anatomy and physiology horse copyrighted material€¦ · anatomy and physiology of the horse 9 1.1...

For massage therapy to be effective, its practitioner must have agood knowledge of a horse’s makeup. In this chapter,we will exam-ine the systems of the horse and the way in which these systemswork together to promote the horse’s health.To begin, we have:

❖ The nervous system (brain, spinal cord, sensory and motornerves), which controls all the other systems.

❖ The respiratory system (trachea and lungs), which transmitsoxygen to the bloodstream and removes carbon dioxide.

❖ The cardiovascular system (heart, blood, arteries, and veins),which conveys nutrients, oxygen and other essential com-ponents throughout the body.

❖ The lymphatic system (lymph channels and lymph glands),which provides a cleansing, filtering, and defense mecha-nism to deal with anything that could have a toxic effect onthe body (lactic acid, bacteria, and viruses).

❖ The endocrine system, which is composed of glands thatpermit a range of functions in the body systems.

❖ The digestive system (mouth, stomach, intestines, and bowel),which extracts nutrients from food and eliminates waste.

❖ The urinary system (bladder and kidneys), which removesexcess water and unwanted substances by filtering the bloodthrough the kidneys.

❖ The reproductive system, which ensures the continuance ofthe species.

❖ The skeletal system, which is the bony frame that supportsthe body.Within the skeletal system there are joints whichpermit part of the bony frame to articulate (move).

❖ The muscular system, which provides the power and meansto move the bony frame.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

OF THE HORSE

1

6

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COPYRIG

HTED M

ATERIAL

These systems are described briefly so that you can understandhow each functions and relates to the other systems. Moredetailed information is beyond the scope of this book.

The Nervous SystemThe nervous system integrates and controls every body function;it processes all information and governs all commands to the body.In the nervous system we find:

❖ The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain andspinal cord, which perform very specific functions. TheCNS is often compared to a complex computer.

❖ The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of numerouspairs of nerves that exit the spinal column at the vertebrallevel (spinal bones). There are sensory nerves (or afferentnerves) which carry information from the body to theCNS, and there are motor nerves (or efferent nerves) whichcarry information from the CNS to the body parts.

❖ The specialized sensory organs.

Complex in their makeup, nerve tissues are composed of manyfilaments that are very susceptible to pressure. In a case of severetrauma, when significant or strong pressure is applied to a nerve,nerve impulses can stop traveling along it.As a consequence, twothings can happen: a loss of sensation or feedback from the nervearea to the CNS; and degeneration with eventual shrinking of thetissue in the immediate area of the affected nerve, as a result of lostmotor nerve impulses from the CNS to the body part.

A sweeney is a typical example of a loss of motor nerve con-duction. It is caused by a direct trauma to the point of the horse’sshoulder. In this case, the suprascapular nerve that activates themuscles of the scapula is damaged.

The functioning of the nervous system is ensured by the auto-nomic nervous system (ANS), which maintains a stable internalenvironment. The ANS governs the vital organs and their com-plex functions that are normally carried out involuntarily, such asbreathing, circulation, digestion, elimination, and the immuneresponse.This system has two major divisions: the sympathetic andthe parasympathetic. Both originate in the brain.

The sympathetic division causes the body to respond to danger,adversity, stress, anger, and pleasure by increasing the heart rate,bloodpressure, air exchange volume, and blood flowing to muscles—all of which are needed for the horse to spring into action. The sympathetic division is responsible for the horse’s “fight or flight”reaction. General stimulation of the sympathetic division results in

Anatomy and Physiology of the Horse 7

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Equine Massage8

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1.1

Poi

nts

of t

he H

orse

(1)

poll

(2)

fore

lock

(3)

brid

ge o

f the

nos

e(4

) th

roat

latch

(5)

crest

(6)

shou

lder

(7)

with

ers

(8)

poin

t of s

houl

der

(9)

elbo

w(1

0) fo

rear

m(1

1) k

nee

(12)

can

non

(13)

jaw

(14)

erg

ot(1

5) p

aste

rn(1

6) c

oron

et(1

7) h

oof w

all

(18)

che

st(1

9) r

ibs

(20)

cos

tal a

rch(2

1) x

ipho

id p

roce

ss o

f ste

rnum

(22)

girt

h(2

3) b

elly

(24)

flan

k(2

5) b

ack

(26)

loin

s

(27)

cro

up(2

8) d

ock

(29)

poi

nt o

f hip

(30)

poi

nt o

f but

tock

(31)

stif

le(3

2) c

hin

(33)

gas

kin

(34)

hoc

k(3

5) m

uzzl

e(3

6) fe

tlock

(37)

che

stnut

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mobilization of resources to prepare the body to act or to deal withemergencies. (The warm-up routine in chapter 6 is designed tostimulate the nervous system.)The parasympathetic division moni-tors body functions during times of rest, sleep, digestion, and elim-ination, when the body is not ready to go into action. Generalstimulation of the parasympathetic division promotes relaxationand vegetative functions of the body such as breathing, circula-tion, digestion, immune response, and reproduction. (The relax-ation routine in chapter 6 is designed to relax the nervous system.)

The Respiratory SystemThe respiratory system includes the nose, mouth, pharynx, wind-pipe (or trachea), bronchial tubes, and lungs.

❖ The larynx is the organ of the voice.❖ The lungs are somewhat elastic (expandable) and filled with

numerous sacs (pulmonary alveoli) like a sponge. In thelungs, the blood takes on oxygen and gives off carbon diox-ide (or waste).

❖ The diaphragm is a large, flat, muscular organ that separatesthe thoracic and abdominal cavities. Its action aids inhala-tion, expiration, and defecation.

Equine Massage10

1.2 Nervous System

(1) brain(2) spinal cord(3) afferent nerve, Golgi apparatus

sensory nerve

(4) afferent nerve, muscle spindle sensory nerve

(5) efferent motor nerve(6) muscle

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Proper breathing is essential for good body metabolism. Anexchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide is necessary for the bodyto remain vital and healthy. The horse’s respiratory system alsoplays an important role in regulating his body heat and in main-taining the acid-base pH balance.

Oxygen is integral to the anabolic and catabolic processes thatoccur naturally in all structures. The oxygen/carbon dioxideexchange rate depends on how clean the lung tissues are, thedepth of respiration, the animal’s temperature (which causesexpansion or dilation of blood vessels in tissues), and the rate ofrespiration.The rate of breathing for a horse at rest is around 12to 16 breaths per minute; during heavy exercise, the rate isbetween 120 and 180. A cool-down period after strenuous exer-cise is essential to allow more time for the lungs to exchangegases, release toxins, and take in fresh oxygen.

Depth of respiration is very important.A girth that is too tightrestricts the expansion of the rib cage.An improperly fitted saddleand a rider’s tense legs also restrict the expansion of the rib cage,consequently limiting lung capacity.

Muscular problems such as chronic stress points (small spasms) andtrigger points (areas of lactic acid build-up) will restrict the muscleaction required to expand and contract the rib cage. (The recu-peration massage routine in chapter 6 is designed to assist thisproblem.) Massage will help release any undue tension and relievestress and trigger points around the rib cage, thus allowing fordeeper breathing. (The stress point check-up massage routine inchapter 10 is designed to help you recognize potential stress pointlocations in and around the rib cage area.)

Massage indirectly assists in the oxygenation of tissues byincreasing circulation throughout the body. Massage also relaxesthe nervous system, thus allowing for deeper and steadier breath-ing, and better oxygen/CO2 gas exchange.

The Circulatory SystemThe circulatory system consists of the cardiovascular system andthe lymphatic system. Circulation has a number of functions:

❖ Distributing oxygen and nutrients to every cell of a horse’sbody.

❖ Carrying antibodies to fight infections that invade the body.❖ Removing metabolic waste and carbon dioxide.❖ Distributing heat throughout the body, thereby regulating

the horse’s temperature.


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Equine Massage12

The Cardiovascular SystemThe bulk of circulatory work is done by the cardiovascular sys-tem, which is made up of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, andthe blood that flows through them.This is a closed-circuit system.

Arterial blood carries oxygen, nutrients, immune defenseagents, glandular secretions, and blood-clotting agents throughoutthe body. Arterial blood circulation is generated by the pumpingaction of the heart and the contraction of the arterial wall muscles.

The normal heart rate at rest is 28 to 40 beats per minute, andup to between 210 and 280 beats per minute during exercise.Theheart forces blood into the arteries, to the arterioles (smaller arter-ies) and then to the capillaries (minute blood vessels in the tissues),where the oxygen/carbon dioxide and nutrients/waste exchangesoccur.

The blood returns via the venules (small veins) to the veins, tothe heart, to the lungs, then back again to the heart for anothercycle into the arteries. The venous blood transports metabolicwaste and carbon dioxide from the cells of the tissues to the heartand lungs (where the oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange takesplace).The venous return of blood is assisted by the movement ofthe large locomotor muscle groups of the body.Veins are equippedwith little cuplike valves to prevent the backward flow of blood.Each muscle contraction squeezes the venous blood in one direc-tion, toward the heart.

Normal functioning of all body tissue depends on the propercirculation of blood. However, after an injury it is even more

1.3 Circulatory System

(1) heart(2) pulmonary artery(3) lungs(4) pulmonary vein(5) artery(6) blood capillaries(7) vein(8) lymph capillaries(9) lymphatic vessel(10) lymph node

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important that an adequate supply of blood—bearing nutrients,oxygen, and healing material—reaches the site of injury. Theblood will also remove waste, debris, or any toxins formed as aresult of the injury.

The circulatory system controls the horse’s body temperature.When the body is cold, the capillaries in those parts of the bodyfarthest away from the heart constrict. Blood circulation is there-fore reduced in the extremities, keeping most of the blood at thebody’s core in order to warm vital organs (brain, heart, and lungs.)Conversely, if the body is hot, the capillaries dilate, allowing moreblood through the capillaries that are near the surface of the skin.Therefore, heat from the core of the body is released through theskin.

The pressure of massage movements has an effect on the circu-lation of blood throughout the body. Chapter 6 contains massageroutines that can be used to deal with problems related to, orcaused by, poor circulation.

The Lymphatic SystemThe lymphatic system plays an important role in the body’s defensemechanism in that it contains lymphocytes (white blood cells thataid in fighting viral and bacterial infections). It is the body’s firstline of defense.When the body is injured, an increase of lymphaticfluid occurs at the site of trauma and produces swelling.

The lymphatic system consists of a network of small vesselscontaining lymphatic fluid and structures called lymph nodes(which are like miniature cleansing factories).There are twice asmany lymph vessels as there are blood vessels.This system also fil-ters and removes debris and waste material.

The lymphatic system sends fluid in only one direction—fromthe periphery of the body toward the heart.The circulation of thelymphatic fluid is slow, almost sluggish. Like veins, lymph vesselsare equipped with cup-shaped valves to prevent backflow of thefluid. Muscle activity, breathing movements, and peristaltic activ-ity of the bowels all contribute to the flow of lymphatic fluid.

Lack of exercise can contribute to lymphatic congestion, whichresults in swelling in the limbs. Overloading the lymphatic systemas a result of too much exercise can cause a buildup of toxins,which leads to an inflammation of the lymph vessels and lymphnodes.

Following an injury, reduced muscular activity contributes to theslowing of lymphatic circulation. Massage with light drainage(effleurage movements) will assist lymphatic circulation. (Chapter 6offers a recuperation routine that can help speed up recovery.Basically, the purpose of the recuperation routine is to prevent lactic


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Equine Massage14

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tid lc

.

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06_073384 ch01.qxp 1/9/07 6:15 PM Page 14

acid buildup after heavy training, racing, or competition.This rou-tine will help prevent muscle stiffness, cramps, or tying up.)Massage does not directly affect the following four systems, but itdoes assist with the circulation of fluids (blood and lymph), allow-ing more nutrients and oxygen to reach the associated tissues.Massage also relaxes the central nervous system, contributing to animproved overall functioning of these four systems.

The Endocrine SystemMade up of glands and associated organs, the endocrine systemproduces and releases hormones directly into the bloodstream.These hormones regulate growth, development, and a variety ofother functions, including reproduction and metabolism.

The Digestive SystemThe digestive system alters the chemical and physical compositionof food so it can be absorbed and utilized by the horse’s body.Thegastrointestinal tract is a musculo-membranous tube that extendsfrom the mouth to the anus (approximately 100 feet long). Thedigestive organs of the horse are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,stomach, small intestine, cecum, large intestine, and anus.A healthydigestive tract is vital for the efficient assimilation of food.A bal-anced diet is very important for good performance and generalwell-being.

The Urinary SystemThe urinary system maintains the balance of fluids in the bodyand eliminates waste products from the body.The urinary systemconsists of a pair of kidneys, the ureters, the bladder, and the ure-thra. The kidneys provide a blood-filtering system to removemany waste products, and to control water balance, pH, and thelevel of many electrolytes. The kidney filtrate is urine, which isconveyed to the bladder by the 2 ureters. From there it is evacu-ated via the urethra. Proper urinary functioning avoids kidneyfailure and all its consequences: swelling, toxicity, and weight loss.

The Reproductive SystemThe reproductive system ensures the continuation of the species.The male reproductive system consists of the testicles, the acces-sory glands and ducts, and the external genital organ.The femalereproductive system consists of the ovaries, oviducts, uterus,


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Equine Massage16

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1.5

Skel

eton

of

the

Hor

se

(1)

crani

um(2

) m

andi

ble

(3)

zygo

mat

ic ar

ch(4

) po

ll(5

) te

eth

(6)

bar

(7)

cerv

ical v

erte

brae

[7]

(8)

atla

s,fir

st ce

rvica

l ver

tebr

a(9

) w

ings

of a

tlas

(10)

axi

s (s

econ

d ce

rvica

l ver

tebr

a)(1

1) e

xpan

ded

trans

vers

e pr

oces

s of

fifth

cer

vi-

cal v

erte

bra

(12)

inte

rver

tebr

al fo

ram

ina,

for

pass

age

ofsp

inal

ner

ves

and

bloo

d ve

ssel

s(1

3) th

orac

ic ve

rtebr

ae [

18]

(14)

last

thor

acic

verte

bra

(15)

lum

bar

verte

brae

[6]

(16)

sac

rum

[5

fuse

d ve

rtebr

ae]

(17)

coc

cyge

al v

erte

brae

[us

ually

18]

(18)

sca

pula

(19)

sca

pula

r sp

ine

(bon

e rid

ge)

(20)

sup

rasp

inou

s fo

ssa

of s

capu

la(2

1) in

frasp

inou

s fo

ssa

of s

capu

la(2

2) n

eck

of s

capu

la(2

3) h

umer

us(2

4) h

ead

of h

umer

us(2

5) p

oint

of s

houl

der

(26)

del

toid

tube

rosit

y of

hum

erus

(27)

late

ral c

ondy

le o

f hum

erus

(28)

ole

crano

n pr

oces

s of

the

ulna

(po

int o

fel

bow

)(2

9) u

lna

(30)

radi

us(3

1) h

ead

of ra

dius

(32)

late

ral s

tylo

id p

roce

ss o

f rad

ius

(33)

car

pus

[a]

ulna

r ca

rpal

bon

e (p

yram

idal

or c

unei

form

),[b

] in

term

edia

te c

arpa

lbo

ne (

luna

te o

r se

milu

nar),

[c]

radi

alca

rpal

bon

e (s

caph

oid)

,[d]

acce

ssor

yca

rpal

bon

e (p

isifo

rm),

[e]

seco

nd c

arpa

lbo

ne (

trape

zoid

),[f]

third

car

pal b

one

(os

mag

num

),[g

] fo

urth

car

pal b

one

(unc

i-fo

rm)

(34)

can

non

(larg

e m

etac

arpa

l bon

e)(3

5) s

plin

t bon

e (s

mal

l met

acar

pal b

one)

(36)

pro

xim

al s

esam

oid

bone

s (p

aire

d)(3

7) lo

ng p

aste

rn b

one

(firs

t pha

lanx

)(3

8) s

hort

paste

rn b

one

(sec

ond

phal

anx)

(39)

ped

al o

r co

ffin

bone

(th

ird p

hala

nx)

(40)

dist

al s

esam

oid

bone

(na

vicu

lar

bone

)(4

1) s

tern

um (

brea

stbon

e)(4

2) x

ipho

id c

artil

age

of s

tern

um(4

3) r

ib(4

4) c

osta

l car

tilag

e

(45)

cos

tal a

rch(4

6) tu

ber

sacra

l (po

int o

f cro

up)

(47)

tube

r co

xae

(poi

nt o

f hip

or

haun

ch)

(48)

tube

r isc

hii (

poin

t of b

utto

ck o

r se

at b

one)

(49)

iliu

m(5

0) p

ubis

(51)

isch

ium

(52)

fem

ur(5

3) h

ead

of fe

mur

(54)

gre

ater

troc

hant

er o

f fem

ur (

crani

al a

ndca

udal

par

t)(5

5) la

tera

l con

dyle

of f

emur

(56)

pat

ella

(57)

tibi

a(5

8) la

tera

l con

dyle

of t

ibia

(59)

late

ral m

alle

olus

of t

ibia

(60)

fibu

la(6

1) ta

rsus

(ho

ck),

[h]

talu

s (a

strag

alus

or

tib-

ial b

one)

,[j]

calca

neus

(os

cal

cis o

r fib

ular

tars

al b

one)

,[k]

cen

tral t

arsa

l bon

e(s

caph

oid)

,[l]

fuse

d fir

st an

d se

cond

tars

albo

nes

(sm

all c

unei

form

),[m

] th

ird ta

rsal

bone

(gr

eat c

unei

form

),[n

] fo

urth

tars

albo

ne (

cubo

id)

(62)

tube

r ca

lcane

i (po

int o

f hoc

k or

tube

r ca

lcis)

(63)

can

non

(larg

e m

etat

arsa

l)

06_073384 ch01.qxp 1/9/07 6:15 PM Page 17

vagina, and external genitalia. Proper fluid circulation and relax-ation of the nervous system will ensure peak performance forreproduction purposes.

The Skeletal SystemThe skeletal system serves as a framework for the horse’s body, giv-ing the muscles something to work against, and defining the ani-mal’s overall size and shape.The skeleton also protects the horse’svital internal tissues and organs. For example, the skull protects thebrain; the rib cage protects the lungs and heart; the vertebral col-umn protects the spinal cord.The skeleton is made up of over 200bones.

BonesBones vary in size and shape according to their function.With theexception of the enamel-covered teeth, bones are the body’s hard-est substances and can withstand great compression, torque, andtension.A tough membrane called the periosteum covers and pro-tects the bones and provides for the attachment of the joint cap-sules, ligaments, and tendons. Injury to the periosteum may resultin undesirable bone growths such as splints, spavin, and ringbone.Bones are held together by ligaments; muscles are attached to thebones by tendons.

The articulating surface of the bone is covered with a thick,smooth cartilage that diminishes concussion and friction.

Long bones are found in the limbs; short bones in the joints;flat bones in the rib cage, skull, and shoulder; and irregularlyshaped bones in the spinal column and limbs.

Equine Massage18

1.6 A Bone

(1) periosteum(2) compact bone(3) medullary cavity

(4) spongy bone with marrow cavities(5) epiphyseal plate(6) articulate hyaline cartilage

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The long bones of the limbs (humerus, radius, femur, tibia, can-non bones) function mainly as levers and aid in the support ofweight.

Short bones, found in complex joints such as the knee (carpus),hock (tarsus), and ankle (fetlock), absorb concussion.

Flat bones protect and enclose the cavities containing vitalorgans: skull (brain) and ribs (heart and lungs). Flat bones also pro-vide large areas for the attachment of muscles.

Components of the skeleton of the horse are as follows:

❖ The skull consists of 34 irregularly shaped bones.❖ The spine consists of 7 cervical vertebrae, 17 to 19 thoracic

vertebrae (usually 18), 5 to 6 lumbar vertebrae (sometimesfused together), and 5 fused sacral vertebrae (the sacrum).The tail consists of 18 coccygeal vertebrae, although thisnumber can vary considerably.

❖ The rib cage consists of 18 pairs (usually) of ribs springingfrom the thoracic vertebrae, curving forward and meeting atthe breastbone (sternum).

❖ The forelegs carry 60 percent of the horse’s body weight.Comprising the forelegs are the shoulder blade (scapula),humerus, radius, knee (8 carpal bones), cannon, splints, longand short pasterns, and the pedal (or coffin) bone.

❖ Comprising the hind legs are the pelvis (ilium, ischium,pubis), femur, tibia and fibula, the tarsus or hock (7 bones),cannons and splints, pasterns (long and short), and the pedal(or coffin) bone.

The JointsJoints are the meeting places between two bones. Movement ofthe horse is dependent upon the contraction of muscles and thecorresponding articulation of the joints.

Some joints in the horse’s body are not movable, but most areand permit a great range of motion.

The ends of the bones are lined with hyaline cartilage, whichprovides a smooth surface between the bones and acts as a shockabsorber when compressed—for example, during takeoff andlanding while jumping, and for torque during quick turns.

The joint capsule, also known as the capsular ligament, is sealedby the synovial membrane, which produces a viscous, lubricatingsecretion, the synovial fluid.

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Equine Massage20

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1.7

Join

ts o

f th

e H

orse

(1)

jaw

join

t (te

mpo

rom

adib

ular

join

t [T

MJ]

)(2

) sh

ould

er jo

int

(3)

hum

eror

adia

l com

pone

nt o

f elb

ow jo

int

(4)

hum

erou

lnar

com

pone

nt o

f elb

ow jo

int

(5)

knee

join

t (ca

rpus

or

wris

t)(6

) ra

dioc

arpa

l joi

nt(7

) in

terca

rpal

join

t(8

) ca

rpom

etac

arpa

l joi

nt

(9)

fetlo

ck jo

int

(10)

pas

tern

join

t(1

1) c

offin

join

t(1

2) a

tlant

o-oc

cipita

l joi

nt(1

3) c

ervi

cal i

nter

verte

bral

disc

join

t(1

4) th

orac

ic in

terv

erte

bral

disc

join

t(1

5) h

ip jo

int

(16)

stif

le jo

int

(17)

fem

orop

atel

lar

com

pone

nt o

f stif

le jo

int

(18)

fem

orot

ibia

l com

pone

nt o

f stif

le jo

int

(19)

hoc

k jo

int (

tars

us)

(20)

talo

crura

l joi

nt(2

1) c

osto

verte

bral

join

t(2

2) c

osto

chon

dral

join

t(2

3) c

osto

stern

al jo

int

(24)

sac

roili

ac jo

int

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The LigamentsA ligament is a band of connective tissue that links one bone toanother (tendons connect muscles to bones). Ligaments are madeup of collagen fiber, a fibrous protein found in the connective tis-sue. Ligaments have a limited blood supply. Consequently, if a lig-ament is injured, say by a sprain, it tends to heal slowly andsometimes incorrectly.

Most ligaments are located around joints to give extra support(capsular ligaments and collateral ligaments) or to prevent anexcessive or abnormal range of motion and to resist the pressureof lateral torque (a twisting motion). (See figure 1.10, page 24.)The horse experiences lateral torque when turning sharply.

Equine Massage22

1.9 Ligaments of the FetlockJoint

(1) palmar annular ligament, whichprovides strong support

(2) example of a torn ligament, thedigital annular ligament

(3) suspensory ligament (superiorsesamoidean part)

(4) suspensory ligament extension tocommon digital extensor tendon

1.8 A Joint

(1) bone(2) hyaline cartilage(3) ligament(4) fibrous capsule(5) synovial lining(6) joint cavity (with synovial fluid)

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Ligaments have little contracting power and therefore mustwork in conjunction with muscle action.Within very narrow lim-its, ligaments are somewhat elastic but are inflexible enough tooffer support in normal joint play. If overstretched or repeatedlystretched, a ligament might lose up to 25 percent of its strength.Such a ligament may need surgical stitching to recover its full ten-sile strength. Severe ligament sprain will lead to joint instability.

Several ligamentous structures help support and protect thevertebral column, pelvis, neck, and limbs from suddenly imposedstrain.

The Muscular SystemThere are three classes of muscles: smooth, cardiac, and skeletal.The smooth and cardiac muscles are involuntary, or autonomic; theyplay a part in the digestive, respiratory, circulatory, and urogenitalsystems.

For the most part, skeletal muscles are voluntary; they function inthe horse’s movements. In massage, we are concerned with themore than 700 skeletal muscles that are responsible for the move-ment of the horse.

There are two types of skeletal muscle fibers: slow twitch fibers(ST) and fast twitch fibers (FT).

Slow twitch fibers are aerobic fibers; they need oxygen in orderto do their job.Thus ST fibers require a good supply of blood tobring oxygen to them and to remove waste products created dur-ing exercise. ST fibers have strong endurance qualities.

Fast twitch fibers are anaerobic fibers; they do not need oxygento work and therefore are able to deliver the quick muscular effortrequired for a sudden burst of speed. However, FT fibers are onlyable to perform for short periods of time.

The ratio of ST to FT fibers is genetically inherited. Carefulselective breeding can emphasize these features in a horse. Forexample, the muscles of the Quarter Horse are mostly FT fibers,and the breed is noted for its dazzling sprint. On the other hand,a heavy horse, such as a draft horse, has more ST fibers and isnoted for its strength and endurance abilities. Whether we aretalking about FT or ST fibers, a muscle is made up of a fleshy partand two tendon attachments.The fleshy part, or muscle belly, is thepart that contracts in response to nervous command. During con-traction, the muscle fibers basically fold on themselves, shorteningthe fibers and resulting in muscle movement.The muscle belly ismade up of many muscle fibers arranged in bundles, with eachbundle wrapped in connective tissue (fascia). The fascia covers,supports, and separates the muscle bundles and the whole muscle


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1.10

Lig

amen

ts o

f th

e H

orse

(1)

late

ral l

igam

ent o

f jaw

join

t(2

) ca

udal

(po

sterio

r) lig

amen

t of j

aw jo

int

(3)

supr

aspi

nous

liga

men

t(4

) fu

nicu

lar

part

of n

ucha

l lig

amen

t(5

) la

mel

lar

part

of n

ucha

l lig

amen

t(6

) ca

psul

ar li

gam

ent o

f sho

ulde

r jo

int

(7)

med

ial c

olla

tera

l lig

amen

t of e

lbow

join

t(8

) m

edia

l tra

nsve

rse

radi

ouln

ar li

gam

ent

(9)

late

ral c

olla

tera

l lig

amen

t of e

lbow

join

t(1

0) la

tera

l tra

nsve

rse

radi

ouln

ar li

gam

ent

(11)

med

ial c

olla

tera

l lig

amen

t of c

arpa

l joi

nt(1

2) la

tera

l col

late

ral l

igam

ent o

f car

pal j

oint

(13)

dist

al li

gam

ent o

f acce

ssor

y ca

rpal

bon

e

(14)

dor

sal l

igam

ents

of c

arpa

l joi

nts

(15)

sus

pens

ory

ligam

ent (

supe

rior

sesa

moi

dean

liga

men

t der

ived

from

inte

ross

eous

mus

cle)

(16)

dist

al o

r in

ferio

r se

sam

oide

an li

gam

ents

(17)

med

ial c

olla

tera

l lig

amen

t of f

etlo

ck jo

int

(18)

late

ral c

olla

tera

l ses

amoi

dean

liga

men

t(fe

tlock

join

t)(1

9) la

tera

l col

late

ral l

igam

ent o

f pas

tern

join

t(2

0) la

tera

l col

late

ral l

igam

ent o

f cof

fin jo

int

(21)

sus

pens

ory

ligam

ent o

f nav

icula

r bo

ne(2

2) d

orsa

l sac

roili

ac li

gam

ent

(23)

late

ral s

acro

iliac

liga

men

t

(24)

sac

rosc

iatic

liga

men

t(2

5) c

apsu

lar

ligam

ent

(26)

med

ial p

atel

lar

ligam

ent

(27)

mid

dle

pate

llar

ligam

ent

(28)

late

ral p

atel

lar

ligam

ent

(29)

late

ral f

emor

opat

ella

r lig

amen

t(3

0) la

tera

l col

late

ral l

igam

ent o

f stif

le jo

int

(31)

liga

men

t con

necti

ng ta

lus

and

calca

neus

(32)

bra

nche

s of

med

ial c

olla

tera

l lig

amen

t(3

3) m

edia

l col

late

ral l

igam

ent o

f tar

sal j

oint

(34)

late

ral c

olla

tera

l lig

amen

t of t

arsa

l joi

nt(3

5) c

alca

neom

eta

tars

al li

gam

ent (

plan

tar

ligam

ent)

06_073384 ch01.qxp 1/9/07 6:15 PM Page 25

itself. This arrangement allows for greater support, strength, andflexibility in the movement between each of the muscle groups.

TendonsThe tendon is the portion of the muscle that attaches to the bone.It is made up of connective tissue—a dense, white, fibrous tissuemuch like that of a ligament.The origin tendon is the tendon thatattaches the muscle to the least movable bone; the insertion tendonattaches the muscle to the movable bone, so that on contractionthe insertion is brought closer to the origin.Tendons attach to theperiosteum of the bone; the fibers of the tendon blend with theperiosteum fibers because of their similar collagen make-up.Tendons can be fairly short, or quite long as is seen with the flexorand extensor muscles of the lower legs. Usually, tendons arerounded but they can be flattened like the tendons that attachalong the spine.

Because of their high-tensile strength, tendons can endure anenormous amount of tension, usually more than the muscle itselfcan produce; consequently, tendons do not rupture easily.They arenot as elastic as muscle fibers, but they are more elastic than liga-ment fibers.

Tendons can “stress up” after heavy exercise, meaning that theycan stay contracted. Gentle massage and stretching exercises willloosen residual tension. (See the neuromuscular technique inchapter 5.)Inflamed tendons are at great risk of being strained oroverstretched.The horse has no muscles below the knee or hock;consequently, many leg muscles have long tendons that run downthe legs over the joints.These tendons are protected by sheaths, ortendon bursae. Chronic irritation of the sheath can result in excessfluid production and soft swellings. Cold hydrotherapy (chapter 4)and massage will help increase circulation and keep inflammationdown. If the inflammation persists, check with your veterinarian.

MusclesMuscles come in all shapes and sizes. Some are small, some arelarge; some are thin, some are bulky. Look at the muscle charts tonote the variety of shapes in the horse’s muscle structure.

Muscles act together to give the horse his grace and power.Muscles work in three different ways: isometric contraction, con-centric contraction, and eccentric contraction.

Isometric contraction occurs when a muscle contracts withoutcausing any movement. During standing, for example, isometriccontraction ensures stability.

Equine Massage26

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Concentric contraction occurs when a muscle shortens as it con-tracts, causing articular movements. Concentric contraction ismostly seen in regular movements such as protraction (forwardmovement) or retraction (backward movement) of the limbs, and inany movement of the neck or back.

Eccentric contraction occurs when a muscle gradually releases as itelongates. Eccentric contraction assists regular movements toavoid jerky, unstable actions; it also plays a role in shock absorp-tion during the landing phase of jumping.


1.11 Cross-Section of a Skeletal Muscle

(1) tendon(2) muscle belly(3) muscle fiber (containing thick and thin filaments)(4) bundles (made up of fibers)(5) fascia

1.12 A Muscle

(A) Relaxed[1] origin tendon[2] muscle belly[3] insertion tendon

(B) Contracted

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1.13

Supe

rfic

ial

Mus

cles

of

the

Hor

se

(1,1

a) le

vato

r mus

cle o

f upp

er li

p an

d its

tend

on(2

) lev

ator

mus

cle o

f upp

er li

p an

d no

stril

win

g (3

) do

rsal

par

t of l

ater

al n

asal

mus

cle(4

) la

tera

l nos

tril d

ilato

r m

uscle

(5)

orbi

cula

r m

uscle

of t

he m

outh

(6)

bucci

nato

r m

uscle

(7)

depr

esso

r m

uscle

of l

ower

lip

(8)

zygo

mat

ic m

uscle

(9)

mas

sete

r m

uscle

(10)

tran

sver

se n

asal

mus

cle(1

1) d

epre

ssor

mus

cle o

f low

er e

yelid

(12)

orb

icula

r m

uscle

of t

he e

ye(1

3) c

orru

gato

r su

perci

lii m

uscle

(14)

aur

icula

r m

uscle

s(1

5) s

tern

othy

rohy

oid

and

omoh

yoid

mus

cles

(16)

ste

rnom

andi

bula

r pa

rt of

ste

rnoc

epha

licm

uscle

and

tend

on(1

7,17

a) b

rach

ioce

phal

ic m

uscle

and

tend

on(1

8) c

ervi

cal p

art o

f rho

mbo

id m

uscle

(19)

spl

eniu

s m

uscle

(20)

cer

vica

l par

t of v

entra

l ser

rate

mus

cle(2

1) c

ervi

cal p

art o

f tra

pezi

us m

uscle

(22)

thor

acic

part

of tr

apez

ius

mus

cle(2

2a)

tend

inou

s in

ters

ectio

n be

twee

n th

e tw

opa

rts o

f tra

pezi

us m

uscle

(23)

thor

acic

part

of v

entra

l ser

rate

mus

cle(2

4) c

rani

al d

eep

pecto

ral m

uscle

(an

terio

r pa

rtof

dee

p pe

ctora

l)(2

5) c

rani

al s

uper

ficia

l pec

tora

l mus

cle (

ante

rior

part

of s

uper

ficia

l pec

tora

l)(2

6) r

emai

ns o

f ski

n m

uscle

of n

eck

(27)

cau

dal d

eep

pecto

ral m

uscle

(po

sterio

r pa

rtof

dee

p pe

ctora

l)(2

8) d

elto

ideu

s m

uscle

(29)

long

hea

d of

trice

ps(3

0) la

tera

l hea

d of

trice

ps(3

1) b

rach

ialis

mus

cle(3

2,32

a) ra

dial

car

pal e

xten

sor

mus

cle a

ndte

ndon

(33,

33a)

com

mon

dig

ital e

xten

sor

mus

cle a

ndte

ndon

(34,

34a)

late

ral d

igita

l ext

enso

r m

uscle

and

tend

on(3

5,35

a) la

tera

l car

pal f

lexo

r m

uscle

and

its

two

tend

ons,

long

and

sho

rt(3

6,36

a) d

eep

digi

tal f

lexor

mus

cle a

nd te

ndon

(37)

sup

erfic

ial d

igita

l fle

xor

tend

on(3

8) o

bliq

ue c

arpa

l ext

enso

r m

uscle

(39)

med

ial c

arpa

l fle

xor

mus

cle(4

0) m

iddl

e ca

rpal

flex

or m

uscle

(41)

sus

pens

ory

ligam

ent (

supe

rior

sesa

moi

dean

sec

tion)

(42)

ext

enso

r bra

nch

of s

uspe

nsor

y lig

amen

t,at

tach

ing

to co

mm

on d

igita

l ext

enso

r ten

don

(43)

latis

simus

dor

si m

uscle

(44)

cau

dal p

art o

f dor

sal s

erra

te m

uscle

(45)

lum

bodo

rsal

fasc

ia (

thor

acol

umba

r fa

scia

)(4

6) e

xter

nal i

nter

costa

l mus

cle(4

7) e

xter

nal a

bdom

inal

obl

ique

mus

cle(4

8) a

pone

uros

is (b

road

and

flat

tene

d te

ndon

of a

ttach

men

t)(4

9) r

emai

ns o

f ski

n m

uscle

in fo

ld o

f fla

nk(5

0) te

nsor

mus

cle o

f lat

eral

fasc

ia o

f thi

gh(m

uscu

lus

tens

or fa

scia

e la

tae,

or T

FL)

(51)

glu

teal

fasc

ia(5

2) s

uper

ficia

l glu

teal

mus

cle(5

3) b

iceps

fem

oris

mus

cle (

part

of h

amstr

ing

grou

p)(5

4) s

emite

ndin

osus

mus

cle (

part

of h

amstr

ing

grou

p)(5

5) la

tera

l fem

oral

fasc

ia(5

6) la

tera

l cru

ral f

ascia

(57,

57a)

long

dig

ital e

xten

sor

mus

cle(5

8) A

chill

es te

ndon

of t

ricep

s su

rae

mus

cle(5

8a)

late

ral h

ead

of g

astro

cnem

ius

mus

cle(co

ntin

ued)

06_073384 ch01.qxp 1/9/07 6:15 PM Page 29

Equine Massage30

1.13

Supe

rfic

ial

Mus

cles

of

the

Hor

se (

cont

inue

d)

(59)

sol

eus

mus

cle(6

0) p

oplit

eal m

uscle

(61)

com

mon

cal

cane

al te

ndon

(th

e ag

greg

ate

of te

ndon

s at

tach

ed to

tube

r ca

lcane

i,i.e

.,A

chill

es te

ndon

,sup

erfic

ial d

igita

l fle

xor

tend

on,a

nd a

ccess

ory

or ta

rsal

tend

onfro

m th

e ha

mstr

ing

mus

cles)

(62)

acce

ssor

y or

tars

al te

ndon

(fro

m m

uscu

lus

bice

ps fe

mor

is an

d m

uscu

lus

sem

itend

i-no

sus

of th

e ha

mstr

ing

grou

p of

mus

cles)

(63)

cra

nial

tibi

al m

uscle

(an

terio

r pa

rt of

flexo

r m

etat

arsi)

(63a

) m

edia

l ten

don

of in

serti

on o

f the

cra

nial

tibia

l mus

cle (

cune

an te

ndon

or

cune

iform

inse

rtion

)(6

4,64

a) a

nnul

ar li

gam

ents

(65)

sho

rt ta

il le

vato

r m

uscle

s(6

6) lo

ng ta

il le

vato

r m

uscle

s(6

7) ta

il de

pres

sor

mus

cles

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Skeletal muscles are highly elastic and have strong contractilepower.They respond to motor nerve impulses; as a result, the con-traction mechanism is a generated process.The release process isnot a generated process, but rather is a natural relaxation of themuscle as a result of the cessation of the motor nerve impulses thatoriginally “asked” the muscle to contract.

When a muscle develops a contracture, the muscle fibers staycontracted, eventually resulting in a spasm—at which point thenatural relaxation process will not happen. Pain and motion prob-lems will develop as a result.

Muscles are equipped with two types of sensory nerve endings:the Golgi apparatus and the muscle spindle. The Golgi apparatusnerve endings send feedback impulses to the brain as to thewhereabouts of the muscles; this process is referred to as proprio-ception. The Golgi nerve endings are mostly located where themuscles and the tendons come together.

The nerve endings of the muscle spindle prevent overstretch-ing of the muscle fibers.As its name implies, this nerve fiber coilsaround the length of the muscle bundle. Reaching a given length,the muscle spindle fires nerve impulses that trigger a fast reflexmotor nerve reaction to induce immediate contraction of themuscle fibers. Thus the overstretching and potential tearing offibers is prevented.This is a safety reflex mechanism.

When a muscle overstretches, a spasm often results. This is atetanic (violent) contraction of a muscle in response to over-stretching or trauma, whereby the muscle is unable to release itsrigidity. A microspasm, on the other hand, is a small spasm occur-ring in just a few fibers of the muscle bundle. Microspasms have acumulative effect over a period of time, resulting in a full spasm.

Sometimes a muscle is stretched past its limit and muscle fiberswill tear.This causes an immediate muscle spasm and triggers aninflammation response, with swelling at the site of injury. As partof the healing process, new connective tissue is laid down in anirregular, scattered pattern within the muscle fiber arrangements.Unfortunately this scar tissue reduces the muscle’s tensile strength,flexibility, and elasticity. Massage therapy can reduce the amountof scar tissue by applying deep kneadings and frictions after properwarm-up of the tissues. Also, stretching is a great technique forprevention and reduction of the formation of scar tissue.

A heavily exercised muscle will often develop light inflamma-tion within its fibers.This is a normal process that promotes for-mation of new muscle fibers. But it is important to keep anyinflammation under control to avoid the formation of scar tissue.To keep inflammation down, use cold hydrotherapy, ultrasound,


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1.14 Muscles of the Horse, Front View

(1, 1a) levator muscle of upper lip and tendon(2) levator muscle of upper lip and nostril wing(3) lateral nostril dilator muscle(4) corrugator supercilii muscle(5) interscutular muscle(6) brachiocephalic muscle(7) sternomandibular part of sternocephalic muscle(8) omohyoid muscle(9) sternothyroid muscle(10) cervical part of trapezius muscle(11) jugular vein(12) supraspinous muscle(13) remains of skin muscle in the neck(14) cranial deep pectoral muscle(15) cranial superficial pectoral muscle(16) caudal superficial pectoral muscle(17) long head of triceps muscle(18) lateral head of triceps muscle(19) cephalic vein(20) brachial muscle(21, 21a) radial carpal extensor muscle and tendon(22) common digital extensor tendon(23, 23a) oblique carpal extensor muscle and tendon

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1.15 Muscles of the Horse, Rear View

(1) point of croup(2) dock of tail(3) point of hip or haunch (tuber coxae)(4) levator muscles of tail(5) depressor muscles of tail(6) superficial gluteal muscles(7) gluteal fascia(8) tensor muscle of lateral femoral fascia(9) biceps femoris muscle(10) semitendinosus muscle(11) semimembranosus muscle(12) gracilis muscle(13, 13a) gastrocnemius muscle and tendon(14) soleus muscle(15) lateral digital extensor muscle(16, 16a) superficial digital flexor muscle and tendon(17) deep digital flexor muscle(18) inner or medial tendon of the cranial tibial muscle(19) suspensory ligament

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1.16

Dee

per

Mus

cles

of

the

Hor

se

(1,1

a) le

vato

r mus

cle o

f upp

er li

p an

d its

tend

on(2

) lev

ator

mus

cle o

f upp

er li

p an

d no

stril

win

g(3

) do

rsal

par

t of l

ater

al n

asal

mus

cle(4

) la

tera

l nos

tril d

ilato

r m

uscle

(5)

orbi

cula

r m

uscle

of t

he m

outh

(6)

bucci

nato

r m

uscle

(7)

depr

esso

r m

uscle

of l

ower

lip

(8)

zygo

mat

ic m

uscle

(9)

mas

sete

r m

uscle

(10)

tran

sver

se n

asal

mus

cle(1

1) d

epre

ssor

mus

cle o

f low

er e

yelid

(12)

orb

icula

r m

uscle

of t

he e

ye(1

3) c

orru

gato

r su

perci

lii m

uscle

(14)

tem

pora

l mus

cle(1

5) o

ccipi

tom

andi

bula

r m

uscle

(ju

gulo

-m

andi

bula

r)(1

6) s

tern

othy

rohy

oid

and

omoh

yoid

mus

cles

(17)

ste

rnom

andi

bula

r pa

rt of

ste

rnoc

epha

licm

uscle

(18,

18a)

com

plex

us m

uscle

and

tend

on (

part

of s

emisp

inal

is ca

pitis

mus

cle)

(19,

19a)

long

issim

us ca

pitis

mus

cle a

nd te

ndon

(20,

20a)

long

issim

us a

tlant

is m

uscle

and

tend

on(2

1) r

ectu

s ca

pitis

ven

tralis

mus

cle

(22)

rho

mbo

ideu

s m

uscle

(23)

sca

lene

mus

cle(2

4) in

tertr

ansv

erse

mus

cle(2

5) c

ervi

cal p

art o

f ven

tral s

erra

te m

uscle

(26)

cra

nial

dee

p pe

ctora

l mus

cle (

the

ante

rior

part

of th

e de

ep p

ecto

ral)

(27)

sup

rasp

inat

us m

uscle

(28,

28a)

infra

spin

atus

mus

cle a

nd te

ndon

(29)

tere

s m

inor

mus

cle(3

0) c

rani

al s

uper

ficia

l pec

tora

l mus

cle (

ante

rior

or c

lavi

cula

r pa

rt of

sup

erfic

ial p

ecto

ral)

(31)

long

hea

d of

trice

ps m

uscle

(32)

late

ral h

ead

of tr

iceps

mus

cle(3

3) b

iceps

bra

chii

mus

cle(3

4) b

rach

ialis

mus

cle(3

5) ra

dial

car

pal e

xten

sor

mus

cle(3

6) ra

dial

car

pal e

xten

sor

tend

on(3

7,37

a) c

omm

on d

igita

l ext

enso

r m

uscle

and

tend

on(3

8,38

a) la

tera

l dig

ital e

xten

sor

mus

cle a

ndte

ndon

(39,

39a)

late

ral c

arpa

l fle

xor

mus

cle a

nd it

stw

o te

ndon

s,lo

ng a

nd s

hort

(40,

40a)

dee

p di

gita

l flex

or m

uscle

and

tend

on

(41)

obl

ique

car

pal e

xten

sor

mus

cle(4

2) m

edia

l car

pal f

lexo

r m

uscle

(43)

mid

dle

carp

al fl

exor

mus

cle(4

4) s

uspe

nsor

y lig

amen

t (su

perio

rse

sam

oide

an li

gam

ent d

eriv

ed fr

omin

tero

sseo

us m

uscle

)(4

5) s

uspe

nsor

y lig

amen

t,ex

tenso

r bra

nch,

atta

chin

g to

the

com

mon

dig

ital e

xten

sor

tendo

n(4

6) th

orac

ic pa

rt of

ven

tral s

erra

te m

uscle

(47)

cau

dal d

eep

pecto

ral m

uscle

(po

sterio

r pa

rtof

dee

p pe

ctora

l)(4

8) s

pina

lis d

orsi

mus

cle (

mus

culu

s sp

inal

isan

d se

misp

inal

is th

orac

is an

d ce

rvici

s)(4

9) lo

ngiss

imus

dor

si m

uscle

(m

uscu

lus

long

issim

us th

orac

is an

d lu

mbo

rum

)(5

0) il

ioco

stalis

dor

si m

uscle

(m

uscu

lus

ilio-

costa

lis th

orac

is an

d lu

mbo

rum

)(5

1) r

etra

ctor

costa

e m

uscle

(52)

ext

erna

l int

erco

stal m

uscle

s(5

3) in

tern

al in

terco

stal m

uscle

s(5

4) in

tern

al a

bdom

inal

obl

ique

mus

cle(5

5) tr

ansv

erse

abd

omin

al m

uscle

(56)

ext

erna

l abd

omin

al o

bliq

ue m

uscle

(cont

inue

d)

06_073384 ch01.qxp 1/9/07 6:15 PM Page 37

Equine Massage38

1.16

Dee

per

Mus

cles

of

the

Hor

se (

cont

inue

d)

(57)

apo

neur

osis

(flat

tene

d te

ndon

)(5

8) s

acro

scia

tic li

gam

ent

(59)

med

ial g

lute

al m

uscle

(60)

dee

p gl

utea

l mus

cle(6

1) g

emel

lus

mus

cle(6

2) q

uadr

atus

fem

oris

mus

cle(6

3) a

dduc

tor

fem

oris

mus

cle(6

4) la

tera

l vas

tus

mus

cle (

part

of q

uadr

iceps

mus

cle)

(65)

rec

tus

fem

oris

mus

cle (

part

of q

uadr

iceps

mus

cle)

(66)

ilia

c m

uscle

(67)

sem

imem

bran

osus

mus

cle (

part

of th

eha

mstr

ing

grou

p of

mus

cles)

(68)

sem

itend

inos

us m

uscle

(pa

rt of

the

ham

-str

ing

grou

p of

mus

cles)

(69,

69a)

long

digi

tal e

xten

sor m

uscle

and

tend

on(7

0) la

tera

l hea

d of

gas

trocn

emiu

s(7

1) s

oleu

s m

uscle

(72)

Ach

illes

tend

on (

tend

on fo

r ga

stroc

nem

ius

and

sole

us m

uscle

s)(7

3) s

uper

ficia

l dig

ital f

lexo

r te

ndon

(74)

acce

ssor

y or

tars

al te

ndon

(75)

pop

litea

l mus

cle(7

6) s

aphe

nous

vei

n(7

7,77

a) p

eron

eus

terti

us m

uscle

and

its

tend

on(7

8) s

hort

tail

leva

tor

mus

cles

(79)

long

tail

leva

tor

mus

cles

(80)

tail

depr

esso

r m

uscle

(81)

coc

cyge

us m

uscle

(82)

ann

ular

liga

men

t

06_073384 ch01.qxp 1/9/07 6:15 PM Page 38

and deep massage.These techniques will promote blood circula-tion, bringing new oxygen and nutrients to affect healing and tobreak down scar tissue within the muscle fibers.

As a result of heavy training and exercise, a stress point maydevelop close to the origin tendon of the muscle. A stress point isa small spasm in the muscle fiber. Keep the horse free of stresspoints by using the stress point technique in chapter 5. (Chapter10 describes the stress points specific to each body part and chap-ter 15 describes the stress points specific to each discipline.)Another side effect of an intense training program and vigorousexercise is the formation of trigger points.A trigger point is a com-bination of lactic acid build-up and motor nerve ending irritation,mostly in the fleshy part (belly) of the muscle.The term “triggerpoint” derives from the fact that when pressure is applied to a par-ticular point, a pain signal will be sent to other parts of the body.Trigger points can be found in any muscle of the body. Keep yourhorse free of trigger points by using the trigger point techniquein chapter 5.

Study all the charts and learn about all aspects of the horse’sbody. Understanding the interrelation of all the various systemswill contribute greatly to your expertise in assessing the variousproblems you may encounter and wish to treat with massage.

A solid understanding of equine anatomy will assist your abilityto properly massage each body part of your horse. Knowing all themuscles, the joints they influence, and the bones involved will giveyou a more assertive approach in your massage care.You will beamazed at how much information you can learn from this chapter.This knowledge will give you confidence in your practice.


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