to the different activities of the subjects, there is a consistent pattern that results basically from the way we are used to use our postural muscles. There seems to exist a neurological component since these patterns are common and widespread (note from Paola)

���� Upper body patterns

���� neck, middle and upper back, and shoulder girdle show this type of

configuration: tension in the extensors of the neck, the upper trapezium and the levator scapularis

���� opposite muscles group: longus capiti and colli (anterior head and neck) and

lower trapezium are usually loose and it is necessary to strengthen them ���� in the shoulder the anterior muscles, pectoralis major and minor are usually

hypertonic (tense), while the infraspinatus, teres minor, rhomboids and thoracic portion of the spinal erector are inhibited (loose and overstretched)

���� these muscular imbalances end up in very common postural patterns where

shoulders move forward and the kyphosis is increased, the head tilts forward and cervical lordosis is lost

���� Lower body patterns

���� there are frequently similar imbalances in the lumbar and pelvic areas. The erector spinae muscles are usually tense and hypertonic, while the abdominal muscles are loose. The flexors of the hip are tight while the inner side of the thigh is not working well with the gluteus maximus, interfering with the complete extension of the hip. It seems that this combination is a factor contributing to the tension of the muscles of the back of the thigh

���� the tight hip flexor muscles will inhibit the posterior ones, which suffer stress during

extension. As a result those muscles are overloaded ���� it is impossible to separate the muscles which connect nearby body segments to

analyze the possible imbalances correctly, since the alterations in some provoke changes in the position of the bones where the others are inserted

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See more about muscular chains

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6. Deep back muscles (p.64)

☯ Long- splenius capitis and cevicis, erector of the trunk and transversospinalis- and

short muscles -interspinalis and intertransverse The long muscle are subdivided in parts depending on its location in the different regions of the vertebral spine

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☯ They usually act having the pelvic girdle, the vertebrae and the ribs as a fixed point;

the contraction of the muscles pulls from the superior insertions and provokes a movement of the portions of the trunk situated above. In this way, in a standing position with the trunk flexed, the bilateral contraction � provokes the extension of the body segment. The hip stays fixed and pulls from the vertebral spine backward, producing extension. If there is unilateral contraction � there is flexion to the same side

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☯ However, there is no reason for the contrary not to happen, if the upper portions are

fixed, these muscles pull the pelvis from the ribs or from the vertebrae. Like a gymnast in the rings, stabilizing the scapula, the shoulder girdle plays the role of an intermediate base and also it is necessary that the deep dorsal muscles, taking as a fixed point the superior vertebrae, pull those below and the pelvic girdle

☯ Since the short muscles have a segmental structure and the long muscles are divided depending on their location in relation to the vertebral spine, some weak point can be found in some portion

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☯ To strengthen these muscles, we need to remember their actions: extension, flexion and rotation of the trunk. It is also important to use the gravitational action with the double purpose of giving variety to the resists and increasing or decreasing their difficulty when necessary. Ex.: when we perform strengthening exercises in decubitus prone (laying facedown) it demands more effort from the extensor musculature of the trunk, since they are working against the gravity force during the whole range of the movement

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☯ To lengthen the extensors of the trunk, we need to do the opposite movement, flexion of the trunk, which can be associated with rotations, acting in this way on the oblique fibers. It is important to carry out flexion in the different regions of the vertebral spine: cervical, thoracic and lumbar; if it is performed keeping the trunk extended rotating it around the hip joints, the vertebrae keep their position and the posterior muscles of the trunk stay with same length and those posterior of the hip (joint where the movement takes place) lengthen

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7. Lateral muscle of the lumbar spine: Quadratus lumborum (p. 63)

☯ Posterior and lateral to the vertebral column, helps to hold the weight of the pelvis when we stand on one foot only. A group of fibers of this muscle, which have an oblique direction and insert in the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae, provoke a lateral concave curve towards the opposite side. The main function of this muscle is the stability of the lumbar spine, that is why is important the balance in the activity of the quadratus lumborum on both sides of the vertebral spine

☯ Its role in extension, hyperextension and in the lateral flexion of the trunk, is affected

by the position, or better said, by the changes in the position of the trunk ☯ Its action in Trikonasana

It pulls from the ribs from the left side towards the hip of the same side (isometric activity) preventing that side from overarching, from rounding, with the consequent loss of space on the right side. Through its action keeps the left side plane and in this way the right side will have room for elongation

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8. Abs and the rest. Anterolateral muscles of the abdomen

☯ They are part of the muscular corset (core) to hold the adequate posture.

They are not only in the anterior part of the abdomen, but also reach the ribs and the vertebrae in the back.

The transversus, the internal and external obliques and the rectus abdominis form a strong frontal support cushioning the viscera and keeping them in place; at the same time, they are subjected to considerable stress because of the pressure of the viscera against them. If the abdominal wall is weak, the viscera will press more and the muscles will become longer and weaker.

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☯ Transversus abdominis (p. 92) ���� It is the deepest one. The only one that due to its biomechanics has repercussions

in the vertebral spine. It prevents the collapse of the pelvic base. The structural integrity and balance depend on it. It is much more important than the rectus abdominis because it provides the true essential strength and corrects the pelvic alignment. It attaches below to the inguinal ligament and iliac crest; posteriorly to the thoracolumbar fascia; above to the inner surfaces of the ribs 7-12 (where it interdigitates with fibers of the diaphragm); and anteriorly to the linea alba (a tough fibrous band stretching from the xiphoid process to the symphysis pubis). (The one in red)

���� Action: The contraction of its circular fibers reduces the diameter of the abdominal region.

���� if the vertebrae are fixed � collects the abdomen inward ���� if the aponeurosis is the fixed point � lumbar lordosis Hands on waist, cough and sneeze and you will find it

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☯ Internal oblique (p. 93)

���� Lies between the transversus and external oblique. It is smaller and the average direction of its fibers has the opposite direction of those of the external oblique of the same side. It is attached below to the inguinal ligament and iliac crest; posteriorly to the thoracolumbar fascia; above to the ribs 9-11; and anteriorly to a very broad aponeurosis

���� The average direction of its fibers is anterosuperior, progressively changing until the most anteroinferior fibers are transversal or horizontal.

���� unilateral contraction� sidebending or ipsilateral rotation of the spine and

ribcage to the same side ���� bilateral contraction� compression of the abdomen and assists in flexion of the

trunk

���� if both the vertebrae and pelvis are fixed � pulls from the ribs down and backward: assists in expiration (Moves the thoracic block in line with the pelvic bock)

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☯ External oblique (p. 94)

���� It is external to the other two muscles mentioned above. It is the biggest. It is attached above to the outer surface of ribs 5-12 (where its fibers intertwine with those of the serratus anterior and latissimus dorsi). In front and below it forms a broad aponeurosis ending at (and contributing to) the linea alba and inguinal ligament. The average direction of the fibers is anteroinferior, i.e., perpendicular to those of the internal oblique

���� Action: ���� unilateral contraction � side-bending to the same side and contralateral

rotation of the spine and ribcage. If the pelvis is the fixed point, pulls from the ribs and vice versa

���� bilateral contraction � compresses the abdomen and assists in flexion of the

trunk. With the pelvis fixed pulls from the ribs (assists in expiration)

☯ The synergic action of the obliques and quadratus lumborum in Trikonasana (tri-angle pose) and other little details

���� The vertical fibers of both obliques assist the quadratus lumborum in pulling from

the ribs and pelvis toward each other and in keeping in Trikonasana the up facing side plane instead of arching

���� The obliques act synergetically in the movements of spiral rotation of the trunk:

external oblique + the opposite internal oblique (referred to as “same side rotator”). Ex.: Rotation of the trunk to the R with flexion � R internal oblique + L external oblique

���� The obliques, with its intertwined diagonal cross-shaped tissues, act as a good

fulcrum to rotate the trunk against gravity ���� Many fibers from the external oblique continue into the fibers of the internal

oblique of the opposite side. The external oblique acts together with the internal oblique, so contracting the most lateral fibers of the obliques creates inner abdominal pressure which contributes to the expulsion of abdominal contents in defecation or urination. If the diaphragm is relaxed they produce an active expiratory effort

���� If you tend to hyperextend the inferior part of your back � the obliques will assist in

holding the internal organs and moving them towards the lumbar area with the help of the transversus. Their action helps to lengthen the inferior part of the back, so it is not hyperextended neither overarched

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☯ Rectus abdominis, 6-pack (p. 95) ���� It is the most superficial and is located anteriorly, inside a rectus sheath form by the

aponeuroses of the three preceding muscles. It runs from the crest and symphysis of the pubis to the xiphoid process and cartilages of ribs 5-7

���� It takes the pubis closer to the sternum; it is the most direct of the flexors of the trunk and also assists the other three in compressing the abdomen. Active expiration

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☯ Exercise are usually performed from decubitus supine position (lying on back, facing up), making the most of the gravity force during the whole flexion and extension of the trunk. Same as in the case of the extensor musculature of the trunk, to strengthen it we need to observe that this muscle extends between the ribs and the pelvic girdle, so we need preferably movements that take the thorax closer to the pelvis or vive versa

☯ Wide flexions in the trunk involve the articulation of the hip and the anterior muscles to the hip, NO the intervertebral joints, so it is preferable to make “short” movements, at the level of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar regions of the vertebral spine

☯ It is not recommended to do leg-abdominal work because the “psoas paradox” may

show up, the inversion of its function, acting as hyperextensor of the lumbar spine. If the abdominal muscles contract at the same time the legs are coming up, there is no forward tilt of the pelvis as a result of the action of the psoas, but if the abdominal muscles are weak, the pelvis tilts forward and the lumbar vertebrae with move away from the floor, increasing the lumbar lordosis, a effect we do not desire. We can perform it not lowering the legs more than 30°

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9. Deep hip muscles I (p. 208)

☯ Group of six muscles: Piriformis, obturator internus and externus, gemellus superior and inferior and quadratus femoris. They go from the pelvis to the greater trochanter. They are covered by the inferior half of the gluteus maximus They are external rotators. They stabilize the hip by straightening and holding the femoral head in the acetabulum

☯ Piriformis (p. 209)

���� Originates in the anterior sacrum and goes poster inferiorly (outward and downward), passes under the greater sciatic notch, which forms like a bridge above the muscle, and inserts on the superior surface of the greater trochanter. Connects the sacrum with the femur

���� Action:

���� if the sacrum is fixed � laterally rotates the femur and abduction and flexion

���� if the femur is fixed:

� bilateral contraction � contributes to retroversion of the pelvis � unilateral contraction � medial rotation of the pelvis around the femur

���� The following structures come out of the pelvis through the greater sciatic notch:

Location

Name Vessels Nerves

Above the piriformis muscle suprapiriformis notch2 superior gluteal vessels1 gluteus superior3

Below the piriformis muscle infrapiriformis notch2 inferior gluteal vessels medial pudendal artery

and vein

gluteus inferior3 pudendal

sciatic posterior femoral

cutaneous obturator internus quadratus femoris

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If it is very voluminous, in its passage through the greater sciatic notch may compress the many vessels and nerves that pass this way.

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���� Sciatic nerve innervates the skin of the leg, the muscles of the back of the thigh

and those of the leg and foot. It is the longest and widest single nerve in the human body, the main nerve in the sacral plexus. It originates from the roots L4-S3, although the principal roots come from L5-S1. Occasionally (1-10% of the cases) it goes through the piriformis muscle

���� The piriformis muscle is the main external rotator when the hip is neutral or

extended. It is also abductor when the hip is flexed in 90°. If it is a complete flexion it seems to act as internal rotator. Its function is often to restrain a vigorous or fast internal rotation of the hip. The inferior fibers of the piriformis are able to produce a strong force which tends to move the base of the sacrum forward and the vertix of the sacrum backward (nutation)

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���� Piriformis syndrome is a neuromuscular disorder that occurs when the sciatic nerve is compressed or otherwise irritated by the piriformis muscle causing pain, tingling and numbness in the lumbar region, groins, perineum, buttock, hip, back of the thigh, leg and foot. The pain can be chronic and worsens when the piriformis is firmly pressed against the sciatic nerve, as in seating for long periods, the muscle thickens in repose (from having been contracted and shortened actively). This pseudo sciatic of the piriformis is less painful than the true sciatic that originates with a herniated disk at a lumbar level

���� Symptoms are usually associated with spasm of the piriformis or with the compression of the sciatic nerve. Referred pain can be felt in the posterior thigh, most of the lower leg, the entire foot, and part of the pelvis. Decrease of ROM in inner rotation of the same side of the hip

���� In many of the piriformis syndrome cases, there is a rotation of the sacrum towards

the same side or towards the contralateral oblique axis, as a result of a compensatory rotation in the lumbar vertebrae in the opposite direction. The rotation of the sacrum often creates the sensation of having a shorter leg on that side

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���� Compensatory and facilitator somatic dysfunctions create advantages in the cervical and thoracic area and pain in the lower back and also stomach disorders and headaches. The ROM of vertebrae T10 and T11decreases, the texture of the tissues from T3 and T4 changes, pain and decrease of ROM on the contralateral side of vertebra C2 and injure on the same side of the occipital-atlas joint

���� Every tension at the end of the spine is transmitted to the legs through the pelvis

and hip, and it is precisely there where the piriformis has a protagonist role. In a standing position, it rotates the hip laterally (outward) and moves the thigh away from the center of the body (abduction), creating an excessive tension in the spine that can overload its base, the sacrum bone which is like the foundations of the vertebral spine. If the sacral bone is not in alignment with the iliac bones from both sides, in each stride the sacroiliac joint is jammed, blocked. This joint has a very short articular trajectory, but it is enough to produce a clamp effect in the sacrum, and that tenses excessively the muscle that originates in each of its sides and heads to the hip, and that is no other than the piriformis

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���� In some cases, the muscle can be damaged due to a fall on the buttock. The hemorrhage in and around the piriformis muscle damages the muscle. The piriformis swells up and compresses the sciatic nerve. The injure heals quickly, but the muscle is in spam. The sciatic nerve stays irritated and keeps on being a problem. Finally, the muscle heals, but some of its fibers are substituted by scar tissue. The scar tissue is not as flexible and elastic as the tissue in the normal muscle. The piriformis can be tense and apply a constant pressure on the sciatic nerve

���� Sitting can result difficult. Generally, people with piriformis syndrome do not want

to sit down. When they sit they tend to do it on the contralateral buttock and the affected buttock tilting upward. The pain is also aggravated by squatting

���� Weakness, rigidity and general restriction of movement are also frequent in this

syndrome. Before stretching the piriformis, the articular capsule of the hip has to be mobilized anterior and posteriorly, to allow a more efficient stretch. The affected leg often rotates laterally (the toes move outward) when the person is relaxed. You can observe it easily when they are lying on the mat

���� The right leg is usually affected alter driving some distance if the foot was in lateral (external) rotation while pressing the gas pedal

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☯ Quadratus femoris (p. 210)

���� It inserts in the lateral ischium, behind the obturator foramen, and runs in a horizontal line laterally (outward), ending up in the posterior aspect of the greater trochanter

���� Action:

���� if Iliac bone fixed � lateral rotation of the thigh ���� if the femur is fixed:

� bilateral contraction� contributes to retroversion of the pelvis � unilateral contraction� medial rotation of the iliac around the femur

☯ Obturator internus (p. 210)

���� It arises from the internal surface of the iliac, from the obturator membrane and

adjacent portions of the ischium and ilium, its fibers pass posteriorly through the lesser sciatic notch, make a sharp bend around the body of the ischium, where there is a bursa to reduce friction and inserts on the medial aspect of the greater trochanter. It helps to stabilize the hip joints because of its broad origin.

���� Action:

���� if the iliac is fixed � it laterally rotates the femur, in flexion and abduction

���� if the femur is fixed:

� bilateral contraction �retroversion of the hip � unilateral contraction � medial rotation or medial flexion of the iliac.

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☯ Gemellus superior and inferior (p. 211)

���� They are like satellites of the obturator internus, inserted above and below its distal

borders, end up in the greater trochanter. ���� They reinforce the actions of the obturator internus.

☯ Obturator externus (p. 211)

���� It arises from the external surface of the obturator

membrane, passes posterior to the femoral neck, and inserts on a fossa on the medial surface of the greater trochanter.

���� Action:

���� if the iliac is fixed � is the ideal lateral rotator of

the thigh, and assists in flexion and abduction ���� if the femur is fixed:

� bilateral contraction � anteversion of the pelvis

� unilateral contraction � medial rotation or medial flexion of the iliac

☯ Obturators and gemelli: the hammock (p. 212) ���� Because of their combined action, they have been compared to a hammock

supporting the pelvis from the femur. ���� Observing from the side, the obturator internus and the gemelli run from the

greater trochanter in a posteroinferior direction while obturator externus runs anteroinferiorly:

���� if the pelvis is fixed � they will pull the femur down relative to the pelvis ���� if the femur is fixed � they will lift the pelvis relative to the femur

���� Either way, they tend to pull apart the hip joint on a very small scale. This is a

decompressive effect which is quite beneficial for certain painful conditions (e.g., worn-down cartilage).

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10. Deep hip muscles II

☯ Iliopsoas (p. 62-213)

���� It is located in the abdominal cavity, running anterior to the pelvis, posterior to the

inguinal ligament and inserts on the lesser trochanter (the anterior part of the thigh). There is a bursa to reduce friction where it bends at the anterior pelvis. It is constituted by two portions: psoas major and iliacus. They are often described as a single muscle because they share the same tendon and have the same action on the thigh. But their superior attachments are different: when the femur is fixed, iliacus acts on the pelvis, the psoas on the lumbar spine

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���� Psoas or psoas major ���� arises from the bodies of T12 through L5, and from the arches of fascia which

connect the boney parts of the vertebral bodies but do not attach to the intervertebral disks. It goes inferiorly and a little anteriorly towards the internal iliac fossa where is going to meet the iliac portion of the muscle. It inserts on the lesser trochanter

���� action:

� if the vertebrae are fixed: flexes the hip and works as a weak adductor and

lateral rotator � if the femur is fixed:

bilateral contraction � it has been described as a lumbar muscle

involved in increasing lordosis, but this polyarticular muscle can have a more complex action on the level of the lumbar spine. Because of its placement on several levels in the convex area of the lumbar spine, this muscle participates in straightening the spine, in combination with the posterior transversospinalis muscles

unilateral contraction � pulls the lumbar spine into sidebending, flexion and rotation of the side opposite the contraction

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���� Iliacus ���� arises from the entire internal iliac fossa and inserts on the lesser trochanter via a

tendon ���� action:

� if the iliac is fixed � action is identical to that of the psoas in flexing the hip

with a little adduction and lateral rotation � if the femur is fixed:

bilateral contraction � flexion of the pelvis (the ASIS move forward and downwardly)

unilateral contraction � flexion of the pelvis and rotation towards the contracted muscle Me gustaría, al menos en los más importantes, ofrecer ejercicios de yoga, posiciones, para estirar o fortalecer el músculo en concreto. Dejo esta nota acá ahora vale? Es para acordarnos jijiji

���� In its path, the iliopsoas is related with important organs: diaphragm, kidneys,

ureter, kidney vessels, colon, primitive iliac arteries and external iliac arteries and veins. It has an especially close relationship with the lumbar plexus, which is crossed by the muscle. The iliopsoas is innervated by the lumbar Plexus and femoral nerve

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���� Action:

���� if the vertebrae are fixed � flexes the hip, and works as a weak adductor and lateral rotator

���� if the femur is fixed:

� bilateral contraction � participates is straightening the lumbar spine � unilateral contraction � pulls the lumbar spine into sidebendig, flexion,

and rotation of the side opposite the contraction.

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LLLUUUMMMBBBAAARRR PPPLLLEEEXXXUUUSSS

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☯ Gluteus minimus (p. 216)

���� A small muscle originating just anterior to gluteus medius and inserting on the

anterior aspect of the greater trochanter ���� Its action is similar to that of the anterior fibers of the gluteus medius, but weaker ���� if the iliac is fixed: flexion, abduction and medial rotation of the thigh ���� if the femur is fixed: � bilateral contraction � anteversion of the pelvis � unilateral contraction � lateral flexion or lateral rotation of the pelvis

☯ Gluteus medius (p. 215)

���� It has a broad origin on the external iliac fossa. Its fibers converge and insert on the

lateral aspects of the greater trochanter ���� Action: ���� if the iliac is fixed: its major action is abduction of the hip, but it can also assist in

flexion with its anterior fibers and extension with its posterior fibers ���� if the femur is fixed: � bilateral contraction � it is involved in both anteversion and retroversion of the

pelvis, depending on whether the anterior or posterior fibers contract � unilateral contraction � it acts in lateral flexion of the pelvis, and also, very

important, it stabilizes the pelvis during walking or standing on one foot, to prevent it from collapsing to the opposite side

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11. Deep hip muscles III (+ 1 of the hip and knee): The adductors (p. 224)

☯ They are a group of five muscles having their bodies on the medial thigh

���� They originate gradually on the pubis and insert on the linea aspera of the femur

���� Action of the group as a whole:

If the pelvis is fixed � their primary action is adduction of the femur. To a lesser degree they can act from anatomical position as hip flexors or lateral or medial rotators. If the hip is in flexed position � they act as extensors. Gracilis (polyarticular) can also flex and medially rotate the knee. If the femur is fixed � they are involved in anteversion, medial flexion (sidebending), lateral rotation, or (in the case of gracilis and the posterior portion of adductor magnus) medial rotation of the pelvis

���� These muscles, especially the gracilis, are frequently strained or torn (“pulled groin”) during movements involving sudden or extreme abduction of the thigh

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☯ Pectineus Runs from the lateral pubis

☯ Adductor brevis Runs from the medial pubis

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☯ Adductor longus Originates even more medially on the pubis. It runs anterior to adductor brevis (almost completely covering it

☯ Adductor magnus (p. 225)

The largest and strongest of the group is really a compound muscle innervated by two different spinal nerves (obturator nerve and sciatic nerve). Two portions: The anterior portion � originates from the ischiopubic ramus, runs inferomedially, and has a very broad insertion on the linea aspera The posterior portion � originates from the ischial tuberosity, runs straight down, and inserts just above the medial femoral condyle

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☯ Gracilis It is a long, thin, superficial, comparatively weak muscles running from the inferomedial pubis vertically down the thigh (medial surface) and inserts on the tibial shaft just below the medial condyle, it’s biarticular, crossing the hip and femur

☯ Action of the group as a whole:

If the iliac is fixed � adduction of the femur, also flexion and lateral rotation If the femur is fixed � medial side bending, anteversion and lateral rotation of the iliac (except for the recto interno and the haz vertical from adductor mayor which produce medial rotation) It acts as a flexor when in anatomical position or with the hip extended. If the hip is flexed they become extensors.

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12. Hip and knee muscles I: The superficial

☯ Tensor fasciae latae (p. 229) ☯ Gluteus maximus (p. 228) ☯ Deltoid gluteus (superficial portion of gluteus maximus and tensor fasciae latae) (p. 229)

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13. Hip and knee muscles II

☯ Quadriceps femoris (p. 217)

���� The muscle as a whole is one of the strongest of the body. It has four bodies which converge into a single tendon that inserts on and surrounds the patella and forms the patellar tendon that inserts in the tibia. Their action is extension of the knee

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���� Vastos intermedius� it is the deepest, it originates in the upper femoral shaft and its fibers follow the axis of the femur.

It is wrapped up in the vastus lateralis and medialis

���� Vasti � they arise from either side of the posterior femoral Shaft, wrap around the

sides to meet anteriorly: Vastus medialis (internal) and vastus lateralis (external). They give lateral stability to the knee. They are the active complement of the ligaments. They assist in rotation of the tibia and literally pull from the patella. The three vasti can be stretch by full flexion of the knee and hip.

���� Rectus femoris � Arises from the anterosuperior iliac spine, and passes superficial to the three vasti to insert on the common tendon. Thus, unlike the vasti, it crosses the hip as well as the knee, acting on both joints If the pelvis is fixed � it flexes the hip and extends the knee (e.g., in walking) If the femur is fixed � it can act in anteversion of the pelvis

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���� For stretching rectus femoris, the hip must be in extension and the knee in flexion, moving the insertion points away from each other on the pelvic girdle and on the femur or on the leg bones.

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☯ Sartorius (p. 220)

���� It is a thin muscle, the longest in the body, superficial. It originates from the ASIS, runs medially down the thigh, superficial to the quadriceps and inserts on the superomedial shaft of the tibia

���� It takes part in flexion and abduction Polyarticular muscle: crosses and acts in the hip and knee joint.

���� if the iliac is the fixed point � it flexes, laterally rotates and abducts the hip

(femur) and flees the knee with the tibia in medial rotation ���� if the femur is fixed:

� bilaterally � anteversion of the pelvis � unilaterally � anteversion of the iliac, medial rotation and lateral side

bending of the pelvis

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14. Hip and knee muscles III: The hamstrings (p. 221)

☯ Semitendinosus, semimembranosus and biceps femoris have their origin in the ischial tuberosity and they insert in the tibia and in the head of the fibula

☯ They are in the back of the thigh, from the hip to the knee, producing extension of

the thigh and flexion of the leg. They are muscles for movement and with time and use they tend to get shorter and harder, especially when we stay daily seated for hour with the legs flexed. And then, when we want to stretch the knees, we curve the lower back. Working to stretch them, with patience and consistency will relieve the inferior part of the back

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☯ To stretch them, flex the thigh with the leg extended. Here the insertion points move away from each other and the muscles stretch. Equally, wide flexions of the trunk, as when trying to touch your toes from standing or seated positions, with knees extended, pelvic girdle moving around the femoral head (the hinge), increasing the inclination of the pelvis so the ischial tuberosity move away from the insertion points in the tibia and fibula, provoking the stretch of the muscles. Combine it with the pushing from the centre of your heel in the opposite direction

Combined stretching exercises, 30-1-2009/Ruby y amiga

When performing poses to stretch them, give yourself a little massage in the back of the knees in the tendons that delimit the popliteal fossa (p.222)

Remember, medial rotation of the thigh, sitting bones move away from the heels and muscles in the pelvic floor active pulling, recoiling the coccyx

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☯ Semimembranosus and semitendinosus �Extension of the femur, flexion and medial

rotation of the knee Biceps femoris � Extension and flexion and lateral rotation of the knee

☯ They are polyarticular muscles, crossing and acting in the hip and knee joints,

combining the actions of both joints:

���� if the iliac bone is the fixed point � take the femur in extension (specially if the hip is at the beginning of the flexion)

���� if the femur is fixed � takes pelvis in retroversion

☯ The lack of flexibility in the hamstrings can be responsible of flexions in the lumbar

region, and indirectly, of discs ailments in this zone

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SHOULDER GIRDLE MUSCLES

Includes a big group of muscles divided into two categories: � scapulo-thoracic shoulder, which consists of the muscles that mobilize and fix the

scapula and clavicle with respect to the thorax � scapulo-humeral shoulder, which consists of the muscles that mobilize the humerus and

stabilize it with respect with the glenoid cavity of the scapula

It is important to highlight that the mobility of the sternoclavicular and acromioclavicular joints allows the scapula to move in various directions, so the glenoid cavity can point in many directions, greatly increasing the ROM of the glenohumeral joint (humerus)); there is a close relation between the movements of the humerus, scapula and clavicle. The position of the scapula, independently of its clavicular relation, obeys the muscular dispositions between this bone and the vertebral spine … So, if from the skeletal-articular point of view there is not a direct relation between the scapula and the vertebral axis, from the functional point of view we have several elements that establish this relation

The scapular adductor muscles, i.e., the ones that pull the scapula towards the vertebral spine (mainly the rhomboids and middle fibers from the trapezius) tend to get weak and long due to the posture usually adopted in our daily life where the scapula moves away form the vertebral axis and becomes prominent in the back (winged scapulae). This pattern is reinforced by the shortening of pectoral major

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We need to pay especial attention to the adductor muscles, for this, working in pairs can be very useful, where one person is opposing resistance to the movement of adduction of the scapula. To achieve the action of these muscles we can perform movements of the arm that involved the adduction of the scapula, against the resistance of the other person; from horizontal position, with the forearm extended or flexed, extend the arm (moving it backwards) while another person offers resistance to the movement. These exercises have the advantage that, apart from strengthening the scapular adductor muscles they also achieve the elongation of the pectoral major

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15. Shoulder muscles (p. 114)

☯ Each scapula, extremely mobile bone floating in the superior part of the back, is a stable connection for the humeral head, stable almost entirely thanks to 5 muscles on each side that keep it in place. Apart from stabilizing the scapula they move it around the surface of the upper back.

���� From 1 to 5, from the deepest to the most superficial:

���� 2 towards the front of the chest:

1. serratus anterior 2. pectoralis minor

���� 3 in the back:

3. rhomboids 4. levator scapulae 5. trapezius

���� All the movements provided by these muscles are crucial for the inversion poses where the superior extremities have to hold the position, and we depend more on strength and flexibility than on strong bones and joints designed to bear the weight of the body The pelvis is connected to the spine by the sacroiliac joints and forms a relatively stable origin from which the muscles can move the thighs while the scapulae themselves take part in the movement of the arms. Therefore, the movements of the scapulae are very important in all inversion and semi-inversion positions

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☯ Serratus anterior

���� It is a broad, thin muscle covering the lateral ribcage (lateral superior face of the

thorax). Its name is due to its saw-shape. It is formed by 10 muscular bellies. From the surface only the last three inferior bellies are noticeable

���� It originates from the upper ten ribs, we consider 3 levels:

���� upper portion: ribs I and II (converging moderately) ���� middle portion: ribs III to V (diverging) ���� lower portion: ribs VI to X (converging). This portion interweaves with the fibers of

the external oblique of the abdomen

���� It inserts along the entire medial border of the scapula. Three levels:

���� upper fibers: superior angle of the scapula, they are ascending and insert on the anterolateral surface of the ribs I and II

���� middle fibers: medial border of the scapula, they are more or less horizontal and

insert on the anterolateral surface of the ribs III, IV and V ���� lower fibers: inferior angle of the scapula, they are descending and insert on the

anterolateral surface of the ribs VI, VII, VIII, IX and X

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���� Function:

���� If the ribs are fixed � it flattens the medial border of the scapula against the ribcage and fixes it against the thorax assisted by the rhomboids

� Upper fibers: pull the scapula laterally (abduction) and into upward

rotation � Middle fibers: in actions such as push-ups, the middle fibers of trapezius

(adductor) and serratus (abductor) contract simultaneously to stabilize the scapula

� Lower fibers: together with the lower trapezius depress the scapula moving its inferior angle laterally to allow the elevation of the arms beyond the horizontal

There are some fatty layers (gliding planes) separating serratus from the ribcage and from the subscapularis muscle. These increases the mobility of the scapula and are important in many complex movements of the shoulders.

���� If the scapula is fixed � the lower fibers lift the middle ribs, acting as inspiratory muscles

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☯ Pectoralis minor (p. 116)

���� Deep muscle covered by the pectoralis major

It originates from ribs 3-5 and inserts on the coracoid process

���� Actions: ���� if the ribs are fixed � pulls the scapula downward and forward, tilting the

scapula above the ribcage by lifting the inferior angle upward ���� if the scapula is fixed � elevates the ribs acting as an accessory inspiratory

muscle

☯ Rhomboids (major and minor) (p. 117)

���� Flattened muscles between the spine and the scapula They originate from the spinous process of C7 and T1-T4 and insert on the media border of the scapula

���� Actions: ���� if the spine is fixed � adduct the scapula and rotate it downward ���� if the scapula is fixed � pull the thoracic vertebrae laterally

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☯ Levator scapulae (p. 117) ���� It originates from the transverse processes of C1-C4 and inserts on the superior

angle of the scapula. Its oblique fibers go from the base of the head in a downward and outward direction

���� Actions:

���� if the spine is fixed � elevation and downward rotation of the scapula (glenoid cavity pointing downward)

���� if the scapula is fixed can reinforce the actions of the splenius cervices:

� bilateral contraction � extend the head and cervical spine � unilateral contraction � sidebending and rotation toward the

contracting side. The ROM of the elevation of the scapula is about 10 cm of which this muscle is responsible for 5 of them

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☯ Trapezius (p. 74-118)

���� Superficial, large, important diamond-shaped muscle which practically covers half

of the spine on both sides, running from the base of the cranium (skull) to the very last thoracic vertebra.

���� Origins:

���� upper fibers: on the occiput, nuchal ligament and spinous processes of the cervical vertebrae down to C7. They are overworked in excess in positions such as sitting in front of a computer or driving which involve a prolonged static load from the suspension of the arms � neck pain, muscular rigidity, headache

���� middle fibers: on the spinous processes from C7 down to T3

���� lower fibers: on the spinous processes from T4 down to T12

���� Insertions:

���� upper fibers: the lateral superior 1/3 border of the clavicle (collarbone) and acromion

���� middle fibers: scapular spine

���� lower fibers: a tubercle at the medial end of the scapular spine ���� Functions:

���� If the spine is fixed:

� simultaneous contraction of all the fibers � adducts the scapula

� upper fibers � elevation and upward

rotation of the scapula, traction of the clavicle

� middle fibers � adduction of the

scapula. When force needs to be exerted or absorbed by the arm, the middle fibers (adductor) act together with the serratus anterior (abductor) to stabilize the scapula

� lower fibers � depression and upward

rotation of the scapula (glenoid cavity pointing upward)

���� If…what does it happen when you move both shoulders forward? And only one?

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���� Between T7 and T12conects with the latissimus dorsi, forming a “diamond” which is an important point in the structure of the vertebral spine, strong and sensitive at the same time. If there is too much rigidity in this point or wrong strength, the access to the deepest muscles becomes difficult and all the work is done by these superficial muscles. On the other hand, if there is mobility and good coordination, it will be a key point for the practice

���� It is the main responsible for keeping the position of the shoulders when we carry

weight, that is why the trapezius works quite enough when bearing weight in the arms, below the head as well as above the head. It becomes a very important muscle for maintaining the posture and most of the problems related with having loaded shoulders are due to a bad contraction of this muscle

���� When force has to be exerted or absorbed by the arm, the middle fibers (adductors) work in synergy with the serratus anterior � mobilization of the vertebrae of the superior part of the back + relaxation of the upper fibers of the trapezius = PECTORAL STRETCH � improves the position of the shoulders, away from the ears, downwardly and laterally (Work it out on the MITRA)

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���� Articular trauma: the general stability of the synovial joints is established by the action of the muscles surrounding them. Excessive stress in the articulations results in strained muscles and tendons or rupture of ligaments and capsules. When the stress is chronic there are degenerative changes. The incorrect patterns of movement are one of the causes of articular dysfunction

���� During activities which involve lifting up the arms the stabilization of the scapula is

the key. The superior part of the trapezius and the levator scapulae fix the scapula from above, while the inferior part of the trapezius and the serratus anterior do it from below. The superior muscles are inserted on the cervical spine while the inferior muscles are inserted on the thoracic spine. As the superior fixing muscles are normally excessively active and the inferior ones inhibited, the over-solicitation of the cervical spine in activities with loads or lifting the arms to reach something is common

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Tripod exercise from B4L, to stretch especially the upper fibers

Exercises to expand the armpits muscles thorax arms 21-8-08/Spid

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Within this section we have two more little muscles:

☯ Subclavius (p. 116)

���� Small cylinder shaped muscle, it originates on rib I and its cartilage and inserts on the underside of the clavicle

���� Action: Depresses the clavicle and shoulder. It can also stabilize the

sternoclavicular joint ���� We have been told that this little muscle could be very useful if humans still walked

on all fours. Some people have one, some none, and a few have two

What do you think?

Who is she/he laughing at?

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☯ Sternocleidomastoid (SCM) (p. 116)

���� Long and robust, the largest and most important anterolateral muscle of the neck ���� Origin: on the mastoid process and the curved superior occipital line

���� Insertions: dual insertions on the sternum (cylindrical) and clavicle (flattened), near

their junction on the manubrium. In between them we found the Sedillot triangle, which allows an access to the jugular vein

���� In the middle area of the muscle there is a zone where multitude of nerves

converge ���� Actions:

���� when the skull is fixed: elevates the sternum and clavicle, assisting in inspiration ���� when the thoracic cage is fixed:

� Unilateral contraction � ipsilateral sidebending and contralateral rotation of the head, as well as extensión

� Bilateral contraction � extension of the head, stressing the cervical lordosis (concave)

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���� Stretching the trapezius and the SCM Sitting on a chair grab with one hand the side of the chair. Flex the neck, tilt the head towards the opposite side to the one to stretch and turn the head towards the side of the stretch, when feeling the tension we know we found the area to be stretched and we hold the posture of the head supporting it with the other hand.

To increase the stretch

we sift our weight

towards the opposite side

to the one we are grabbing

Moving the scapula with a partner

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16. Deep glenohumeral (scapulohumeral) muscles of shoulder joint (p. 120)

☯ Subscapularis ☯ Supraspinatus ☯ Infraspinatus (p. 121) ☯ Teres minor ☯ Rotator cuff muscles (p. 122) ���� Coracobrachialis

���� Long muscle more suitable for movement than for strength is the smallest of the three muscles that attach to the coracoid process of the scapula (the other two, pectoralis minor and biceps brachii)

���� It arises from the apex of the coracoid process in common with the short head of

the biceps brachii and inserts by means of a flat tendon on the medial surface of the humeral shaft, near the middle

���� Actions: flexes and adducts the arm at glenohumeral joint (shoulder)

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☯ Biceps brachii (p. 123-139)

���� Close to the coracobrachialis. Topographically is connected to the elbow but functionally is very important in the scapulohumeral joint

���� It is a two-headed muscle located on the upper arm. Both heads arise from the

scapula and join to form a single muscle belly which is attached to the upper forearm. While the biceps crosses both the shoulder and elbow joints, its main function is at the latter where it flexes the elbow and supinates the forearm. Both these movements are used when opening a bottle with a corkscrew: first biceps unscrews the cork (supination), then it pulls the cork out (flexion)

���� So, two origins and one insertion:

���� proximally (towards the body), the short head of the biceps originates as a tendon from the coracoid process, goes down vertically and becomes a fleshy body

���� the long head originates on the supraglenoid

tubercle just above the shoulder joint from where its tendon passes down along the intertubercular groove of the humerus and along the bicipital groove before merging with the body. When the humerus is in motion, the tendon of the long head is held firmly in place in the intertubercular groove by the greater and lesser tubercles and the overlying transverse humeral ligament. During the motion from external to internal rotation, the tendon is forced medially against the lesser tubercle and superiorly against the transverse ligament

���� insertion: The two heads continue downward

and form one tendon, which passes anterior to the elbow joint and inserts at the bicipital tuberosity of the radius

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���� Functions:

The biceps is tri-articulate, meaning that it works across three joints. The most important of these functions is to supinate the forearm and flex the elbow. These joints and the associated actions are listed as follows in order of importance: ���� proximal radioulnar joint (upper forearm) � contrary to popular belief, the

biceps brachii is not the most powerful flexor of the forearm, a role which actually belongs to the deeper brachialis muscle. The biceps brachii functions primarily as a powerful supinator of the forearm (turns the palm upwards). This action, which is aided by the supinator muscle, requires the elbow to be at least partially flexed. If the elbow, or humeroulnar joint, is fully extended, supination is then primarily carried out by the supinator muscle

���� humeroulnar joint (elbow) � the biceps brachii also functions as an important

flexor of the forearm, particularly when the forearm is supinated. Functionally, this action is performed when lifting an object or when performing a biceps curl. When the forearm is in pronation (the palm faces the ground), the brachialis, brachioradialis, and supinator function to flex the forearm, with minimal contribution from the biceps brachii

���� glenohumeral joint (shoulder) � several weaker functions occur at the shoulder joint. The biceps brachii weakly assists in forward flexion of the shoulder joint (bringing the arm forward and upwards). It may also contribute to abduction (bringing the arm out to the side) when the arm is laterally rotated. The short head of the biceps brachii also assists with horizontal adduction (bringing the arm across the body) when the arm is medially rotated. Finally, the long head of the biceps brachii, due to its attachment to the scapula, assists with stabilization of the shoulder joint when a heavy weight is carried in the arm

Flexed arm in the pronated position (left); with the biceps partially contracted and in a supinated position with the biceps more fully contracted, approaching minimum length (right)

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☯ Triceps brachii (p. 123-140)

���� Latin for "three-headed arm muscle" is the large muscle on the back of the upper limb. It is the muscle principally responsible for extension of the elbow joint (straightening of the arm)

���� Origins:

Each of the three heads has its own motoneuron subnucleus in the motor column in the spinal cord. The medial head is formed predominantly by small type I fibers and motor units, the lateral head of large type II b fibers and motor units and the long head of a mixture of fiber types and motor units. It has been suggested that each head "may be considered an independent muscle with specific functional roles"

���� the long head, biarticular � arises from the infraglenoid tubercle of the scapula ���� the lateral head � arises from the lateral posterosuperior shaft of the humerus ���� the medial head (deep head) � arises from the posteroinferior humerus. The

medial head is mostly covered by the lateral and long heads

���� Insertion: The fibers converge to a single tendon to insert onto the olecranon process of the ulna (though some research indicates that there may be more than one tendon) and to the posterior wall of the capsule of the elbow joint where bursae (cushion sacks) are often found. Parts of the common tendon radiate into the fascia of the forearm and can almost cover the anconeus muscle

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���� Function: It can act on the shoulder girdle and on the elbow:

���� on the shoulder joint � the long head participates in extension of the arm with

adduction due to its attachment to the scapula. It has been suggested that the long head is employed when sustained force generation is demanded, or when there is a need for a synergistic control of the shoulder and elbow or both

���� on the elbow � the major elbow extensor. It can also fixate the elbow joint

when the forearm and hand are used for fine movements, e.g., when writing

���� the lateral head is used for movements requiring occasional high-intensity force, while the deep head enables more precise, low-force movements

���� It is an antigravitational muscle that has a great resistance to avoid falls and to protect the most sensitive parts of trunk and head. The fulcrum constitution of the triceps makes the resistance to fall upon the hand in an antigravitational direction and the triceps then tends to reestablish the anatomical position

���� It is an antagonist of the biceps and brachialis muscles. It can also act in synergy

with them facilitating the screw action specific of humans in the manipulation of objects with an established purpose

���� Connecting shoulder and elbow, maximum efficiency position is produced with a

slight flexion in the shoulder and a moderate flexion of the elbow, in which the triceps contributes to traction. In full extension looses its efficiency because tends to luxate the ulna. The triceps does not end exactly on the tip of the olecranon but a little bit lower, so when we flex the elbow the triceps tendon is curved increasing its potency

���� The triceps can be worked through either isolation or compound elbow extension

movements, and can contract statically to keep the arm straightened against resistance. Example of Isolation movement: lying triceps extensions and arm extensions behind the back. Example of compound elbow extension: pressing movements like the push up. A closer grip targets the triceps more than wider grip movements (in which case the pectoralis major is also working)

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17. Glenohumeral joint muscles

☯ Pectoralis major (p. 124) ☯ Latissimus dorsi (p. 125) ☯ Teres major (p. 125) ☯ Deltoid (p. 126)

18. Breathing II 19. Legs + Knee +

20. Arms + elbow +

21. Few extra things...