analysis of the philosophy of lucius annaeus seneca
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Loyola University Chicago
Loyola eCommons
Master's Teses Teses and Dissertations
1941
Analysis of the Philosophy of Lucius AnnaeusSeneca
Gabriel Connery Loyola University Chicago
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Copyright © 1941 Gabriel Connery
Recommended CitationConnery, Gabriel, "Analysis of the Philosophy of Lucius Annaeus Seneca" (1941). Master's Teses. Paper 111.hp://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_theses/111
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.ANALYSIS OF THE PHILOSOPHY
.OF
LUCIUS ANNA:EUS SENECA
.BY
BROTHER GABRIEL CONNERY, F.S.C.
A Thesis Submitted in Part ial F u l ~ i l l m e n to ~ the Requirements ~ o r the Degree o ~
Master o ~ Arts
at
LOYOLA UNIVERSITY
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Ift.RODUCTION
The purpose ot this thesis i s , as indicated by the t i t l e ,
to investigate the system ot philosophy and morality delineated
by Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger. The volumes ot Senecan
composition are numerous and varied in theme, but throughout
there pervades a philosophical influence entirely new to Rome.
Other teachers adhering to their particular schools ot thought,
had brought torth many ot the tenets held by Seneca. I t is here
that the individuality ot the man exhibits i t se l f in that his
was a system composed ot the elements ot many schools. This
investigation purposes to analyze Senecan teaching both in i t s
origin and in i t s content, in i t s theory and in practice.
Truth, objective t ruth, is the same for the pagan as i t is
tor the Christian. Blinded though he might have been by the
grossness of error, le t us give the pagan credit tor his efforts
to arrive at the eternal ver i t ies . We who possess the inestima-
ble l ight ot grace, the heritage of well defined and accurately
stated philosophical teaching, the books ot Divine Revelation
and the supernatural guidance of an infal l ible authority, too
often take· i t for gran-ted that the same position obtained for
pagan thinkers of the past. The actual case is far otherwise.
"Flying blind,u to use a current aeronautical term, they had no
guide other than the l ight ot reason, often grossly perverted
either by personal misconduct on the one hand or on the other by
the materialistic environment in which they l ived. But they too,
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2
many of them, aspired to a more rational existence, and in saner
moments sought to discover and formulate standards of l i fe which
would ultimately lead to a reasonable goal. Seneca may be cred
i ted with such aspirations, laboring the while in the darkness
of paganism.
In the endeavor to formulate from his writings a set group
of principles which may be styled the "Senecan System of Moral
i ty ," we must define his position on the existence and nature ot
God, the human soul, thepurpose ot l i fe , man's
att i tudetowards
death, l i fe hereafter and immortality. These topics contain the
mass of Senecan philosophy. They will be studied in the order
indicated. A code of morality summarized from the m ultifarious
works of a man whose very ideas were themselves a compilation of
the thoughts of other masters, will of i t s very nature admit of
many discrepancies. Thus, from the tangled mass of inconsisten
cies, not to say pure guess-work and actual contradictions
appearing in the various works of Seneca, i t will be our endeavor
to evolve some tangible system of thought which might be said to
be Senecan Morality, Senecan Philosophy.
Statements of Seneca to which reference is made will be
taken from the Dialogi, the Epistulae ~ Lucilium and the
Naturales Quaestiones.1 Only brief mention will be made of the
1. Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Opera Omnia, (Teubner Edition,1898).
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Tragoediae, and th is tor several reasons. or these i t is suff i -
cient to mention the most important. While the plays abound in
moral and philosophical observations, these la t te r are based on
2mythological references, and in the words ot Seneca himself
they should bear no weight in so important a discussion.
2. ~ · xxiv, 18.Jte.. lxxxii , 16.Ad Marciam ~ Consolatione,
xix, 4.
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6acter. The elder Seneca described this new pedagogue as the
~ o s t eloquent and by ta r the most acute philosopher of his time,
nmagnae vir eloquentiae !! philosophis, quos nostra aetas vidi t ,
1onge et subtilissimus ..!! faoundissimus" .7 Long years la ter as
an old man, Seneca spoke with reverence and affection of his
master in the school of Stoicism.s
Quintilian te l l s us that the Roman character was tor tak-
ing up the thoughts developed by the Greeks, and putting them
into practice. And, as a true Roman, he adds that this is the
~ m o r e important phase of l iving, "Quantum enim Graeci praeceptis
~ a l e n t , tantum Romani (quod·!!! maius) exemplis".9 Seneca,
earnest in his quest tor the "summum bonum", practiced l i te ra l ly
the dicta of his new-found school. He undertook such gross
imprudences as cold baths in winter, and by reason of his already
weakened condition contracted tuberculosis. The thought of his
pld father was the only restraining force which deterred him from
suicide.
Thoroughly versed in the systems of Pythagoras and the
6. Francis Holland, Seneca, (London: Longmans, Greenand Company, 1920). p. 15.
7. Suasoriae, i i .8. !2· lxvi i , 15.
h • ix, 7.!lt• lx i i i , 5.~ . lxxxi, 22.~ · cvi i i , 13.!P.· ex, 14.
9. Insti tutiones Oratoriae, r l i , 2.
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Nero, Seneca passed the greater part of his l i fe under the mad
despotism of the Roman court. Lucas describes the situation:
In a perfectly desperate position, withonly one path before him, he could tread i t fine
ly; but i t was a desperate position indeed, whenthat agile brain could not f lnd a way round andjust i fy i t se l f to the same.
7
His good sense and judgment, together with an even tem
pered disposition enabled Seneca to las t at the court longer,
perhaps, than others of the imperial advisors. He knew his Rome
much better than many native-born Romans knew her.l5 During
his tenure of office he was able to amass a fortune which in our
coin would exceed fifteen million dollars, and held estates in
various parts of the e m p i r e ~ 6Such was the background in which Seneca t r ied to pursue the
higher things of the mind. All his writings and philosophical
teachings must be viewed in the l ight of the splendor--and con
stant per i l of the court. The morality he would set forth was to
be no abstract set of formulae intended to r drawing-room perusal,
or even as applicable to l i fe in a normal situation. I t was
written by a man or action for men
••• l iving under a reign of terror, whose l ives were
14.
15.
16.
F.L. Lucas, seneca and the E l i z a b e t h a n · T r a ~ e d f ,(Cambridge, Mass.: The University Press, 1 22 . p. 45.R.M. Gummere, Seneca the Philosopher and His ModernMessage, (Boston: Marshall Jones C o m p a n y , ~ 2 2 ) . p. 50.
H.N. Fowler, A History of Roman Literature, (New York:D. Appleton and Company:-1932). P• 178
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in daily peri l ; and i t s object was to tree them fromanxiety and brace their minds to meet their fatewith indifference and d i g n i t y ~ ?
17. Holland, op. c i t . , p. 186.
8
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9
CHA.PrER I I
THE SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY AT ROME
Seneca's thoughts on the subject or l i t e , death and the
hereafter can be studied only af ter a thorough understanding or
his entire philosophy or l i fe , against the background or the
divers schools of thought of his day. Terming philosophy the
"vitae lex" ,18 he qualifies himself to formulate his own canons
or belief in as much as the l ight or philosophy shines tor a l l ,
"philosophia••• omnibus l u c e t " ~ 9 Beginning his study, Seneca
makes bold to say that he will cover the entire field of moral
philosophy and solve a l l the problems arising therefrom, ffscis
enim ~ moralem philosophiam valle conplecti ~ omnes ~ !!!pertinentia quaestiones explicareu.20 And as an end to be
attained,we
are warned that "auditionem••• philosophorum•••propositum beatae vitae trahendam".21
In the ages before the ideals of Christianity became the
well nigh universal guide of men's l ives, there arose period-
ically a creed especially adapted to the men or a given age.22
In the f i r s t century A.D., i t called i t se l f Stoicism. Undoubt-
18. ~ · xciv, 39.19. !I?.· xliv, 3.
20. !£• cvi, 2.
21. ~ · cvii i , 35.22. F.L. Lucas, Seneca and the Elizabethian Tragedy,
Cambridge: The University Press, 1922). p. 47.
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edlY the noblest and purest ot the ancient sects,23 Stoicism
passed beyond the l imit ot the schools and became at once a re
l igious creed and a code ot morals tor every-day use in the l i te
ot Rome.24 The ancient school ot Stoicism had been founded by
the Greek, Zeno,25 and received i t s name from the tact that Zeno
had lectured on the Painted Porch or Stoa Poikile ot Athens.
The Stoic doctrines lay tallow on Latin soi l during several
centuries before Christ.26I t had a good deal ot potential
energy, but as such remained purely potential, unti l the birth ot
Quintus Sextius Niger about 70 B.C. Two ot his scholars were
sotion and Papirius Fabianus. As has been noted,27 these la t ter
were followers ot Pythagoras but aided greatly the efforts ot
~ i g e r in formulating what they l iked to consider a definitely
Roman school. They were to inculcate their doctrines in the mind
ot the young Seneca. Niger seems to have combined his stoic
tendencies,28 with a number ot Pythagorean elements, and into i t
a ll "infused a fresh vigor ot moral zealn.29
23.
24.
25.
26.27.28.
29.
F.W. Ferrar, Seekers after God, (London:---, 1874).
intro. , p. 5. - - -Ibid. , P• 33.
J.W. Mackail, Latin Literature, (Chicago, I l l . :Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923). p. 171.Ad Helviam de Consolatione, xi i , 4.~ . lxxxiii-;-9.Holland, op. ci t . , p. 170.cr. ante, p. 4.!;e_. lxiv.J.E. Sandys, A Companion to Latin Studies, (Cambridge:
The University Press, 192IT. p. 710.
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The Romans wanted a system of rules which would govern con
duct, the "quod ~ maius" of Q.uintilian..3° They were often
kept back in the theological development of their ideas by a
pragmatism that thrott led the desire for knowledge, that subor
dinated the search for the unknown to respect for what exists.31
Whereas science concerns i t se l f with the quest af ter t ruth re
gardless of the consequences of i t s being brought to l ight , the
Roman feared such consequences. And in conditions such as those
in which Seneca l ived, well he might fear them. In subsequent
pages of this discussion i t will be noted what effect such
materialistic influences had on the thinking process of Seneca.32
He could go just so far in formulating his independent system of
morals, then when confronted by the impregnable barrier of the
very practical consideration of l i fe or death, he altered his
plan of action to sui t the circumstances.
The Stoic school would have it that the soul is corporeal
and that i t grows to perfection of reason with the growth of the
body. And since i t is corporeal with the body, the soul ceases
to exist at death.33 With this as a start ing point, a l l good
30. Institutiones Oratoriae, xi i , 2.31. A. Grenier, The Roman Spir i t , (New York: Alfred A.
Knopf. 1926);--p. 397.32. Cf. post p. 71.33. C.T. Cruttwell, A History of Roman Literature,
(New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1886).p. J88.
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--------------------------------------------------,12
stoics taught the end of l i fe , the flsummum bonum" of Seneca, was
the agreement of man in thought and action with "natura:" "In-
terim, quod in ter omnia Stoicos convenit rerum naturae adsentior
-••• sapientia ~ . u 3 4 This l a t ter term was variously defined as
the "nature of man", the nature of things in general", and the
nnature of the universe". This harmony with nature is virtue
(virtus) , or wisdom (sapientia). Similarly, a l l things foolish
(stulte) were vice, or a lack of harmony with nature. Things in
between or events in general, as well as "fortuna", were classed
as the "indifferentia".35 This school demanded not a mere curb-
ing of the passions in man, but their entire suppression and
eradication.
Utrum satius s i t modicos habere adfectus annullos, saepe quaesitum est . Nostri i l los expel-lunt , Peripatetic! temperant. Ego non video, quomodo
salubrig esse autut i l i s
possit ulla mediocritasmorbi.J
The Stoic had a God reduced to unity from the many deit ies
of early paganism. He was hardly a personality; in any case he
had l i t t l e relat ion with the universe. Lite and death were con-
sidered as "inditterentia",37 and were submitted to the choice
ot the wise man. I f i t is appropriate to r him to remain in l i t e ,
34. ~ Vita Beata, i i i , 3.
35. ~ · lxxxii , 10, 14.Cf. Cicero, ~ Finibus, i i i , 50 t f .
36. ~ · cxvi, 1.
37. ~ · lxxxii , 10.
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he does so; i t the balance inclines to the other side as a c o n ~venient way ot obviating difficult ies, the door is open. Nothing
compels him to stay.38 This principle sanctions the Cato eulo
gized so often by Seneca;39 i t is likewise applicable to Seneca
himself and a host of Stoics who during the reign ot Nero fol
lowed his example. The continuous harping on this idea on the
one hand, and on the other constant dread, made suicide extraor
dinarily prevalent--suicide out ot pure ennui, discontent, or
tear of the consequences of living.4°
Viciously good and morbidly healthy,41 the Stoic sage put
himself in the l ight ot a rigid corpse floating on the t ide ot
events.· He trained his will to will nothing.42 He thus lived
in a sort ot subnormal or subconscious ease by reason ot his
complete indifference to the tears--likewise the pleasures--sur- .
rounding him. Stoicism, followed to i ts logical conclusions,
may in many ot i ts tenets be termed a philosophy ot cowardice.
Rather than t ight the passions, the Stoics would be rid of them.
Either as the savage they teared death with an intensity of ter
ror; or glutted with the crimes or sorrows of l i t e , they found
38. Sandys, op. c i t . , p. 709.39. ~ · civ, 29.
JP• lxxii , 12.!E.. lxxxii ' 13.De Traniuill i tate Animi, xvi, 1.De P r o ~ dentia, 1, 11, 11-12.
40. Ferrar, op. c i t . , p. 49.41.
R! Constantia Sapientis,i ,
1, 1.42. Lucas, op. c i t . , p. 47.
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living insupportable and slunk to death as a refuge with a cow
ardice which vaunted i t se l f as courage.43 In so much as i t
advocated the elimination of inordinate passions, i t shone
brightly amid the profligacy of ancient Rome.
In i t s practical aspects, Stoicism may be said to stand
midway between the extremes of Epicureanism and Cynicism. The
la t ter cult had but few adherents, ow reason ot i ts extreme pes
simism. I t may be termed the superlative--the reductio ad ab
surdum--or the Stoics.44 The Cynics derived their name from the
Greek word meaning "dog", from what appeared to some of the an
cients to be the doglike brutality of their customs. Juvenal
ironically remarks that the Stoics were the same as the Cynics,
differing only "by a tunic" which the la t ter had discarded.45
Referring to the concrete aspect of any Roman system of thought
the Cynic principles are mentioned in Seneca only in extreme
measures, when the milder torm of Stoic passivism would not stand
up under the force ot circumstances.46
Among Roman moralists the sect of Epicurus attracted few
disciples. With i ts highest good the satisfaction ot man's sen
sual or physical appetites the teachings ot the Epicureans did
43. Ferrar, op. ci t . , p. 51.44. •seneca••, in Warner's Library of the World's Best
Literature, p. 13132. -- -45. Juvenal, ~ · xi i i , 122.46. !!!.• lx i i , 3.
~ Providentia, v, 7.
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not appeal to those whose efforts were bent either on correcting
l iving, or on making l i fe livable under prevailing conditions.
The Stoics seeing their efforts thwarted, i f not in fact , a t
least in the theory underlying the Epicurean system, carried the
contest beyond the mere difference-of-opinion stage, as is
clearly indicated in several passages in Seneca. He thus de
scribes the Epicureans: " ~ Epicureum, laudantem statum qui
etae civi tat is et inter convivia cantusque vitam exigentis.ff47- -Along with their moral differences the Stoics took issue withthe Epicureans, as they did in turn with the other schools to r
their opinions on the hereafter, on the nature of God, the human
soul and other tenets of their sect .
The school of Epicurus held that the soul was as much cor
poreal as was the body of an animal, that i t was composed of
very fine particles united in one mass.48 While the soul is
said to be distributed over a l l the body, i t s chief seat is in
the breast. Virtue is pursued because i t is the means of being
tranquil, of getting more res t , "corpus sine dolore ••• animus~ perturbatione."49
Since l i fe was believed to terminate
with death, the soul being mortal, the summum bonum of this
47. !:e.· lxxxviii , 5.Warner's Library, etc. op. c i t . , p. 13132.Sandys, op. c i t . , p. 707.
48. Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, I I I .
49. ~ · lxvi , 45.
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school was complete physical well-being. There was a multi
plici ty of gods living in the inter.mundia or space between the
world of matter and world of nothingness, but they had absolute
lY no control or any relation whatsoever with the affairs of men.
TheY endeavored to prove this la t te r point by noting the inequal
i ty in the apportionment of the goods and evils of l i fe.5°
I t often happened that the doctrines of Epicurus were held
to the charge of corrupting morals, and leading men into l ives
of degeneration.51 So claimed, for the most part , the whole
sect of the Stoics.52 But as Seneca well notes·in several
places, "many have recourse to him through a bad motive thinking
that they will have in him a screen for their own vices.•53
Atter the time of Cicero and more especially in the reign
of Augustus, the teachings of Pythagoras were revived, and blend
ed a l l the prevalent systems of Plato, Zeno and Epicurus with a
sort of mystic t inge. Pythagoras is said to have coined the
word "philosophy" when replying to a question as to what he con
sidered himself in the domain of rat ional i ty. He answered "a
philosopher" (a seeker af ter wisdom), for he considered i t the
50. Sandys, op. c i t . , p. 698.51. !E_. xxxiii , 2.
52. De Vita Beata, xi i i , 2.
53. !E.· xxi, 10.De Vita Beata, xi i i , 2.
Ibid. , xi i , 4.
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height of arrogance for one to think himself a sage, tha t i s , one
who has acquired knowledge. 54 Adherents of Pythagoreanism be
lieved in the soul, a spir i tua l substance in man. All actions of
this l i fe should be performed in view of an inf ini te future.
More defini tely than did the other schools, Pythagoreanism propa
gated the bel ief in a future l i f e , and went even to the extent .of
giving a form to th is bel ief . Once the soul leaves the body i t
goes to Hades, an underground stopping place, where i t is puri
fied, awaiting reincarnation. I t returns to earth again fornew
t r ia l s , and wil l inhabit animate, vegetable, animal or human
l i fe , higher or lower forms of existence, depending on how well
i t has merited. "Nulla anima in te r i t , ~ cessat quidem nis i
tempore exiguo, dum in aliud corpus transfunditur."55 In his
De Beneficiis , Seneca t e l l s us an interesting and ra ther amusing
story of an exact Pythagorean who would pay back the debt he owed
to a friend now dead. At f i r s t the philosopher planned to keep
the money owed his friend, the l a t t e r having died. The neigh-
bors, however, reminded him of his own preaching tha t we continue
to exist af ter death and that in view of th is fact he s t i l l owed
the debt. Suddenly aware of his inconsistency, or perhaps of
this pract ical application of his creed, the philosopher went to
54. St. Augustine, De Civitate Dei, l ib . v i i i , cap. i i .
55. ~ · cvi i i , 19.
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the shop of his deceased friend, flung the money through the open
door, and chided himself for having had a temptation to infidel
ity.56 The doctrine, therefore, abounds in ascetic precepts
tending to insure purity of sou1. 57 Sotion, the Pythagorean,
forbade Seneca to eat f lesh meat, les t he commit parricide by
injuring the soul of an ancestor with either teeth or fork.5S
They practiced frugality, temperance and vegetarianism, and had
many followers in Rome.59 As did the Stoics, these men believed
in the ut ter destructionot
the passions. fl8olebat dicere Fabi-60anus (Pythagorianus) ••• contundi debere, ~ vellicari .f l
56. De Beneticiis , vi i , 21.57. Grenier, op. ci t . , p. 372.58. ~ · cvii i , 19.59. Ibid. , 17.60. ~ Brevitate Vitae, x, 1.
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- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .19
CHAPI'ER II I
SOURCES OF SENECAN PHILOSOPHY
such were the systems o ~ thought to which Seneca was ex
posed, from which he could and did draw ~ r e e l y in evolving a new
and, i f not a more practical , at leas t a more pleasant standard
of action and l iving. While he cautions us " ~ veritatem quae
rtmus,"61 i t is doubtful i f Seneca had any objective ideal o ~truth in mind. His many inconsistencies and contradictions i l -
lustrate his att i tude of making his principles subject to the
exigencies o ~ the time. The result of his entire investigations
leaves the riddle of l i fe s t i l l unsolved for Seneca, ffquod est
!pessimum numguam sciens cuius esses status.ff62Senecan teaching
~ a s a sort of amalgamation of the moral principles o ~ Zeno, Epi
curus and Pythagoras, "Nostram accipe. Nostram autem ~ dico,
!!2!! alligo !!!! ad ~ aliquem ~ Stoicis proceribus; l l i et mihi
censendi ius."63In this respect Seneca was l ike many of the
Roman Stoics, eclectic or encyclopaedic in his views. 64 Though
these various teachers differed in so much as the f i r s t mentioned
61.62.63.
De Otio, i i i , 1.Ad Mareiam de Consolatione, xvii , 1.De Vita Beata, i i i , 2.A l b ~ G r e n i e r l The Roman Spir i t , (New York: AlfredA. Knopf. 1926}.--p. 397.F.J. Miller, Seneca's Tragedies, (New York: G. P.Putnam's Sons, 1917). intro. p. 8.J.E. Sandys, A Companion to Latin Studies, (Cambridge:
The University Press, 192IT. p. 710.
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proceeded from idealism, the second from materialism, and the
third from a sort of spiri tualism, i t mattered l i t t l e since thei r
precepts came to the same thing.65
Seneca showed an indiffer
ence to exact scient i f ic theory and rather a willingness to take
good moral teac.hing as his own, regardless of the quarter from
which i t came. 66As Teuffel puts i t ,
He started from the Stoic system but in himi t s barren auster i ty was toned down, the harshnesssoftened, i t s crotchets· laid aside; nor did he disdain additions from the other systems.o7
seneca had a genial and tolerant nature which made i t most agree
able for him to become a sort of plural is t . He was l i t t l e able
to tolerate general admonitions which were irrevocable, but
rather made up his world from his own personal investigations and
ideas.68
He would address his followers n ~ Stoica l i n g u a , ~hac submissiore.n
69
He considered himself a thorough-going
Stoic,7° an ingenious and virtuous philosopher. 71Nevertheless
he makes i t plain that he does not want to be bound by th is
65. De Vita Beata, xi i i , 1.!E· lxvi, 47.
66. John W. Basore, nseneca's Moral Essays", in LoebClassical Library (Cambridge: The University Press,1935). vol. i , intro.
67. Miller, op. c i t . , intro.68. R.M. Gummere, Seneca the Philosopher and His Modern
Message, (Boston: Marshall Jones C o . , - r 9 2 ~ p . 5o.69. ~ · xi i i , 4.70. De Tranquil l i tate Animi, i , 10.
71. F.W. Farrar, Seekers a f t e r ~ ' (London:---, 1874}.p . 161.
!E_. cvi, 2.
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1
school exclusively: "Nullius nomen fero."72
In general, he
would not be in complete obeisance to any of his predecessors;
be could feel this way about i t , for heresy is not a word in the
vocabulary of philosophy.73
The bi t ter feud which waged through the ages between the
stoics and Epicureans might serve to i l lus t ra te the tenacity
with which these schools maintained their respective points of
view. And therefore, we can but admire the open-minded view
taken by Seneca when he repeatedly quotes Epicurus as the author-
i ty for a point he is making.74 He explains this l iberal view
of the matter, saying that he intends to praise the dicta of a l l
schools:
Ut scias quam benigni simus, propositum estaliena laudare; Epicuri est aut Metrodori aut al i -cuius ex i l la officina. ~ t quid interest quiddixerit? Omnibus dixit.75
Seneca maintains that those who "in verba iurant ~ quid dicatur
aestimant," should realize that whatever has been said well
should be regarded as "communis".76
And in another l e t ter he
72. ~ · xlv, 4.73. F.L. Lucas, Seneca and Elizabethan Tragedy, (Cambridge:The University Press, 1922). p. 4 7 ~
74. ~ · xvii , 11 (on wealth).~ · xvii i , 14 (on anger).~ · xx, 9, (on Poverty).~ · xxv, 5, (on sinceri ty).~ · xxii , 5, (on danger).75. ~ · xiv, 17.76. ~ · xi i , 11.~ · xi i i , 8.
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tellS us that he is wont to cross into the enemy's camp, not as a
deserter but as a scout, "soleo enim et in aliena castra tran-
s i r ~ , .!!,2!! tamquam transtuga, sed tamquam explorator.n77 His
olerant att i tude leads him to condemn any type ot complete men-
ta l slavery to the opinions ot others. He definitely makes this
point, when he writes to Lucilius: "Primum exponam, quid Stoicis
videatur: deinde ~ d i c e r e sententiam audebo •••Ego ~ i d e m78
sentio." Earl ier , Seneca had written that even i f the Stoics
did revere their masters in the past , "non sumus sub rege; sibi
auisque ~ vindicat.n79 F o ~ h e notes, i t a man always follows
the opinions ot one person, his place is not in the senate house
but out among the anarchists, "quoniam s i quia semper unius se-
iquitur , ~ in curia sed in facti one est . •80
As evidenced in his works, Seneca was possessed ot a mind
quick and bri l l iant , but not sure or thorough in i t s conclusions.
~ i l e his system of eclecticism may appear reasonable, i t was
certainly not consistently workable either in theory or in prac-
t ice. True, i t was practicable in the sense of i ts being mate-
r ia l is t ic and ut i l i tar ian in outlook; but i t s want ot logic in
arrangement, i t s fai lure to be universally applicable, i t s lack
ot psychological appeal, make Seneca's philosophy less easy to
77. !E.. ii' 5.78. ~ · cxvii, 1.79. !2· xxxiii , 4.80. De Otio, i i i , 1.
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- - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 3 1and actually use, than to understand.
81When he a t-
tempted to make his teaching applicable to his own every day
l i fe , he fe l l far short of even approximating his goal, and the
inconsistency led him beyond a l l question into serious errors
which deeply compromise his character.82
After we have culled a uniform system of thought from
seneca's volumes of moral instructions, we find too often l i t t l e
conviction in the admonitions he sets forth. Claiming the priv
ilege to legis late for himself, he grants the same benefit to
others. While this procedure might indicate openness of mind and
consideration for the differences of opinion, the implied asser
tion is that there actually is no certain standard of t ruth, that
philosophic findings are entirely subjective, that is , depending
entirely on just what a person wishes to find. In theiilSelves
~ e n e c a n instructions are perhaps unequalled among pagan works in
~ a t u r a l goodness and vir tue.83
The Apostle of the Gentiles, the greatest of the Christian
~ r e a c h e r s , was haunted by the dread, as he put i t , "les t having
preached to others I myself became a castaway.ff84 I t was, per-
81. Francis Holland, Seneca, (London: Longmans, Greenand Company, 1920). p. 164.
82. Ferrar, op. c i t . , p. 34.83. J.W. Mackail, Latin Literature, (Chicago, I l l . :
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923). p. 174.Ferrar, op. c i t . , intro. p. 5.
84. I Cor. ix , 27.
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haps, his humility and candid admission of fra i l ty that saved
him• Seneca, however, was less humble and, as a result , less
consistent. For when his morals have been reduced to practice,
hiS deeds continually belie his own preaching: a eulogist of
freedom and the tutor of a tyrant; a decrier of courtiers and
yet never leaving the Palatine himself; one condemning f lat terers
yet author of the most debasing adulation of Messalina and Claud
ius ' freedman; the enemy of riches and yet the possessor of over
fifteen million dollars.85
In Seneca we witness a man whose l i fe was a tragic failure;
this, because in the opposite of Dante's sense, he had not t ra in-
ed himself to make "great refusals". 86 The principle which led
to his spir i tual degradation was moral compromise. In a preca
rious position at the court of Nero, he endeavored to work on the
principle of encouraging what was wrong in the vain hope of pre
venting something worse. He did succeed in staving off the ter-
rible disaster. The delay, however, did but add to the intensity
of the flame once i t broke out. Fearful of the danger to his own
l i fe , as also of the other consequences in adhering to the path
of righteousness, Seneca cleverly avoided distasteful issues.
Clever he was indeed, but less clever he had proved a good deal
85. Lucas, op. c i t . , p. 45.
86. Ibid. , p. 52
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ore edifying.87
•
As the most fluent, tolerant and persuasive of Roman in
structors of morals, Seneca demonstrated in the trying crises of
hiS l i fe how hard i t was to be brave, consistent or even free
from crime under the mad despotism of a Caligula, a Claudius, or
a Nero. 88 While he prided himself as being a gifted philoso
pher, he undertook the impossible task of living as an upright
man89 and pursuing the course of a statesman under the C a e s a r s ~More than most people he desired to do the correct thing, but i t
was in his nature to hate more than most other people the un
pleasant things, especially unpleasantness with other people.91
By not taking the lofty l ine of duty that Zeno would have taken,
seneca permitted the element of expediency to be the standard of
his conduct, rather than to hold to obligation regardless of the
outcome. No man ever gained anything but contempt and ruin by
continually wavering between two opinions. Mr. Froude well de
lineated the character of Seneca, when he refers us to Bunyan's
Pilgrim's Progress:
Of a l l unsuccessful men, in every shape,whether divine or human or devil ish, there is none
equal to Bunyan's Mr. Facing-both-ways--the fellowwith one eye on heaven and one on earth--who sin-
87. Ibid. , p. 45. Lucas, op. c i t . ,88. "Seneca," in Warner's Library of the World's Best
Literature, p. 13119. - - - - -89. ~ · cvi, 2.90. De Otio, 1, 4.
91. Lucas;-op. ci t . , p. 45.
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- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 - , 6cerely preaches one thing and sincerely does an-other, and from the intensity of his unreality isunable either to see or feel the contradiction.He is substantially trying to cheat both God andthe devil, and is in real i ty only cheating himselfand his neighbors. This of a ll characters upon the
earth appears to us to be the one of which there isno hope at all .92
Lucas writes that Seneca had ~ o r e inte l lec t than his will-
power could carry.n93 Seneca, with his moral acrobatics and
supple complaisance, presents himself to us as an inconsistent
teacher of right l iving. His l i fe and doctrines are unintel-
l igible save in the l ight of his pol i t ica l background.
92. Ferrar, op. c i t . ,
93. Lucas, op. c i t . ,
p. 163
P• 38.
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_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____,
r 21OHAPI'ER IV
SENECA'S CONCEPTION OF GOD
When Seneca counselled Lucilius to investigate "quae ~ -teria s i t dei,"94 we may rightfully assume that he was in sin
cere quest of the fundamental source of l i fe and being. In old
age, he repeated the necessity of knowing God when he wrote that
man will never make real progress unt i l he has the r ight idea of
God, "numquam sat is profectum er i t , nis i qualem debet deum mente
oonceperit ••• "95 A statement such as either of the ones just
quoted shows by far a greater depth of in te l lect , indicative
perhaps of a real earnestness of purpose, than one in which he
refers to the heavenly bodies as divini t ies , "paucorum motus
comprehendimus, innumerabiles ~ longiusque ~ conspectu seduc
t i di eunt redeunt."96
Here Seneca does but follow the ancient
theory of the Stoics that the stars were so many gods. His ac
tual convictions on the subject of divinity are rather difficul t
to analyze in so far as his works contain many conflicting ref
erences pertaining to the deity. First le t us see how nearly
Seneca came to t ruth in his theological vagaries. Afterwards
his pagan explanations will be brought out. From a considera
t ion of these two elements, we shall t ry to come to some con-
94. De Brevitate Vitae, xix, 1.95. !E.· xcv, 48.
96. De Beneficiis, iv , 23, 4.
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28
elusion as to just what conception he had of the Divinity.
Some of the eminent doctors of the early Church speak ad
miringly of the erudition and apparent Christian sentiments ex
pressed by Seneca. He is quoted by Tertull ian, 97 and by Lactan
tius. Even St. Augustine refers in many places to Seneca and
thiS in an approving manner.98 Lactantius is , perhaps, the most
pointed when he says that Seneca speaks "as one of us":
He was the sharpest of a l l the Stoics. How
great a veneration has he for the Almighty. And
how many other things does this heathen speak ofGod, l ike one of us.99
Now i t is safe to state that these encomiums are lavished
on Seneca solely by reason of his expressions of reverence for
God. His entire code of morality evidences nothing more than
good sense, pract ical i ty , expediency; i t wants in i t s entirety
any semblance of a supernatural motive. Seneca str ikes the key
note of one of the natural proofs of the existence of God, when
~ e says that even in our very souls there is that unlearned
~ o w l e d g e , or better perhaps, that unlearned realization of the
existence of a Supreme Being. While this innate respect and rev
ence for Divinity exists in every man, s t i l l the words of Seneca
97. Tertullian, Apologetica, x ~ ~ . (not extant)98. St. Augustine, De Civitate Dei, Lib. v, Cap. vi i , ix .
Ibid. , Lib. ix,-cap. iv . - - Ibid. , Lib. vi, Cap. x.Ibid. , Lib. vi, Cap. x i.
99. Divinae Institutiones, Lib. i , Cap. l .
Cf. Tertullian,De
Anima.
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___________,
29
give a definite expression to the fact that he is so impelled,
ttanimum tuum quadam religionis suspicione percutiet .n100
-As to acknowledging the t rue, living God, Seneca comes
verY near to orthodox theology in such remarks as " i t is God who
bas se t free the oxen throughout the earth;"101
" i t is God, our
Master, who draws forth ••• ;"102 "God is worshipped by those who
knOW Him."l03 The Deity is termed the "art ifex divinus", de
signer or the universe.l04
Almost in Scriptural phrasing, Seneca affirms the omni
presence of God in the vast expanses or the universe: "Q,uooumque
te f lexeris, ib i illum videbis ooourrentem t ib i ; nihi l ab i l lo- - - - --acat, o p u s ~ ipse i m p l e t ~ " l 0 5 The Christian doctrine of
•God within us" might possibly be construed in the words "et
106socii sumus eius (dei) et membra." The soul of man must be
in a r i t ing condition "purus .!.£ sanctus, •• or there is no room
for God: "Q,uis s i t summi boni locus quaeris? Animus. Hie nisi
purus .!.£ sanctus est deum ~ capit ."107 And another instance:
"Prope est .! te deus, tecum est intus est . I ta dico, Luoili:
sacer intra .!!.2!! spiri tus sedet ••• Bonus ~ v i r sine deo ~100. ~ · xl i , 3.
101. De Benericiis, iv , 6, 5.102. Ibid. , iv, 6, 1.103. ~ · xcv, 48.104. ~ · cxi i i , 16.105. De Beneficiis, iv , 8,2.106. ~ · xcii , 30.107. !£• lxxxvii, 21.
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"108est•;:::.;;;--
30
In the same le t te r he applies Virgi l 's words to com-
plate his own thoughts, "In unoquoque virorum. bonorum 'Q.uis deus
incertum est , habitat deus. '"l09 Conversely, but as definitely
in accord with Christian teaching, a soul without God is in a
bad state: "Deus ad homines venit , immo quod propius, in homines
venit; nulla sine deo ~ b o n a est ."110
-Omniscience is an at t r ibute of the Almighty by virtue of
which He knows a ll things, even our inmost thoughts. Seneca
seems to recognize this secret Witness and Judge of our conduct.
" ~ u i d enim prodest ab homine aliquid ~ secretum? Nihil deo
clusum est . Interest animis nostris et cogitationibus mediis
intervenit . " l l l And again when he warns: ~ t a dico, Lucili :
sacer intra nos spir i tus sedet, malorum bonorumque nostrorum ob
servator et custos. Hie prout ~ nobis tractatus est , i ta E£!
ipse t racta t ."112
Divine Providence is recognized in terms worthy of one of
the Great Fathers, "God also has given certain gif ts to the
whole human race, and from these no man is shut out," (Deus quo-
108. ~ · xl i , 2.Cf. Nat. Q.uaes. i i , x, 3.Cf. Chas. P. Parker, ffSacer Intra Nos Spiri tus," inHarvard studies in Classical Philology, vol. xvii .
109. ~ · xl i , 2.Cf. Naturales Quaestiones, x, 3.Cf. Aeneid, vi i i , 352.
110. ~ · lxxi i i , 16.111. ~ · lxxxii i , 2.
112.~ ·
xl i , 2.
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- 31
~ _g,uaedam munera universe humane generi dedit , !. quibus exclu
ditur nemo). 113 He te l ls Lucilius to consider always the bless
ings of our heavenly Father, "proinde, quisquis ~ ••• cogita quan-
114~ hobis t r ibuer i t parens noster ." And also in this passage:
"9,.Uidquid nobis bono futurum erat , deus et parens noster in pro-
115~ posuit ." Seneca even defends Divine Providence against
the accusation of the Epicurean Lucilius, that the number of
evils in the world proves the want of' a just , guiding hand:
~ u a e s i s t i a me, Lucil i , quid is ta , s i providentia mundus regeretur, multa bonis vir is malaacciderent. Hoc commodius in contextu operis redderetur, cum praeesse universis providentiam probaremus et interesse nobis deum.llb
To prove our f ideli ty in the way of' righteousness, i t often
seems good to God to t ry us, and this , as Christian doctrine
teaches, because He loves us. Seneca gives one Christian expla
nation for suffering in saying that God greatly loving the good
(deus bonorum amantissimus), wishes them to become strong in
~ i r t u e ( i l los optimos atque excellentissimos vult) , sends the
just many t r ia ls to exercise them (f'ortunam i l l i s cum qua ~ -ceantur adsignat).117 He seems to express this point in a
]_arallel manner: "Patrium deus habet adversus bonos viros animum
113. De Beneficiis, iv , 28, 3.
114. Ibid. , i i , 29, 4.
115. ~ · ex, 10.116. De Providentia, i , 1.117. Ibid. , i i , 7.
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33
dictum. Even a greater similarity is noticeable in the words of
the son of God Himself, when He invites us, "veni, sequere
~ ; " 1 2 6as also those of His apostles who were glad to reply,
•et secuti sumus te ."
----- Now did Seneca stop here, he surely could be taken for one
o! the Christian apologists. But we hasten to add that the re-
semblance, however str iking, between Senecan phrases and Chris-
tian l i terature is nothing but a marvelous coincidence. As in-
dicative of his credence in the true God or as having accurate
conceptions of His nature, the apparent Christian phrases of
~ e n e c a should bear no more weight than his prophecy concerning
~ h e discovery of the great New World.127 He states both ideas
~ i t h the same att i tude of uncertainty and as being up to the
~ p i n i o n of anyone considering the subjects. In his system of
eclectic thought each subject was something novel and, as far as
~ e could see, about as possible as the grata dicta made by other
philosophers. His expressions of belief in God must not be taken
for more than they are actually worth.128 The crux of the issue
would be: are his ideas, his spir i t , Christian? His definit ion
and explanation of the word ~ will throw considerable l ight on
just what he revered in the divinity.
126. Matt. xix, 21.
127. Mad. 370.128. C.T. Cruttwell, A History of Roman Literature, (New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1886). p. 388.
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34
Seneca's various meanings for the word deus include the
following: a) ff{Deus), mundus cuncta complectens rectorque uni
versi t; 129 b) ffSic ~ Naturam .!.Q£!!, Fa um, Fortunam; omnia
eiusdem dei nomina sunt varia utentis ~ potestate";l30 c) more-n a pantheistic l ine , he says that "when you say Nature, you
merely give another name to God, for Nature is God and the Di
vine Reason that pervades the whole universe and a l l i t s parts:
you may call him 'Iovem O p t i m u m ~ Maximum,' 'Tonantem et Stato
rem,' 'Liberum Patrem,' 'Herculem,' 'Mercurium,• and even i f you-ame Him 'Fatum,' · ~ mentieris.•n131 In fine, "any name that
you choose wil l be properly applied to Him i f i t connotes soae
force that operates in the domain of heaven--His t i t le s may be as
countless as His benefits ."132
His inquiries into the nature and act ivi ty of God give
somewhat of an introduction to the pantheistic and at times ag
nostic theories which he entertained concerning the Divinity.
~ e must seek to discover what God is ; whether He gazes indiffer
ently and without concern upon the works of His creation or
actually controls them.133 Possibly in a moment of sadness
Seneca chose to adopt the negative thesis as indicated by such
129. De Vita Beata, v i i i , 4.130. De Benefic11s, iv , 8, 3.131. Ibid. , iv , 7, 1.132. Ibid. , iv , 8, 3.133. De Otio, iv , 2.
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35
statements as, God is unconcerned about us and turns His back on
the world; that our good deeds mean no more to Him than our
railure to pursue vir tue.1
34 That his God did not exist as a
personality, is clearly brought out in both the sense and gram-
matical construction of such expressions as: "Nempe universa ~materia et!! deo constant ••• u o d tac i t , quod est deus •••• n135-The word "quod" can be rendered only as "that which", possibly
in the sense of "whatever i t is which"; in any case a definitely
neuter term indicative of a non-intelligent material force.
That Seneca's theories on the existence of the true God
did not hold his own complete fai th is clearly brought out in
the many rather unconscious references he makes to the "gods".
The word "unconscious" is used here in the sense that although
as an individual thinker he had delineated many of the attributes
of the true God, Seneca was for a l l pract ical purposes strongly
imbued with, and subconsciously in accord with a l l pagan concep
tions of the plurali ty of gods. The "di i immortales" of almost
every Latin writer antedating the complete triumph of Christian
i ty, is a common expression throughout Seneca's works. I f we are
cautioned to keep in mind the "vetus praeceptum: 'deum seque-
1""'e ' " l36
1 t 1 h' we are a so o d t at the man who so instructs us in
134. De Beneficiis, iv, 4, 1.135. ~ · lxv, 24.136. De Vita Beata, xv, 6.
Cf. ante, p. 31.
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the case for the gods, "causam deorum agam."l37
36
I f
seneca te l ls us that "parens noster", and " ~ " , and "provi
dentia" is the custodian of man's welfare, he likewise says that
~ n is indebted to "dis" for the "salutem, vitam, et spiritum.J38
"Deus" is worshipped by those who know Him, Seneca succinctly-reminds us, but in fewer than a score of l ines further on, we
learn that "(Di) ••• nocere ~ possunt. Nee accipere iniuriam
_g,ueunt nee facere."139 " P a t e r ~ " , God our Father, may try
our faithfulness by sufferings so we are taught; la ter the ob-
ject of our reverence has taken on a plural aspect, "ceterum
castigant quosdam et coercent et inrogant poenas et aliquando
specie boni puniunt."140
Egoism is , in fact , at the bottom of most of his precepts
and theories. He admits, i t is true, that there exists something
which, i f not superior to man is at leas t , out of the sphere of
human l i f e , and he cal ls i t by the abstract term, "deus". As
has been noted, he predicated supreme attr ibutes to this being.
~ t i l l , Seneca says that a good man differs from deus only in the
element of time, "immo etiam necessitudo et similitude, quoniam
141~ u i d e m bonus tempore tantum ~ deo differ t ." I t will be made
137. De Providentia, i , 1.138. De Beneficiis, i i , 30.139. ~ . xcv, 48, 49.140. Ibid. , xcv, 50.141. De Providentia, i , 6.
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olear la ter , how Seneca opines that suicide "promittit u t parem
. . . f . t n142 b t f 1 th teO ac1a , a more oas u assurance an any other sys em-f philosophy attempted to make. He may refer to the "maiesta
tem", and the "bonitatem", ot 11qui praesident mundo,n143 but we---- 144must also know that , "sapiens .£:!:!!!!dis ~ p a r i vivi t ." Far
from the humble at t i tude of a Christian, in his relations with
the Creator, Seneca assumes the att i tude of socius in his rela
tions with God.145
Seneca t e l l s usthat
the bestway
to worship thegods
is
to believe in them to acknowledge their majesty and goodness, to
imitate them.146
Far otherwise are his sentiments, quoted by
St. Augustine, from Seneca's lost work, Contra Superstitionem:
All these things, a wise man will observefor the law's sake, more than for the god's; anda l l this rabble of deit ies which the superst i t ion
of ages has gathered together, we are in such manner to adore, as to consider the worship to berather matter of custom than of conscience.l47
Commenting hereon, St. Augustine says: "This i l lustr ious
142. ~ · lxxxviii ,
143.~ ·
xcv, 50.144. ~ · l ix , 14.145. ~ · l i i i , 11.
De Providentia, vi, 6.Ibid. , I, 5, 7.
146. Ep. xcv, 50.
147. "Contra Superstitionem", in De Civitate Dei,St. Augustine, Lib. v i, Cap.-ro. - - -
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worshipped what he disapproved, acted what he disliked,
d adored what he condemned.nl48 Fabius remarked that i t was
a great pity that he who could what he would did not always make
the best choice. I t were perhaps more correctly stated that he
who could do what he would, would not always make the best
choice.
Did Seneca consider this "sequere deum"149 suff ic iently
important, he certainly would not have permitted himself to lapse
into such glaring inconsistencies. The frequency with which he
~ e c u r s to the subject gives us the impression that he aspired to
~ o w the truth. But as was noted earl ier in this work, Seneca
was the typical Roman thinker, fearful of the consequences of
discovering truth; realizing the necessity of following logical
ponvictions to their obvious conclusions and lacking the will-
~ o w e r to do so; and in general, handicapped by the f i r s t premise
pf an ergo that had to be reached. This l a t ter was at a l l times
to be governed by that bane of any upright standard of l i fe , ex-
pediency. He was correct in his conviction that mere thoughts
~ n d dialectics on the subjects of the deity, purpose of l i fe ,
etc. , must be reduced to practice, or they meant nothing a t a l l
other than whiling away one's time on idle fancies. But seneca
148. St. Augustine, De Civitate Dei, Lib. vi, Cap. 10.
149. De Vita Beata, xv, 7.Ct.
ante, p. J l , J4.
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erred in thrott l ing his own mental powers by making them sub
servient to convenient l iving. His thoughts must accomodate
themselves to his actions--his deeds were made answerable to no
ethical standard of morality. His was a system ful l of conces
sions.
39
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CHAPrER V
SENECA'S IDEAS OF THE HUMAN SOUL
In studying the human soul, Seneca begins by saying that
the soul "animus" of man is a l iving being, "animal", using the
lat ter ter.m in i t s generic sense. He says the soul is l iving
because i t effects our own existence as l iving beings, "ipse
efficiat ut simus animalia";150
that i t is from the root word
•anima" that the term soul (animal, which means a l iving being)
takes i t s source, " ~ ab i l lo animalia nomen hoc t raxerint .n151
continuing to describe the essence of the soul, Seneca launches
into arguments widely divergent in meaning. In s t r ic t accord
~ i t h the tenets of the school of Epicurus, which maintained that
the soul was composed of minute part icles , atoms, diffused
through the body152
- - in other words that the soul was one with
the body--Seneca says with questionable logic, «quae corporis
bona sunt, c o r p o r a ~ : ergo et quae animi ~ · Nam et hoc
corpus est.nl53 The fact that the bodily goods are material
because they are appreciated by the material body, in no wise
proves Seneca's "ergo"; the misplaced second premise and the con
clusion are dissociated from the f i r s t premise. His "nam" phrase
150. ~ · cxii i , 2.151. Ibid. , cxi i i , 2.
152. Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, i i i .
153. ~ · cvi, 4-5.
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is purely a gratum dictum, an assertion and nothing more. Con-
tinuing, Seneca says man's good must be corporeal, since man
himself is corporeal--"bonum hominis necesse est corpus s i t , ~!Pse s i t corporalis.nl54 From these two citations i t is evi
dent that Seneca affirms the material composition of the soul-
he doesn't prove i t as he pretends to do. "Animus corpus
!! l ," l55 is exactly what he intends to say. Did Seneca believe
in his own assertions? Was he himself convinced that he had
proved the corporeal existence of the soul?This is
hardly possible in view of the position he maintains throughout most of
his works. Why then did he argue in the aforementioned vein?
Judging from the inconsistencies appearing throughout the length
and breadth of his philosophical teaching, we may assume that
Seneca herein merely states an hypothesis. As in the case of
his entire system, Seneca endeavors to prove actually nothing.
Independent of the masters of philosophy as we have seen him
above,l56 he composed his own credo--and allowed the same priv
ilege to others.
Most of Senecan teachings on the composition and nature of
the human soul are found in the t reat ise Ad Marciam de Consola
tione. Therein he analizes the soul of man, and attributes to
154. ~ · cvi, 5.
155. ~ · cvi, 4.156. Cf. ante, p. 18 f f .
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i t activity and quality which can be possessed only by a spir i t -
ual or immaterial substance. Firs t of a ll he gives us an in t i -
mation of the pre-existence ot the soul before i t s union with
the body. Once released, he te l l s us, from the weight of earth
lY dross (the body), the soul f l ies back ("revolant") more
l ightly to the place of i t s origin ( ~ o r e s ad originem ~ } ; 5 ?Again he says that the soul after death will be "restored to i t s
t i r s t sta te ," in integrum res t i tui , 158 "unde demissus est.n159
I t is nature that has bestowed onman
his soul, or "entrusted i t160to man" (natura quae prior nobis credidit) , and Seneca asks
concerning death, what hardship should i t be in returning to the
place from whence one has come, "revert i ~ veneris quid grave
est?"161
The soul animates the body, resides in ' i t as in the
darkness ot gross matter and as something held therein by chains,
162"cetera ••• vincula animorum tenebraeque ~ · " Out of i t s
natural element, presumably the immaterial world ot spir i t , the
soul is "crushed strangled, and stained" as i t resides in the
body, and is "kept ta r .from i t s true and natural sphere,"
(obruitur, ottocatur, in t ic i tur , arcetur a veris et suis in
falsa coiectus).163 The souls ot men find no joy lingering in
157. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xxi i i , 1.158. Ibid. , xxii--,3.159. Ibid. , xxiv, 5.160. De Tranquil l i tate Animi, x i, 3.161. Ibid. , xi, 4.162. Ad Marciam de Conso1atione, xxiv, 5.
163. Ibid. , xxiv:-5.
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4.3
chafe against the narrow bounds or the
bOdY, " ~ umquam magnis ingenis ~ inoorpore ~ est; e:x:ire
atgue erumpere gestiunt, aegre has angustias ferunt,n164 as-heY str ive to attain the l iber ty and freedom or the universe to
which they are accustomed, •vagi per ~ ' sublimes. e t ~ alto
165Adsueti humana despioere."
In man Seneca speaks or the soul as " ~ pars quae melior
est ."166
That property or a man which can neither be given-way nor taken away by
another--"guod proprium hominisestn
16
7__is his rational soul, "animus et rat io in animo.n
168. Man's
thinking apparatus is his soul, for "rationale enim antmal est
homo.n169-
164. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, :x::x:iii, 2.165. Ibid. , :x::x:iii, 2.166. De Constantia Sapientis, vi, .3.167. ~ · xl i , 8.168. Ibid. , :x:li, 8.
169. Ibid. ,xl i ,
8.
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CHAPTER VI
SENECA ANALl"ZES CONSCIENCE
Closely all ied with the subject of the nature of the soul
of man is that faculty of the soul we term "conscience". Nowhere
in the writing of antiquity has this inward voice of approval or
condemnation been so graphically described, in i t se l f and in i t s
operations, as in the works of Seneca. Strange paradox as i t may
seem, Seneca maintains in no uncertain terms that we are account-
able to conscience for the actions we perform. He implies the
existence of conscience when he says there are some benefits that
have a value even greater than l i fe i t se l f, "quaedam beneficia~ maiora vita."l70 But there must be some judge who passes
verdict on the relative values of the beneficia, and since what
is good for one person is not necessarily good for another, thisjudge must be a personal arbi ter , hence conscience. Nature has
implanted within each one of us f i r s t of a l l a knowledge of what
she orders, and then the conscious realization of the obligation
of obeying these commands. We have an ingrained loathing for
that which Nature has condemned, "infixa nobis eius re i aversatio
~ ' quam natura damnavit."l7l This inward l ight of correct
living sees and passes judgment on both what we have done and
170. De Beneficiis, i i i , x, 3.171. ~ · xcvii, 16.
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aligua ~ ••• praestat , nulla securum."l79 Asleep, he is trou
~ e d "inter somnos movetur";180
and in his waking hours he is
more hateful to himself than he is to others, "invisior s ibi quam
181servientibus." He l ives in terror of death, "saepe mortem-imet", 182 but s t i l l he longs to be freed from the "conscientiae-tormentas" and prays for death to come.183 Such phrases, in-
deed, clearly bear witness to the tact that a pagan must have
endured a type of living agony in pursuit of vice, and must have
st i l led the voice of conscience by the more horrible alternative
of completely steeping himself in wickedness. The incomparable
force with which Seneca depicts the operations of this internal
custodian of Nature's laws, permits of the well-founded assump
tion that in his l i fe a t the court of the Caesars, Seneca himself
must have experienced these moral headaches time and again.
As terr ible as are the reproaches of conscience, so great
are the joys of i t s approving nod. He does great things, main
tains Seneca, who teaches how secure and tree is the blessing or
a good conscience, "quam tutum gratuitumque bonum s i t bona ~ -scientia.n184 I f i t is the fate of a wicked man to wish death
that he might be freed from the internal stings of his soul, so
179. ~ · cv, 8.180. Ibid. , cv, 8.181. De Clementia, xi i i , 3.182. Ibid. , xi i i , 3.183. Ibid. , xi i i , 3.
De I ra , i , xvi, 3-4.
184. De Trinquill i tate Animi, i i i , 4.-
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bY the same token we must realize the value of peace of mind. I t
is preferable to even l i fe i t se l f , " ~ potior !11 tamquam ~185~ · " . Whereas a bad conscience seeks to hide i t se l f and
suffers anxiety even in solitude, a good conscience gladly wel-186
comes the crowd, "bona conscientia turbam advocat.ff
Death, as i t actually approaches, presents a harrowing
spectacle for those troubled with fear for their evil deeds.
They endeavor to direct their thoughts away from their many i l l -
spent hours, and thei r multiplied vices. I f they review the
past, at once the wickedness of their l ives comes before them
with i t s accompanying reproach. Only those can look back fear
lessly whose acts have been subjected to the censorship of con-
science, "omnia acta aunt sub censura ~ . n 1 8 7On the other
hand, Seneca te l ls us that at death one can bear witness to him
self that he has loved a good conscience and a l l good endeavor,
Htestatus exibo bonam m! eonscientiam amasse bona studia.n188
Then indeed such a man is following the path towards the gods,
Had deos i t e r faciet.ff189
185. De Beneticiis, i , xi, 4.186. ~ - xli i i , 5.187. De Brevitate Vitae, x, 3.188. De Vita Beata, xx, 5.189. Ibid. , xx, 5.
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CHAP!'ER VII
VIRTUE AND THE SUMMUM BONUM OF SENECAN PHILOSOPHY
Though he differs radically with Stoic thought on many as-
pects of the soul, Seneca is s t r ic t ly in accord with orthodox
teaching concerning the summum bonum of man. Preliminary to his
discussion of r ight l iving, Seneca te l ls us that ffnunc veritatem
••• guaerimusff,190
that the two strong supports of the soul are
trust in the t ruth and confidence, f f ~ ! ! ! plurimum roboris
animo dant, fides veri et fiducia."l9l Happiness is out of the
question tor one who has been thrust outside the pale or t ruth,
•extra veritatem proiectus.n192 In t ine "unless I could at tain
19.3the t ruth, i t were not worth being born," he writes.
" I t takes the whole of l i fe to learn how to l ive,n194he
says, and he pit ies the rabble which flows along in a sort ofmechanical existence "nesciens vivere.nl95 In a number or
beautiful phrases Seneca admonishes us to l ive l i fe to the ful-
lest . I t happens, he says, that often a man very old in years
has no evidence to prove that he has lived long, save his wrin-
kles and gray hair . 196 Such a man has not lived long (vixi t) ,
190. De Otio, i i i , 1.191. !E.·"XCCv ' 46.192. De Vita Beata, v, 2.19.3. Naturales Quaestiones, praef.194. De Brevitate Vitae, vi i , J.195. Ad Marc1am de Consolatione, x, 4.196. De Tranquil i i tate Animi, i i i , 8.
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he has existed long (fui t ) ; he has done not much voyaging (na
vigavit), but much tossing about (iactatus ~ ) . 1 9 7Consider-
man worth as much as his virtue; do not inquire how old he i s ,
"incipe virtutibus illum ~ annis aestimare.n1
98- Long l i fe is
not an essential for intr insic worth, for just as a man of small
stature may be a perfect man, so in a few years of l i fe one may
attain not the furthermost, but the most important goal.l99 For
as Seneca mused in his own waning years, i t another year were
added to l i t e , "fuisset simile praeterito.n200 A ful l l i fe is
really a long l i fe , regardless of how short a span o t years i t
may include. The thing to be striven for is not to l ive long
but to l ive r ightly. As a matter of tact , this is the only ele
ment we have in our control; to l ive long one depends on Fate
only; to l ive rightly, on his own sou1.201
Perhaps i t was with
a sardonic smile that Seneca in his old age mused over the gross
inconsistency between his own lofty ideals and his weak-kneed
failure to l ive according to principle: "The point is not how
long you l ive, but how nobly you l ive. And often this l iving
nobly means that you cannot l ive long" (quam bene vivas refer t
J!2.!!guam diu; saepe autem in .!!Q.Q_ est bene, a ! diu).
202
The
197.198.199.
200.201.
202.
~ Brevitate Vitae, vi i , 10.~ Marciam de Consolatione, xxiv, 1.~ . xci i i , 8 .1Ul· lxx, 12.~ Beneifciis, v, xvii , 2-7.1m,. :x:ci , 8.Ibid. , xci i i , 2.
~ · c i, 15.
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l i fe of a dissolute is really not l i fe a t a l l . Seneca te l ls us
of Heraclitus who wept bi t ter ly on seeing the wretched death
203( ~ O male pereuntium). And he quotes Curius Dentatus as
"preferring to be a dead man than a l ive one dead; for the worst
of a ll i l l s is to leave the number of the l iving before you die"
( ! ! ~ m o r t u u m quam vivere; ultimum malorum est ~ vivorum ,£!!-
. t . i ) 204mero ex1re, an eguam mor1ar s •==----
Beginning the subject of l iving to the fullest , Seneca
writes that l i fe "nee bonum £!£ malum ~ ; boni !£. mali locus
that i t is neither a good nor an evil but a place where
both good and evil exist , and i t is up to each individual to set
his own standards. He te l ls us, WWe must se t before our eyes the
goal of the supreme good, towards which we may str ive, and to
which a l l our acts and words may have reference--just as sailors
must guide thei r course according to a certain star . Life with
out ideals is errat ic: as soon as an ideal is to be se t up, doc-
trines begin to be necessary":
Proponamus oportet finem summi boni, ad quem nitamur, ad quem omne factum nostrum dictumque respiciat ; velut i navigantibus ad aliquod sidusderigendus est cursus. Vita sine proposito vaga
est: quod s i utique proposendum est , incipiuntnecessaria esse decreta.2 b
Then comes the "decreta". The epitome of Stoic perfection was
203. ~ I ra , i i , 10, 5.204. De Tranguill i tate An.imi, v, 5.205. ~ · xcix, 12.
206.~ ·
xcv, 45, 46.
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•living according to nature," the preservation or harmony or
soul, "concordia animi.20 7 One who adhered to this principle in
all the si tuations or l i re possessed "virtus". The following are
tb.e general definitions and qualifications of' a virtuous soul:
•asperis blandisque q u e m ~ adtollent ••• ordinatissimus ~-decore ••• sanus ••• inperturbatus, intrepidus ••• f 'ortuita ~ depri--
such a soul is virtue i tself ' , " ta l i s animus virtus
But Seneca does not mean to imply that a virtuous man
is insensible to hardships," ~
senti ti l la .n
20
9 "Again andagain, I must remind you," he writes, "that I am speaking not of'
tb.e ideal wise man, but or the man who with a l l his imperfections
desires to follow the perfect path (honestam viam), and yet has
passions that are often reluctant to obey.n210
This man rises
•calm and unmoved" (quietus placidusque) to meet whatever assails
him. No proof' of' virtue is ever mild, "numquam vir tu t is molle
211documentum est ." He counts the struggle entailed, as mere
training, "omnia adversa exercitationes putat.n212
And if ' one
be lashed and torn by Fortune, he should look upon himself' not
as the object of' the cruelty of' the Fates, but rather as engag-
207. De Benef'iciis, iv , 25, 1.De Otio, v, 1.De Vita Beata, vi i i , 6.
208. ~ · lxvi , 6.209. De Providentia, 1 i, 2.210. De Benef'iciis, 1 i, xvii1, 4.211. De Providentia, iv , 12.212. Ibid . , 1i, 2.
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ing in a struggle, "quod quo saepius adierimus, fortiores eri -
mus.n213 Disaster is vir tue 's opportunity, "calamitas vir tu t is-----c c a s i o ~ . n 2 1 4 Another aspect of bearing up with l i fe is i t s
shortness of duration, "magno animo brevia feramus incommoda;" 215tor we are no sooner engrossed in the struggle than death is upon
us, "mortalitas aderit .n 216 Such in summary are the divers
descriptions of a virtuous man. Only such a man can be said to
attain the "happy l i fe" ( ~ ego ~ virtute nego beatam vitam
~ o s s e constare.n217
Those are mistaken who claim the events of l i fe are either
good or evi l . Rather i t is the soul in i t s abil i ty to rise supe-
rior to the vicissi tudes of existence, that can turn these events
into a happy or a miserable l i fe :
Errant enim, qui aut boni aliquid nobis aut malum
iudicant tribuere Fortunam; ••• Valentior enim omnifortuna animus est et in utramque partem ipse ressuas dycit beataeque ac miserae vitae sib i causaest.218
I t is the power of the soul to remain unconquerable; to stay a-
loof, as i t were, "invicta vis animi,n 219 amid earthly surround-
ings; to endure for the sake of tantum p r a e m i u m - - " ~ advocabimus
~ a t i e n t i a m ,quos
tantumpraemium
expectat,fel icia
animiimmota
213. ~ Providentia, iv , 12.214. Ibid. , iv , 6.215. ~ I ra , i1i , 43, 5.216. Ibid. , i i i , 43, 5.217. De Beneficiis, iv , 2, J.218. !2· xcvi i i , 2.219. De Vita Beata, iv , 2.
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" l l i t n220
tranaul. as •-The mind must experience no interruption of
joy, "!!!.£. adtollens!:!.! um.guam nee depremens."221 This is the
•vita beata" of the Stoics. Stated otherwise we have the "secu-. . ; . . . ; - -
~ a aspiciat"222
att i tude of the soul in the midst of the great---0mmotions of nature around i t ; the " ~ idemque inter diver-
n223 definition of the immota cited above. This "vita beata"!! - ..;;;....;;...-..,;...;;.;.
incidentally, is quite inclusive, graced as i t is with "perpetua
l ibertas; et n u l l i u s ~ hominis ~ dei timor."224
The virtue so well delineated, is the only immortal thing
which fa l ls to man's lo t , "hoc ~ contingit immortale mortali-
b"225us.~ Some of the more concrete or practical aspects of vir-
tue are brought out when Seneca says that the virtuous man finds
joy only in the present, and puts no t rust whatever in the tu
ture, in so much as whoever leans on uncertainties can bave no
sure aupport. 226 We gather that the summum bonum he had been
speaking of, is immortale because i t is an abstract quantity,
-
220.221 •
222.22) •224.225.
226.
~ ~ . i i i 12, 6.Q! Tranqui l i t a te Animi, i i , 4..!E_. xl i , 4.De Beneficiis, iv , 1, 2.De Constantia Sapientis, v, 5.IJe Vita Beata, iv , J.Ibid. , vi i i , 2.De Constantia Sapientis, vi, J.Ibid. , v i, J..!E.· xvii , 6.JfE.. xcviii , 9.De Vita Beata, vi i i , 4.
De Beneticiis, vi i , i i , 4.
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tberefore has no personality, and hence cannot be subject to
When he uses phrases as "such a soul is virtue i tselfn
or nGod is virtue," he apparently means to at t r ibute to the ani
~ u s and deus the abstract qualit ies of goodness; and since the:;;;o.--
latter is just that , a quality, i t has no material existence and
bence is not subject to the laws of l i fe and death. And in
reverse order he seems to think of "virtus" as possessing the
animate existence of that to which i t has been attr ibuted. The
tact that he deems the virtuous intention as immortale, but the
uous deed or the manifestation of this intention as des
recognition than the mere passing sensation of having
experienced pleasure--is brought out in his answer to Lucilius'
question: "Interrogas, quid petam ~ v i r t u t e ? Ipsam. Nihil
habet melius, ipsa pretium sui ."227 Virtue i t se l f is i t s
reward. Moreover, the true joy of a good man (sapiens) come
from within himself, " ~ ~ ~ gaudium peteret ,n228 for he has
everything invested within himself, nomnia i n ~ reposuit.n229
Virtue establishes a friendship between the gods and men, he
, giving us to understand that there is some sort of rela
our good deeds and the supernatural element.2
3°Seneca says that "nulli non virtus e t vivo et mortuo ret---- -
227. De Vita Beata, ix , 4.228. Ad He!Viam de Consolatione, v, 1.229. De Constantia Sapientis, v, 4.
230. De Providentia, i , 5.
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231tu l i t gratiam," we can hardly assume that the "virtus mortua~re t tu l i t gratiam" has reference to heaven or remuneration in the-i fe hereafter for the good one has done here in mortal exist-
232ence. In view of his general att i tude on the subject,
seneca merely wants to indicate the good name one will leave be
hind him, the reputation and example of having been a «vir sapi-
ens et virtuosus."- -Taking strong issue with the Epicureans who would have
their summum bonum consist in well-satisfied appetites during a
l i fe interspersed with a good deal of otium, this champion of
stoic r igidi ty severely cri t ic izes their desire for pleasure.
"Voluptas fragil is est , brevis ••• in qua nihi l est magnificum aut
suod naturam hominis ••• deceat.n233
He protests against the
"virtus" by the Epicureans in connection with the idea of pleas
ure. Virtue despises pleasure, treats i t as an enemy, and re
coils from i t as far as i t can.234 We learn that the "pleasurefl
(voluptas) means only bodily satisfactions, when Seneca says
that a l l our happiness should not be placed "!!!. carnen, because
"bona i l la sunt ~ quae ratio dat.n 235He does say, however,
truly but as i f i t were a rather sheepish admission, that ttwhat-
231. !£• lxxix, 18.232. Of. post, 93 f.233. De Beneficiis, vi i , i i , 3.
234. Ibid. , iv , i i , 4.235. ~ · lxxiv, 16.
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ever fortune should send my way will turn o ~ t for the best, but
I prefer that what befalls me should be the more pleasant and
agreeable things, and those which will be less troublesome to
236manage." Which may indicate one of two things. I t might
mean, in the f i r s t place, that he was willing to accept both the
good and the hard things of l i fe and would make the best out of
them, although i t were just human nature to find i t easier to
accept the more enjoyable happenings. On the other hand i t might
i l lustrate that while a l l his teaching on how to l ive and be a
happy man by the practice of natural vir tue, was a good thing in
i tself , nevertheless, there were circumstances when i t would be
greatly to his advantage to act otherwise. From a l l indications,
i t was quite definitely the l a t te r view that Seneca took when he
preferred the "facil iora !£ iucundiora"; for he te l ls us quite
bluntly, and more in accord with the spi r i t of Senecan than of
the Stoic philosophy, that we should "observe and avoid long be-
fore i t happens, anything that is l ikely to do us harm," (quod-
cumque laesurum est , multo ante quam accidat, speculare et a-
verte).237
The opposite of virtue is evil . Having seen in what
Seneca's virtue consisted, we might describe with considerable
accuracy his ideas of evil . In dealing with the subject of evil ,
236. De Vita Beata, xxv, 5.237. ~ . - x c Y i i i , 7.
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57
however, he is quite brief and holds opinions which are in com-
plete accord with Scholastic philosophy. All vices, says Seneca,
rebel against nature, they are a violation of the established
order, "omnia vi t ia contra naturam pugnant, omnia debitum ordinEIIl238
deserunt," which is about as sage an expression as one will--find among pagan moralists. He repeats the idea, but lends
rorce to i t by a contrast with the good order of virtue: "virtus
vcundum naturam est , vi t ia inimica et infesta sunt.n239 .And
while there is "consensus atque unitas" where virtue is present,
"dissident vi t ia" .24° I f man depends on his worst quali t ies to
make him enjoy l i fe , his will be a storm-tossed career ful l of
uneasiness;241
"such is the tyranny under which that man must
live who surrenders to the bondage of any passion" {in tyrannide
i l l i vivendum est in alicuius adfectus venienti servitutem). 242
A sort of "part icular examen" is advocated by Seneca for the
correction of personal fai l ings, "hoc mihi sat is est , cotidie
aliguid ~ vi t i i s meis demere et errores meos objurgare.n243
While the idea is laudable, we venture to say i t is not suggest
ed as the result of Seneca's experience. The daily elimination
of one fault is too optimistic a view of Seneca's will-power--
238. !£• cxxii , 5.239. !£· 1 , 9.240. De Vita Beata, vi i i , 6.241. cr. post, p. 67.242. De I ra , i , x, 2.243. De Vita Beata, xvii , 3.
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anybody's for that matter.
At i t s best the virtue of Seneca consists in an att i tude
of haughty, proud superiority in receiving the various condi
tions with which man's existence is frought. "Contemnite", is
the mental att i tude advised, whether we be confronted with
ttdolorem", "paupertatem" or in general any type of "fortunan. 244
The fear of death seems to be the only thing Seneca had dif f i -
culty in conquering. But, he says, "once we have death in our
own power, we are in the power of nothing" ( ~ sumus in ull ius
p_otestate, ~ ~ i n nostra potestate s i t ) . 245 "Ferte for
ti ter,"246 he te l l s us, and from being equal to the gods, 247
you will even surpass them, "hoc est guo deum antecedatis.n248
244. De Providentia, vi, 6-8.245. Ep. xci, 21.
6-8.e Providentia, vi,246. Ibid. , vi, 6-8.247. !E.· xl i , 4.248. De Providentia, vi, 6.
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CH.API'ER VIII
SENECA LIVING LIFE IN VIEW OF DEATH
Almost in Scriptural figure Seneca queries with reference
to man: "Q,uid est homo?" He is but a vessel so f ra i l that the
sl ightest ja r will break (quolibet quassu!!! et quolibet fragile
iactatu). 249 Everything connected with human existence is-short-lived and perishable, and is of i t s nature of temporary
duration, (omnia humana brevia et caduca sunt et inf in i t i tem-
~ o r i s nullam partem occupantia). 25° Seneca terms l i fe the most
precious thing in the world ( ~ pretiosissima), and condemns
men for t r i f l ing with i t and consuming i t with frivolous pur
suits. Often we fa i l to appreciate l i fe as we should because i t
is an incorporeal thing, because sub oculos non venit , and for
this reason "vilissima aestimatur,immo
paene nullum eius pretium~ . " 2 1 Life is short , but even this short time allotted to us
rushes by with such speed that at the end but few find they have
really l ived. 252 Life is short, but we make i t so; nor do we
have any lack of i t , but are wasteful of i t . 253"Vita brevis,
etiam s i dies noctesque bonae menti laboremus.n254 Even should
we recall to mind the ages of men who have lived the longest and
249. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xi, J.250. Ibid. , x x i , ~ .251. De Brevitate Vitae, vi i i , 1.252. Ibid. , i , 1.253. Ibid. , i , 4.
254. De Vita Beata, i , 2.
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in recalling them, desire such a lengthy existence, Seneca re
i n d s us in this reverie that ,
cum ad omne tempus dimiseris animum, nulla er i ti l la brevissimi longissimique aevi differentia ,
s i inspecto quanto quis v i ~ ~ r i t spatio compara-veris quanto non vixerit .Zj} ·
60
Just what does one look forward to when thinking of death?
This is what Seneca queries; and in his cold, material search
tor the answer, he opines that i t is merely the final termina
tion in a succession of events. The major portion of death has
already passed, in so much as our past years are now in the hands
of death.256
Why should one's las t hour be said to bring death,
when in reali ty i t merely completes the death process? I t is not
the las t drop that empties the water-clock, but a l l that which
previously has flowed out. True, we reach death at that las t
o m e n t ,but we have been on the way a long time.
2
57 Death wearsus away, but i t does not whirl us away, ncarpit ~ i l la , ~corrinit.n258 His phrase, " ~ v i t a nihi l aliud quam ad mortEm~ est ,n259 sums up the journey aspect of l i fe .
260We have
been placed on earth "ad brevissimum tempus," and should view our
~ t a y as a sojourn at an inn.261
"Tacita labetur":262
thus our
255. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xxi, 3.256. ~ - i , 2. - -257. ~ · xxiv, 20, 21.258. ~ - cxx, 18.259. Ad Polybium de Consolatione, xi, 1.260. ~ · xcix, 7.--261. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xxi, 1.
262.De Brevitate-vitae, vi i i , 5.Cf. Virgil , Georgics, i i i , 66 Seq.
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l ife will glide along. I t will neither reverse nor check i t s
00urse; nor will i t remind one of i t s swiftness. The passing of
our l i fe-span will stop neither a t the command of a king nor a t
the applause of the populace. As i t started on the f i r s t day, so
i t will run along; nowhere will i t turn aside, nowhere will i t
delay.263
Another view Seneca would take of our l i fe-span is that of
a good which has been loaned us. The wise man, he te l ls us,
lives as one who has been lent to himself and·who will return
everything without sorrow when i t is reclaimed. His possessions,
even his personal faculties have been given him on sufferance.264
our dear ones are granted to us not as permanent possessions but
at loan.265
Some of these blessings which adorn l i fe ' s stage
will be recalled on the f i r s t day, others on the second, while
others we shal l be permitted to use t i l l the end. Everything is
tor our use and enjoyment, but i t must be r ~ e m b e r e d that a l l is
subject to change and return to nature. 266
In describing death, Seneca becomes t ruly picturesque in
many of his expressions. The general theme is well summed up in
his Epistle referring to l i fe as being a preparation for death.
Though wanting in the supernatural element, the passage is in
263. De Brevitate Vitae, vi i i , 5.264. De Tranquillitate Animi, xi, 1.265. Ad Polybium de Consolatione, x, 4.266. Ad Marciam De Consolatione, x, 2.
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substance thoroughly Christian. We quote:
As the mother's womb holds us for ten months,making us ready, not for the womb i t se l f , but forthe existence into which we seem to be sent forthwhen at las t we are fi t ted to draw breath and l ive
in the open; just so, throughout the years extending between infancy and old age, we are making ourselves ready for another birth. A different beginning, a different condition awaits us. We cannotyet, except at rare intervals, endure the l ight ofheaven; therefore, look forward without fearing tothat appointed hour,--the las t hour of the body butnot of the soul. Survey everything that l ies aboutyou, as i f i t were luggage in a guest-chamber. Youmust travel on. Nature str ips you as bare at yourdeparture as a t your entrance. You may take awayno more than you brought in; what is more, you mustthrow away the major portion of that which youbrought with you--that which has been your las tprotection; you will be stripped of the flesh, andlose the blood which is suffused and circulatedthrough your body; you will be stripped of bonesand sinews, t ~ g 7 f r a m e w o r k of these transitory andfeeble parts .
62
Therefore to l ive l i fe in view of death, this is what
seneca would admonish us to do. And while death is on the one
hand the most certain of human destinies, 268 on the other hand
nothing could be more uncertain as to i t s actual approach. He
cautions us to profi t by the .time granted us "sine dilatione",
for no promise has been given of this night, "nay, even for this
hour" (nihil de hodierna nocte promittitur--nimis magnam advo
cationem dedi--, nihi l de hac hora. Festinandum est , instatur a
267. ~ · ci i , 23.
268. !£. lxvi, 42-43.
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269~ r g g _ ) . Remorseless Fate has assigned a l imit to the l ives
of us a l l , but none of us knows how near he is to this l imit .
seneca warns us concerning death that , "hodie f ier i potest ,
~ i c g u i d umguam potest"; 27° whatever can happen at any time can
happen today. I t is easy to dispense an amount that is assign-
ed, no matter how small i t is ;271
but since there is no fixed
count of our years, our present l i fe must be guarded more care-
fully since i t may fa i l we know not when. 272 Hence le t us so
order our minds as i f we had come to the very end, "sic itaque
:f'ormemus animum, tamquam ad extrema ventum s i t . Nihil differa-
~ · " 2 7 3 Daily, le t us check our accounts, "cotidie .£!!!!!vita
Baria faciamus";274 and le t us so l ive that nothing that can
happen shall be unexpected.275
And i f God should be pleased to
add another day we shall welcome i t with glad hearts. That man
is happiest, and is secure in his own possession of himself, who
can await the morrow without apprehension. When a man has said,
"I have l ived!", every morning he arises he receives a bonus:
Crastinum s i adiecerit deus, lae t i recipiamus.
269. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, x, 4.Ad P o l f b i u m ~ e Consolatione, ix , 9.
270. ~ · lx1i i , 107271. De Brevitate Vitae, vi i i , 3.272. Ep. xxvi, 7.
!E_. lxxiv, 3.273. !E_. c i, 7.274. Ibid. , c i, 7.275. De Tranquillitate Animi, xi, 6.
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I l le beatissimus est et securus sui possesor, quicrastinum sine sollicitudine expectat. Quisquisdixi t "vixi t ," cotidie ad lucrum surgit.Z7o
The wise man who has used his l i fe to the ful les t , who has not
squandered any of i t by neglect or wasteful l iving, will not
hesitate to go to meet death with steady step. 277
Seneca's ideas on the subject of l i fe in view of death can
perhaps best be i l lustrated by the description he gives of his
own standards of l iving:
I am endeavoring to l ive every day as i f i t
were a complete l i fe . I do not indeed snatch i tup as i f i t were my last ; I do regard i t , however,as i f i t might even be my las t . The present l e t teris written to you with this in mind--as i f deathwere about to call me away in the very act of writing. I am ready to depart, and I shall enjoy l i fejust because I am not over-anxious as to the futuredate of my departure.278
276. ~ · xi i , 9.277. De Brevitate Vitae, xi, 2.278. Ep. lxi , 2.
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CHAPTER IX
SENECA'S THOUGHTS ON DEATH
65
We have seen in deta i l the philosophy which governed the
l i fe of Seneca, his motivating ideals (theory and practice), his
atti tude towards the Source of l i fe in the universe, and his re
alization of the superior part of man's essence, the soul. A
thorough understanding of these fundamental principles as influ
encing Seneca is necessary, before i t is possible to get an in
timate view of his mind on the subject of death. I f he recog
nizes a God to Whom we are responsible for our deeds, doubtless
he will also recognize some standard of morality, to the observ
ance of which some definite sanction is attached. Should his
God be total ly indifferent to the material world, our deeds will
be accountable only to ourselves for sanction.
I f Seneca's summum bonum is attained while man is in exis
ence on earth, then death will mean l i t t l e other than the cessa
tion of this good and man's passing into oblivion. Pleasure,
depending on his point of view, is what every philosopher sought.
Entirely contingent on his theses concerning God, the existence
of the soul, and i ts nature, did each of them formulate codes of
virtue and catalogues of vice. A standard of l i fe which sought
none other than present physical well-being would naturally de
lineate virtue as a purely convenient quality. Vice on the
other hand, was said to be evil only in so far as i t entailed
suffering. Each, virtue and vice, would contain i ts own imme-
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the inherent worth of such goods can only be enhanced by the
well-nigh supreme value that has been placed on them. I t is ,
therefore, the universal testimony of mankind in a l l ages and a l l
places that bears out this precept of the natural law that man
endeavors to protect his l i fe . And in proportion as man is im
pelled to the desire of continued l i f e , so is he stricken with
that fear of a l l fears, the dread of ceasing to l ive--the fear
of death. And since the urge to l ive is supplanted only by the
recognition of a higher good, so the fear of death is alleviatedsolely by the appreciation one conceives for a greater benefit
to be obtained in dying.
In his accounts of the l as t moments of l i fe and explana
tions of the certainty of death with i t s accompanying uncertain
elements, Seneca uses terms that are as keen in perception and
beautiful in analysis as any others written in Latin. Few i f
any of the poets have as real is t ical ly described death as Seneca,
and at the same time maintained his beauty of expression. Did
he have the ideals of Christianity to permeate the purely natural
outlook he takes, Seneca would, indeed, rank among the l i terary
lights of the Christian Church. Many of his expressions bear a
remarkable paral lel to the words of Holy Scripture; but rather
than indicate any Christian influence on Seneca, they serve but
to i l lus t ra te how the Church applies the supernatural viewpoint
to many of the natural events of l i f e , how she merely directs
them to thei r supernatural end. Seneca's discussions on death
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include: a) living one's l i fe in preparedness for death; b) man's
natural love of existence; c) the fear of death and the efforts
man would take to avoid this event; d) the certainty of death as
alsO the uncertainty of i t s time and circumstances; e) the lack
of discrimination death shows towards youth or age; f) whether
death be a good or an evil; g) suicide; h) and continued exist
ence af ter death. The subject will be studied in topics in the
order mentioned.
Throughout the writings of Seneca there is no other
thought which more persistently recurs than the subject of death
and l i fe hereafter. The thought impresses the reader that re
gardless of what matter Seneca may be dealing with, there inev
itably creeps into the discussion death, as though i t were the
pervading element of the topic. Which fact i l lustrates the con
tention that Seneca was a deep-thinking man who saw and realized
long ahead of time the final mortality which awaits the things of
earth. There is no one so ignorant as not to know we must some-
time die, he wrote, " ~ tam imperitus est , ut nesciat quandoque
moriendum."282 This fact also brings out, in spite of his mul
t iplied arguments to the contrary, that while the many disagree
able situations of l i fe could be forestalled or meliorated (even
by the sacrifice of principles), and that while dread of conse
quences for this or that action might be rationalized-away, s t i l l
282. ~ · lxxvii , 11.
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that ter r ib le , inexplainable, but positive fear of death seemed
mockingly to triumph over a l l his philosophizing.283 So defi
nitely is this the case that Seneca t e l l s us that once we have
the rear of death in our power, we shal l even surpass the
gods. 284 And, therefore, save in the one instance we have
quoted when a greater good than self-preservation is proposed to
the mind, his one remedy for this fear is ffmortem contemnere."285
Like a man frightened out or his senses going through an old
mansion, he would reassure himself by shouting, laughing a t the
thing feared, in the attempt to deceive himself that i t was by a
nothing that he had been frightened, ffnosmet ipsi fallamus.ff 286
"I shall look upon death as a comedy with the same expression of
countenance," says Seneca, in the attempt to conceal his actual
fear. 287 Endeavoring to dismiss with a shrug of the shoulders
the natural dread of death, Seneca says that death is af ter a l l
an insignificant t r i f le over which men unduly trouble themselves,
."minimum. est , de quo sol l ic i issime agi tur . ff288He says the
fear of death is the bane of one's existence, the curse which
lays a curse on everything else, ffmiserrimus ~ miserrima omnia
283. De Beneficiis, v, xvii , 2-7.284. cr. ante, pp. 35, 55.
!E.· xl i , 4.De Providentia, vi, 6.
285. ~ · xxxvi, 8.286. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xix, 1.287. De Vita Beata, xx, 3.
2 8 8 ~ Ep. xci i i , 12.
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]Otest n i s i ~ sapiente praestari ."298
The cause of this fear of death is r ightfully recognized by
seneca as being man's desire to l ive. At no time does he deny
the natural clinging to l i fe evidenced by the extreme measures
one takes to preserve i t . But since in nourishing this desire
one must also face the realization and consequent fear of ap-
proaching death, Seneca would have us t ry to be indifferent
towards l i fe i t s e l f . Rather than have the pleasure of living
th the dread of dying, he would sacrifice the former in the
deavor to dismiss the l a t t e r . There is only one chain which
binds us to l i f e , he t e l l s us, and that chain is the love we
tor l i fe ; this chain may not be cast off , but i t may be rubbed
away, " ~ est catena, quae B£! all igatos tenet, ~ v i t a e , qui~ est abiciendus, i ta minuendus est .n299 In almost Scho-
lastic phrasing we are told that nature has molded our souls so
that they natural ly love their own existence, "animos ••• quos in
: = ~ ~ sui natura formavit,"300 and that a l l men tend to pre-
"sicut feruntur omnes ad conservation
Seneca makes a graphic as well as accurate comparison
he likens a man clinging to l i fe to a person being carried
298. ~ · x:x::x, 8.~ · l:x::xvii, 11.299. ~ · :x::xvi, 10.300. !£• x:x::xvi, 9.301. Ibid. , x:x::xvi, 9.
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74
to think that in asking for continued suffering he were
seeking a continuance of l i fe , "optatur et tamquam ~supplici ~ . n 3 0 5
Granted that the love of l i fe is natural, that the fear of
is natural, i t must be remembered i t was in Seneca's philo-
to desire that which entailed the least suffering and in -What, therefore, would be his att i tude towards this
of closing l i fe , what would be his remedy for this si tua-
The attempt to r id oneself of the tear of death is two-
in i t s nature. The f i r s t part consists in an attempt to
oneself as to the nature of death, laugh at i t , scorn the
that death can subdue man; and the second is an attempt to
to logic and cold reason that since death has been decreed
or us, i t should be accepted with Stoic gravity, with no more or
ot soul than any other event which comes our
"Nam ~ illam bene rexi t nisi qui contemserat.n3°6
sums up Seneca his own mental att i tude toward death. He
not what was beyond; he fe l t that there would be something
o meet, but he was sure only of the past and of the present.
this Roman pragmatist would follow his own advice and
305. ~ · c i, 12.
306. ~ · cxi, 5.
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his death bed. In such circumstances, one draws up his will
an " i n ~ o r r u p t u m iudicem.n3ll Never do we wrestle more in
decisions than when with death staring us in the face;
a l l self- interest banished (remotis ut i l i ta t ibus) , only the
ideal of good remains before our eyes (solum ante oculos honestum
312We dispose of our material goods in a disinterested
for the f i r s t time--after seeking those most wor
hy of inheriting our possession, "quaerimus dignissimos". For
what difference does i t make to whom we give since no one
make us any return?, "quid enim interest , quibus demus ~recepturi?"3l3 Implied herein is Seneca's confession that
is l i fe was guided by such motives as the "ut i l i tas" , and the
of acting for personal gain alone. These phrases l ike
carry Seneca's implied condemnation of such a manner of
On the subject of death, i t has been noted that Seneca goes
o great length endeavoring either to do away with the fear of
or to acquire the courage necessary to bear this aff l ict ion
Recalling one of the general tenets of his system,
remember the word of advice he gave to Lucilius: "Observe and
long before i t happens, anything that is l ikely to do you
( quodcumque laesurum est , multo ante quam accidat s ~ e c u l a r e
311. De Beneficiis, iv , xi, 5.312. Ibid. , 1V, Xi, 4.
313. Ibid. , iv, xi, 4.
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et averte).314---- The inevitabili ty of death preoccupied seneca
a ll his l i fe , much of which was spent in avoiding this very ob-
vious "quod laesurum est". Whatever may be said of Seneca's in-
consistency in his teachings, he must be given credit for facing
the t ruth. I f an- unpleasant condition arose, he surely endeav-
ored to get around i t some way or another; but unlike the incred-
ulous of today, Seneca in hi.s saner moments refused to deny the
existence of conditions such as they are. I t is foolish to fear
death, he says, since men simply must await what is sure. They
should fear only what is uncertain, " ~ u a m ideo timere dementia
~ ' quia certa expectantur, dubia metuuntur.n3l5 Our minds
ust be ever in readiness, never fearing "id quod necesse est ,"
but always ready for whatever may be (quod incertum est).316
Seneca becomes t ruly poetic and certainly uses the clearest of
logic in discussing the certainty of death.
"Morti natus ~ , n 3 l 7 completely t e l l s us what was in
Seneca's mind concerning the end of man. This is the condition
under which man comes into the world. Parents know this; and i f
this knowledge they s t i l l bring forth children, they must be
reconciled to the fact that they are the remote instruments ofplacing thei r offspring in the path of death.3lS For mortals
314.315.316.317.318.
~ . xcvi i i i 7.~ . xxx, 1 •AU Polybium de Consolatione, xi, 3.U9 T r a n ~ u i l l i t a t e Ariimi, i , 13.An M a r c ~ a m de Consolatione, xvii , 7.
Ad Polybium de Consolatione, xi, 3.
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can but beget their l ike: "Mortalis nata ~ ' mortales peperi
sti.n319 Our death is proclaimed at our bir th, " ~ enim i l l i
enuntiata nascenti est,n320 and everyone who is privileged to
be born is destined to die, "cui nasci cont igi t , mori restat .n3 21
Whoever complains about the death of anyone, is merely complain
ing that he was a man, "(f le t ) quisquis aliquem queritur mortuum
esse, gueritur hominem fuisse."3 22---- For l i fe has been granted us
only on the condition that we must die. Therefore, he who would
find faul t with death, cannot wish to have l ived, "vivere noluit ,
sui mori non vult,n323 since no one is able to be born without
paying the penalty for being human, "nulli contigit impune ~ -ci."324 And, indeed, amid the turmoil of earthly pursuits ,
nothing is certain regarding man save the fact that he will die:
"in tanta volutatione rerum humanarum nihi l cuiquam nis i mors
certum est .n 325
Some people think that in l iving longer this continuance of
l i fe enables them to avoid death. They look upon the death of a
young person as being premature. There is s t r ic t ly speaking no
319. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xi, 1.320. Ibid . , x, 5-.-
321. ~ · xcix, 8.De Beneficiis , iii, xxxi, 2.De Tranquil l i tate Animi, xi, 6.
322. Ep. xcix, 8.323. !E· xxx, 10.324. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xv, 4.
Ad Polybium de Consolatione, xi, 3.Ibid. , i , 1.
325. ~ · xcix, 9.
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such thing as a premature death, and no matter how a person l ives
ne cannot escape the inevitable lo t of man. 326 Moreover death
is no respecter of persons whether as p e r t ~ i n s to age327 or sta
tion in l i fe . 328 Neither are we summoned according to our rat
ing on the censor's l i s t , "rum citamur ~ censu."329
With keen insight into the psychology of the mind, Seneca
tel ls those who are i l l that "you will die not because you are
i l l , but because you are alive; even when you have been cured,
the same end awaits you; when you have recovered, i t will, not be
death but i l l health, that you have escaped" (morieris, ~ quia
aegrotas, sed quia vivis. Is ta te ~ et sanatum manet; ~ .£.2,£-
valueris, ~ m o r t e m , sed valetudinem effugies).330 Death has'
i ts fixed rule equal and unavoidable, "aeguam e t 1nvictam."33l
Associating the supernatural element with the subject of
death, Seneca would give the impression that the divinity, his
Fata or Natura, has previous knowledge of the circumstances of
the death of everyone, and has fixed the time l imit of each one's
326. ~ · xci i i , 12.
Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xi, 5.Ep. xii , 6 . -327. !£• lxvi, 42.
Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xxi, 6.Ep. xxvi , 7-;-
328. De Brevitate Vitae, vi i i , 5.329. ~ · xii , 6.330. !£• lxxvi i i , 6.
331. !£. xxx, 11.
~ · lxvi , 43.
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span of l i fe . To suppose that the duration of man's l i fe were
controlled merely by blind chance, that the death of the young,
unexpected deaths and the l ike happened for no reason at al l , was
just too much for the fai th which dwelt in the breast of Pagan
seneca. His writings i l lus t ra te the fact that he fe l t someone 01
something controlled the number of man's years.
He quotes Demetrius when the l a t ter addressed the gods, ~immortales, vult is spiritum.? Q,uidni? Nullam. moram faoiam, quo
nimis recipiat is quod dedistis.n332 In saying nFata nos du-
- - - - - -cunt," Seneca again at t r ibutes to the supernatural element the
faculty of guiding the destinies of man, and he says that i t was
settled at the f i r s t hour of bir th what length of time remains
for each.333 Throughout our l i fe , the Fates ply thei r work and
keep us from being conscious that we are dying, so that death may
steal upon us the more easily. As infancy changes into boyhood,
boyhood into adolescence, followed by old age, death is always
us, lurking under the name of l i fe.334 In coming into l i fe
have entered "in regnum fortunae", and since she governs the
length of our days, "durum atgue invictumn is her law.335
consoles Polybius on the death of his brother saying that
332. De Providentia, v, 5.333. Ibid. , v, 7.
Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xi i , 4.334. Ibid . , xxi, 6.
335. Ibid. , x, 6.
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while "rerum natura illum t ib i dedit ,"336
s t i l l nature has made
i t clear that she exempts no one from her stern law, "natura
nulli ~ necessitatis ~ gratiam facturam ~ t e s t a t a est.n337
-The termination of l i fe is just where the remorseless law of
rate has fixed i t , "ubi illum inexorabilis fatorum necessitas
fixit,n338 and a l l prayers and struggles, "vota ~ studia,"
spent in trying to avoid death, "frustra sunt."339 At birth
the-time l imit of each one's l i fe is fixed, hence no one dies
too soon since he l ives only as long as he was destined to l ive;
he has f i l led his capacity for living.340 Virgil 's "Metasque~ pervenit ad aevi,n34l is the authority for Seneca's state
ment. While he continuously dwells on the inevitabil i ty of
death, throughout there is a tone of respect for the divinity as
the master of the final disposition of man on earth. There is
the intimation of an intel l igent being directing man's destiny.
In one place Seneca states that , "now is the time for you
to ref lect , not only that a l l things are mortal, but also that
their mortality is subject to no fixed law.n342 And again:
336. Ad Polybium de Consolations, x, 4.337. Ibid. , xi, 1.338. ~ · c i, 7.339. Ad Marciam de Consolations, xxi, 6.340. Ibid. , x x i , ~ .
Ibid. , xxi, 6.De Providentia, v, 7.Ep. ci, 7.
341. Aeneid, x, 472.
342. ~ · lx i i i , 16.
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is no fixed count of our years." 343These statements
in direct variance with a ll we have been told concerning the
terminus cuique," " ~ c o n s i l i o , " "naturae lege." In i t -
the inconsistency would fa l l r ight in l ine with the many
found in Senecan arguments, but unlike many others,
difficul ty is readily explained. The "incerta lege" or
UII I , is "incerta" only in so far as man is concerned.
l ive, not knowing when the las t hour will come upon us. But
he implied contention is that subjective ignorance on our part
nothing to do with the objective existence or a law governing
he length or time each individual shal l l ive.
From a philosophical point of view the fact of death, the
or l i fe , seems to have raised many questions in the
or Seneca. ~ o r s quid est?"344 he asks, and shortly fol
with his own answer. Death is either the end or a process
f change, "aut finis aut transitus.n345 In any case Seneca
judges that i t is not a state or existence or a con-
"Mors ad te venit; timenda erat , s i t e c u m ~ posset;
necesse est a u t ~ perveniat aut transeat.n346 I t occurs
has passed. Then there arises the obvious problem as with
l l things pertinent to the existence of man, is death a good or
evil? Seneca here presumes to convince us with the syllogism
343. ~ · xxvi, 7.344. ~ · lxv, 24.
345. Ibid. , lxv, 24.346 • ~ . i v' 3.
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83
f zeno, the founder of' the Stoic school: "Nullum malum gloriosum.
; ~ autem gloriosa est; mors ergo BQn est malum.n347 Ex
Seneca, "Prof'ecisti!"348 as he credits the master with
he solution of' the problem. Far from assuring us even of' his
credence in such a groundless proof', Seneca gives us herein
note of' his own cowardice, an i l lustrat ion of' his " le t us de
ourselves" att i tude seen earl ier in this paper.349 As
of' his s t i l l doubting mind, we find many i l lustrat ions
n his various works, the sole argument of' which is an attempt to
that death is no evi l . Though his writings are replete with
negative type of' argument, we must look far before coming
any reason at a ll for referring to death as "mora gloriosa."
terms death a blessing in so much as i t releases us from our
"in malis optimum, supplicii f'inis"350 and he must even
this statement by saying those who do not view death as
are ignorant of' thei r own i l l s , "0 ignaros malorum suorum
~ ~ ut optimum inventum naturae laudatur expectatur
And he repeats the same point la ter in saying that ,
mali mors at tu l i t ; omniua etiam malorum remisit patien
I t is therefore only in view of' man's l iberation from
347.348.349.
350.351.
352.
~ · lxxxii , 9.Ibid. , lxxxii , 9.Ad Marciam de Consolatione,ct. ante, p:-66.
~ · oi, 12.Ad Marciam de Consolatione,
Ibid. , XX, 0.
xix, 1.
XX, 1 .
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84
he sufferings of l i fe that death is to be looked upon as "glori-
sum". For Seneca adhered to the s t r ic t Stoic teaching, that as
in i t se l f and independent of the good i t may procure
or man, "Mors .a!2. bonum nee malum est . n353 He explains this
by saying that only "that which is something" (quod
est) is able to be a good or an evil .
The wise man, the Stoic wise man, must apply to death a l l
he mental atti tudes with which he views other disagreeable ne
I f he has acquired t rue virtue, Stoic virtue, he will
neither death nor the gods, knowing "mortem m a l u m ~ ! ! ! ! 'n2B ~ . n 3 5 4 Just why death is no evil ; well, i t a-
is the privilege of mankind, " ~ ius aecum generis ~ -Mere assertion proves nothing, hence i t is concluded
ffprivilegen aspect of death is merely i t s common aspect,
d since what is in store for every man must come to each, death
be looked upon as a right . Somewhat in the same vein
be the argument that i l lness is common to mankind; h e n c e ~o bear i t with patience one must cultivate the mental att i tude
i t is one of man's privileges. Seneca weakens somewhat in
"mors in ter ! ! ! ! est , quae mala quidem ~ ~ ~ ta habent mali speciem."356 He ta i ls as he so often does, to
353. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xix, 4.354. !E.· lxxv, rr:355. !£• cxxii i , 16.~ · cxvii , 22.
356. ~ · lxxxii , 15.
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to by most. They would spend a great part of l i fe sacrif icing
ideals and stooping to the most immoral conduct with the one end
in view, to avoid suffering and death. But strangely enough,
when the ir las t resources had been exhausted, when no hope re
mained, when l i fe had to be faced as i t was, they calmly took
their own l ives . This being a convenient means of escape, the
violence of i t s nature required more than ordinary rat ionaliza-
t ion of one's mind regarding the benefi ts to be derived from sui-
cide. Seneca accordingly in many instances t r ies to convince
himself that suicide is jus t i f iable .
He informs us that a study of Socrates wil l teach one how
to die i f i t be necessary, but that application to the words of
Zeno wil l enable one to die before i t is necessary, "Socrates te
docebit ~ s i necesse er i t , Zeno antequam necesse eri t .n368
Life with a l l i t s hardships is worth while only because death is
always available, ttcaram te , vi ta , beneficio mortis habeo.n369
By one step, " ~ gradu,n one may pass from the world or t r i a l to
that of freedom, nlicet ad l ibertatem transire.n370 During l i f e
i t is the duty or a man to make himself agreeable to others; so
Seneca believed, following the teachings of the Epicureans. But
as to our death, one need please himself alone. The best type of
368. ~ · civ, 22.
369. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xx, 3.
370. Ibid . , xx, 3.
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death is the one we l ike: "Vitam et al i i s adprobare quisque deb
~ ' mortem sibi . Optima est , quae placet.n37l In accordance
with these words, he says that just as one selects his ship for a
~ o y a g e , or a house when taking up his residence, so when he is
ready, "eligam sic mortem exiturus e vita.n372 In the vicissi-
tudes of l i fe , many people pray for death. "Demens" is the word
by which Seneca designates them. For just as against thei r will
i t has been sett led that a ll must some day die, so the time of
death is in their own hands. The former is a necessity, but the
la t ter is a privilege: "invita positum est , ut ~ v o l e s , in tua
~ a n u est . Alterum t ibi necesse ~ ' alterum licet.n373 He even
goes further in saying that one often has the duty of destroying
~ i m s e l f , "saepe mori debemus.n374 In three instances,375 Seneca
~ a k e s the trouble to enumerate the various ways and means of com-
~ i t t i n g suicide, pointing out the vi ta l parts or the body. He
offers the additional stimulus to the yet fearful, of exalting thE
371. ~ · lxx, 12-13.372. Ibid. , lxx, 11.
373. Ep.c x v ~ ~ ,
22.374. !£. lxxvii , 10•.ID2.. xxvi, 10.
375. De Providentia, v i, 7-8.De Ira, i i i , xv, 4.
~ · lxx, 21.
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courage required to take one's own l i f e .376
We are to under
stand that nothing but our own will need postpone death: "Scias
ad moriendum nihi l aliud in mora esse quam velle."377--- - - - - In this
90
feature of Senecan philosophy perhaps more than in any other in
stance do we find a radical variance with the standard of his
summum bonum. Senecan principle of rectitude and correct living
is based on the "rerum natura." "Secundum naturam" is his slo-
gan. But in the matter of suicide, i t is a fact born out by ex
perience that this act is in complete rebellion to the propaga
tion and nurturing of l i fe as demanded by nature. Did Seneca not
te l l us that i t is by instinct (instinctu voluntario} that a l l
men tend to preserve their existence? "Sicut feruntur omnes ad
conservationem sui.n378 But in upholding suicide, Seneca wrote
that we must le t every season and every place teach us how easy
i t is to renounce Nature379 and fl ing her gif t back in her face,
" ~ t e m p u s , omnia .!.2.!. locus doceat quam facile s i t renuntiare
naturae et munus i l l i suum impingere.n380 This is Seneca's mor-
ta l sin against his own conscience. Cato's suicide is eulogized
with superlatives. "Consensus hominum fatebitur," declares
~ e n e c a .Cato reached the pinnacle of happiness (summam fe l ic i ta-
376. ~ · lxx, 21.De Providentia, vi, 7-9.Ibid. , i i , 11-12.
~ · lxx, 12.377. !£• lxx, 21.378. ~ · xxxvi, 9.
379. ~ · civ, 29.380. ~ PrOVidentia, vi, 8.
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tem) when he clashed his will with nature 's order that he con--inue l iving.381 The Scipios, the Catos, and other noted sui-
cides or the day were ter.med the ncoetus sacer ••• contemptores
vitae.n382
91
I f there is in Seneca any evidence at a ll that he had con
tact with the doctrines of Christianity, i t quite possibly could
be indicated in the passage quoted hereafter. Similarity or ex
pression on a given topic offers no proof whatever that Senecan
teaching drew even in the sl ightest measure from the newly organ
ized society of Christians. The force of this statement is born
out in fact, since the spi r i t , the intention behind the teaching
of each school was radically different. Only in a few material
instances is a resemblance noted. But in the case presently re
ferred to , we find distinct resemblance to Christian teaching on
the endurance of evil and the unlawfulness or taking one's l i fe
merely to escape suffering. Seneca says:
You will find men who have gone so far as toprofess wisdom and yet maintain that one should notoffer violence to one's own l i f e , and hold i t accursed for a man to be the means or his own destruct ion; we should wait, say they to r the end decreedby nature.383 ,
~ e advances no proof whatever for the condemning implication that
no wise man could reason t h u s ~ Seneca merely intimates that in
381. Ibid. , i i i , 14.382. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xxv, 1.
383. ~ · lxx, 14.
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following this l ine ot conduct, one is taking the more diff icul t
path in l i te--and incidentally the one more in accord with prin
ciple. nHoc qui dici t , ~ videt ~ l ibertat is ~ cludere.n384
This phrase gives us a concrete i l lustrat ion of just what
Seneca's "wise man" consisted. I t serves as an ideal example of
the fact that the "sapiens" f i rs t , las t and always sought what
was most convenient, convictions regardless.
384. ~ · lxx, 14.
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CHAPTER X
SENECA SPEAKS ON LIFE AFTER DEATH
Seneca's belief in the rationali ty of the soul of man has
heretofore been pointed out. The Stoic school whence he drew
many of his basic elements of belief, took issue with the Epi-
cureans principally on the subject of virtus . The la t te r would
describe the vir beatus as a man with well sat isf ied appetites.
But the Stoics on the other hand held that the vi ta beata con-
sisted in a comfortable mind, a mind free from care, indifferent
to the physical i l l s which beset mankind. Implied herein is the
fact that in man there is a superior part , a something not mate-
r ia l which has i t in i t s power to r ise above the physical ele-
ments of l i f e . Strangely enough l i t t l e thought was spent on de-
termining the actual nature of the soul or i t s faculties. The in-tense pragmatism of the Roman mind led the Stoic to l ive for the
present only. What might come, what could possibly happen were
too indefinite, too subject to the element of fortuna for his
practical views. In general, the Stoic doctrine might be summed
up in the expression, "live l i fe as though at death you would
face annihilation." The matter of existence af ter death, was en-
t i rely up to the conjecture of the individual himself. Belief
therein was a matter of choice. The fact i t se l f was indefinite;
l i fe here and now was certain, and, hence, was the only sure gov-
erning feature of our conduct. I t is at this point that Seneca
differs widely from the parent school. He does, indeed, voice
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the general tenets of Stoicism, and in several instances gives
evidence of the influence the Stoics exercised on him. But in
94
seneca there burned a pride in himself, a longing for the future
that belied a l l his phrases to the contrary. In his words on the
subject of l i fe after death and immortality, Seneca reaches the
heights of his l i terary career. These delays of mortal exist
ence, he writes in one place, are a prelude to a longer and bet
te r l i fe , "per has mortalis aevi moras i l l i meliori vitae lons-
iorique proluditur."385 He likewise attains the heights of his
religious creed, i f we credit him with belief in the matters he
states as merely possible. Had Seneca the l ight of revelation to
guide him, and the depth of reason to arrive at the conclusion of
the discussion he so correctly begins, his writings might well
rank among the most elevated and orthodox ot the Christian
School. As i t is they resemble Christian teaching only in form;
the soul is lacking.
Life after death as treated by Seneca may be divided into
two main headings: a) the fact and nature of future existence;
b) and immortality. We shall study them under these headings in
separate chapters.
Firs t is noted the Stoic influence on Seneca, in so much as
he states , "mors est rum_ ~ . n 3 8 6 But this is the only passage
385. !£· ci i , 23.
386. ~ · l iv , 4.
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throughout his entire writings in which Seneca indicates that he
ever dwelt seriously on annihilation af ter death. Even here, the
exact meaning of the " ~ ~ " · i s explained in the l ight of his
own theory of what occurs af ter death. I know already what will
happen, he assures us. What I was before I was born, the same
will happen af ter my death. He te l ls Lucilius that we are mis
taken in thinking that death only follows, when in real i ty i t has
both preceded us and will in turn follow us, "quicquid a n t e ~
fui t mors est ."3
8
7,
___Since death restores us to that peaceful
state in which we lay before our bir th, anyone who pit ies the
dead must also pity those who have not yet been born.388 Our
l i fe is likened to a lamp, says Seneca, and f o o ~ s are they who
would believe the lamp worse off when i t was extinguished than
before i t was l ighted. And he asks, "revert i unde veneris quid
grave est?"389
A rare instance of consistency with his own philosophy may
be noted in Seneca's remarks about the body of man. The greater
part of his moral dissertations pertain to the good of the soul
whether here on earth or in the world to come. The soul, we re-
cal l , is "ea pars quae melior est."390 As to our body, he as-
sures us that i t is but "ossa cineresque."391 Our flesh is the
387. ~ · l iv , 5.388. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xix, 5.389. De Tranqu1liitate Anim1, x i, 4.390. De Constantia Sapientis, v i, 3.
Cf. ante, p. 41.391. Ad Marciam ~ Consolatione., xxv, 1.
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baser part of our essence, and not a t a l l necessary for our ex
istence. The matter of our bodies is no more a part of our ac-
tual sel f , than are the clothes and other protections we need for
comfort.39Z Seneca opines that , after death, the soul never a-
gain has relationship with the body. This l a t te r was just an
instrument in this l i f e , and at death i t matters l i t t l e what be-
comes of i t . "As to burial ," he assures us in the words of Theo
dorus, "you are a fool i f you think i t makes any difference to me
whether I ro t above the ground or beneath it .n393 Concern over
one's obsequies is a waste of time, "minus molestiarum habet
funus tacitum!"394
In an attempt to appeal to unbiased reason, Seneca gives us
our choice in the matter of believing in future existence,395
saying that in ei ther case, l i fe or annihilat ion, he would be
prepared. "Mors ~ aut consum.it aut exuit . Emissis meliora
restant onere detracto consumptis nihi l restat.n396 After death
the soul is either sent forth into a "meliorem vitam" or is min
gled with nature again, and will return to the universe.397.
And af ter a lengthy discussion on the happiness of heaven, he
says, "but suppose that I am ut ter ly annihilated, and that af ter
392. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xxv, 1.393. De Tranquili i tate Animi, xiv, 3.394. Ibid . , i , 13.395. ~ · c i i , 4.396. ~ · xxiv, 18.
397. ~ · lxxi , 16.
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death nothing mortal remains?" His answer is : "aegue magnum ani
~ habeo, etiam s i nusguam transiturus excedo.n398 But he does
confess that the very idea of going nowhere after death is a re-
pulsive thought, an object of fear, nalius metus.n399 He te l l s
polybius that his grief for his brother is uncalled for since one
or the other of two views must be in accord with the actual fact :
the deceased kinsman i f l iving in spi r i t is happy, or he is not
existing at a l l . nQ,uid itaque,n says Seneca, "eius desiderio
~ a c e r o r , qui aut beatus aut nullus est? Beatum deflere invidia
~ , nullum dementia.n400 But this entire theory of the abso
lute end of l i fe a t death is stated purely and simply as a possi
bi l i ty that he is unable to prove away, while the mass of his
~ i t i n g s on the subject give a l l indication that Seneca enter
tained more or less definite ideas about existence in the next
rworld.
As though in ut ter contradiction to a l l he had told us,
Seneca reverses his posit ion, saying, "Sursum illum (animum)
vacant in i t ia ~ . n 4 0 l And, he continues, the soul will reach
this goal even before hand by correct l iving and by the contem
plation of i t s eternal destiny. One of the most beautiful of
Senecan phrases in substance as well as in l i terary expression,
is his comment, nthat day which you fear as being the end of a l l
398. !E· xci i i , 10.399. !E· lxxxii , 16.
400. A4 Polybium de Consolatione, ix , 3.401. E.Jl. lxxix, 12.
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things is your birthday in eternity" (dies i s te , quem tamquam
extremum reformidas, aeterni, natalis est) . 402 And as such i t
may be taken as the key to the entire discussion of Seneca's be
l ie f in the l i fe af ter death. S e ~ k i n g to find some relationship
between the deeds of our present existence and the l i fe which
follows death, Seneca assures us that he has striven to find out,
numquid stultum s i t ac supervacuum ultra extremumdiem curas transmittere, an cadant bona nostranobiscum nihilque s i t eius, qui nullus est , an exeo quod, cum er i t sensure non sumus, a n t e ~ u a m s i t ,aliquis fructus percipi aut pet i possit.4U3
And his opinion would be that we do receive reward hereafter for
virtue practiced: "Nulli non virtus et vivo et mortuo re t tu l i t
gratiam, s i modo illam bona secutus est fide."404 But Seneca
gives no indication whatever that this reward of virtue wil l come
in the world of spi r i t after death, or that the soul after death
will actually experience any degree of joy by reason of the deeds
i t performed when united to the body. The "sapiens" by a l i fe
spent in accord with the tenets of philosophy merits nclaritatem
quae post mortem contingit."405 And though he is removed from
the actual sight of men, his memory s t i l l recurs to thei r minds,
"multa vir i virtus animo multusque recursat.n4°6
The usual mo-tive in undertaking notable projects, says Seneca is that poster-
402. ~ · ci i , 26.403. ~ · ci i , 4.404. ~ · lxxix, 18.405. !E.· ci i , ) .406. Aeneid, iv , J.
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itY will long remember our works. We continuously str ive " ~( ~ } posteri taceant.n407 Hence our reward for the practice of
virtue in this l i fe and in the l i fe hereafter , is correctly in
terpreted as meaning the reputation we shall have earned while
yet alive, and the renown that wil l fa l l to our lo t after our
death. We conclude by observing that Seneca a t no time attempts
to show any connectiom between the deeds of l i fe and an account
ing we might have to render for these actions in the l i fe here
after . He seemed to hold that man's actions are entirely a mat
te r of his individual choice, bearing no relationship with the
phases of man's existence. These l a t ter were inevitable regard
less of how man acted.
We should expect that Seneca's conception of the future
l i fe would be in keeping with his fears and desires of the pre
sent l i fe . The s t r i fe , the turmoil, the constant per i l of l i fe ,
created in the storm-tossed breast of Seneca a longing for peace.
Even when referring to death as being possible annihilation, the
promise of escape from the present world of disorder offered i t s
negative but nevertheless somewhat consoling aspect. Death is
for a l l the end, he te l l s us, but for many ~ t is a re l ief , " ~est , omnibus f inis , multis remedium.n4°8 Telling Polybius that
l i fe is but a tempestuous and gale-tossed sea, whose one harbor
407. De Tranquillitate Animi, i , 13.408. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xx, 1.
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grope they shal l have absorbed the ful l l ight of day and shal l
be restored to thei r place in the sky. Released from i t s prison
below, the soul will cast off sin, and in purity and lightness
will leap up into the celes t ia l realms of spirit .414 Once we
are set free from this place of shadows, heavenly l ight will
shine down upon us from a ll sides, "lux undique clara percut-
iet ."4l5 And from the "excelsiorum locatorumff i t will be a
pleasure for the souls to turn thei r gaze upon the things of
earth, and to look back·on a l l they have le f t behind.416
Bound, as i t were, by the chains of mortal existence, the
soul at death admits of no l imits of time or space, except such
as are binding even the gods. For the native land of the soul of
man is the whole space that encircles the height and breadth of
the firmanent, "hoc ~ convexum intra quod iacent m a r i a ~ter r i s , in quo disposita to t lumina in actus ~ excubant.n417
Death l iberates the soul and admits i t into an existence having
no boundaries, hence no servitude, "excessit terminos, intra quos
servitur.u418 From this sunken region ( ~ humili atque depresso
locum),4l9 the emancipated spi r i t delights in the boundless and
open sky, "frui tur~
aperto et libero caelo.ff420
414.415.416.
417.418.419.
420.
~ . lxxix, 12. ·Jm. c i i 1 28. •
J.3-4.
Ad Marc1am de Consolatione, xxv,Ad Po+ybium Qonsolatiorie, .ix,~ . CJ.J.
1 21.~ Marc1am de Consolatione, xix, 6.Ad Polybium de Consolatione, ix , 8.
Ibid. , ix , 8.
I t roams
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meet the god's approval, and to prepare ourselves to join them
a t some future time.426 For the soul says to i t se l f , "When the
day comes, I shal l leave the body here where I found i t , and
sha l l of my own voli t ion betake myself to the gods.n42
7
Seneca promises us that in the l i fe hereaf ter our knowledge
of the secrets of nature wil l be complete. Some day the hidden
laws of the universe wil l be revealed to us, "aliquando naturae
t ib i arcana retegentur, discut ie tur i s ta caligo.n428 In the
expanses of the universe, the soul explores the blessings of
nature, " i l l ic vagatur omnia que rerum naturae bona perspici t . n429
Marcia's father in i t ia tes her young son in the wonders of the
universe and he is qualified to do so having the information not
by guess-work but, by experience, having true knowledge .of them
a l l , " ~ ~ coniectura sed omnium ex ~ peritus in arcana
naturae l ibens ducit.n430
Regarding the negative aspects of the joys of the l i fe
hereafter, Seneca enmaerates at length the many t r i a l s we shal l
escape when we become partakers of the bl iss ful hereafter . En-
compassed, no doubt, with the worries and t r i a l s of th is l i fe ,
he often thought of a happiness consisting merely in the absence
of each and every troublesome event with which this present l i fe
426. !£· c i i , 29.427. !£· c i i , 22.428. !£• c i i , 28.429. Ad Polybium de Consolatione, ix , 8.
430. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xxv, 2.
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104
is replete. There will be no fear of want, no "diviit iarum cura"
which became quite a problem to Seneca in his la te r years. No
stings of lus t which through the pleasure they give the body
destroy the integri ty of the soul; no envy of another 's prosper
i ty ; no disaster to the land or to himself wil l he meet with in
th is future l ife .431 Life af ter death wil l , therefore, consist
in the presence of what we l ike and the absence not only of suf
fering, but of the desires of those things which cause us dis
pleasure whether by the grat i f icat ion of these desires or by
the ir inhibi t ion.
Throughout his discussions on death and the l i fe hereafter,
Seneca a t best has l i t t l e of the supernatural element in view.
His heaven is joyful only in so far as one could be joyful here
below were the di f f icu l t things of l i f e removed. There i s not
one defini te place, for example, where he would indicate that his
future happiness i s awarded as the resu l t of virtuous l iv ing. In
fact he told us that his "virtus" contained i t s own reward.432
There was nothing more in store for one who conquered his lower
nature in th is l i f e , than the result ing convenience he would ex
perience here and now. There was apparently no relationship 'be
tween the actual deeds of th is l i fe and the mode of future exist -
ence, and i f we examine closely, the reason or explanation there-
431. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xix, 5-6.
432. De Vita Beata, ix , 4.Cf. ante, p. 52.
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105
fore seems evident. Seneca in l i fe , was true to no moral stand
ard. At death he seems a disillusioned old man; an old man who
had sacrif iced every ideal he preached, for the comfort of the
moment. He had only the fears of l i fe as his real standard.
His was more of a goal to be avoided than to be attained. His
was an existence, pleasant not so much by the things he enjoyed
but rather by the evils he escaped. Now did Seneca associate
the hereafter , the one and only hope of true happiness l e f t to
him, with any type of pain or punishment, his las t real hope
would thereby have proved a vain expectation. The unreasonable
ness of a joyful existence in the l i fe after death for both the
good and the wicked never seemed to occur to Seneca. ~ u i t el ikely he was willing to grant to everyone else, regardless of
personal merit, the same fel ici ty he hoped for himself. Such
was Seneca, the mild-mannered, affable Seneca as men knew him.
Thus i t is that in dealing with the question of whether there be
l i fe after death or not, he offers us alternatives positive and
negative. In the l a t te r event there is no suffering, he says,
since i t is the same as not being. In the f i r s t hypothesis, and
this is his personal choice of the two, i t must necessarily fol
low that since man continues to exist he must therefore necessa
r i ly be in a happy s ta te . There is no proof given or reason in
dicated why such should be the case. Seneca merely asserts i t
as a fact . Epicurus had taught some sort of punishment due those
who die after a wicked l i fe . But, says Seneca, n ~ ~ puer
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106
est n433 as to believe a l l the stories of the "inferorum metus".,
He says that he is not so foolish, n ~ ~ tam ineptusn434 as
to give credence to the stories of the underworld, of Cerberus,
Ixion and the spectral garbs.435 The whole business of fear and
punishment makes up the stories of poets:
Cogita null is defunctum malis adfici , i l l a ,quae nobis inferos faciunt terribi les, fabulasesse, nullas imminere mortuis tenebras nee oar-oerem nee flumina igne flagrantia nee oblivionemamnem nee tr ibunalia et reos e t in i l la l ibertatetam laxa ullos iterum tyrannos: luserunt is tapoetae et vanis nos agitavere terroribus. Morsdolorum omnium exsolutio est et f in is , ultra quemmala nostra exeunt.436
But s t i l l Seneca speaks of the dying as ntimentes ~ apud inferos
sirit"437 and definitely implies that one must needs argue with
himself and endeavor to convince oneself that the underworld is
actually a compilation of fict ion, "persuaseris istas fabulas
And again he does t e l l Marcia that following the
death of her father, his soul "tarried above us while he was be-
ing purified and was ridding himself of a l l the blemishes and
stain that s t i l l clung to him from his mortal existenoe.n439
433. ~ · xxiv, 18.434. Ibid. , xxiv, 18.
435. ~ · xxiv, 18.!P_. lxxxii , 16.Cf. Juvenal, Sat. i i , 149.
436. Ad Maroiam de Consolatione, xix, 4.
437. ~ · lxxxii , 16.
438. ~ · lxxxii , 16.439. Ad Maroiam de Consolatione, xxv, 1.
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107
But these are the only instances where Seneca would imply any
type of unhappiness in the l i fe af ter death, and he is quick to
apply here the "nosmet ipsi fallamusn440 cure for a l l uneasiness
and fear.
440. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xix, 2.Cf. Pp • 67,BO.
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108
CHAPI'ER XI
SENECAN VIEWS ON IMMORTALITY
With reference to Seneca's views on immortality, i t is suf-
ficient to have established his position regarding the l i fe after
death. The expression "sufficient" is used purposely because in
every passage wherein he speaks of the happiness of the l i fe
hereafter, he invariably qualifies i t with the note that i t s fe
l ic i ty is everlasting. In the metaphysical searchings of Seneca,
the immortality of the soul is perhaps the one element which is
most devoid of argument or question--it is taken for g r ~ n t e d . I t
is the " ~ gratissima"441 of his l e t te r to Lucilius. And for
the Stoics and Seneca in particular, i t was sufficient that a
matter be "gratissimaff for i t to be proved beyond a doubt. At
no time does he offer to dispute as to the fact of l i fe afterdeath being eternal in duration. But as evidence that there was
a discussion among the ancients regarding the immortality of the
soul, Seneca quotes the example of Canus who, as he was being led
to execution, remarked, "You are wondering whether our souls are
immortal, but I shall soon know.n442 And Seneca praises him in
his search for the truth even when confronted with the fact of
his own death, " ~ desi i t veritatem in ipso fine.u443 Seneca
himself would begin the discussion on the future l i fe by admit-
441. ~ . ci i , 2.
442. De Tranquilli tate Animi, xiv, 8.443. Ibid. , xiv, 8.
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ting the possibil i ty of i t s non-existence. But after aerely pre
senting such an alternative to our credence, he proceeds a t great
length to show his personal belief in continued l i fe of the soul
after death. And once this fact is established, the eternal du
rat ion of the future l i fe goes along with the l i fe as i f a natu
ra l element of i t . For Seneca, just as the ~ a c t of l i ~ e af ter
death implies that i t could be only a happy l i fe , so also by the
same token, this l i fe must also be eternal . He te l ls us that ,
"I was taking pleasure in investigating the immortality of souls,
nay in believing that doctrine ••• and ~ e e l i n g that I was destined
to pass over into that i n ~ i n i t y o ~ t ~ e and the heritage of eter
nity" (in ~ e n s u m i l lud tempus et !£possessionem omnis aevi
transiturus).444
In the hurry and rush of l i fe , man ~ r e q u e n t l y becomes so
much a part of the passing elements among which he l ives, that ,
says Seneca, seldom does he l i ~ t his mind to consider things o ~eternal importance. "Man is too mortal to comprehend things im
mortal" (tamen homo ad immortalium cogitationem nimis mortalis
est).445 But he admits the fact that a l l men are imbued with
the innate desire of immortality. He te l ls us that while we have
a l l the fears of mortals, "omnia tamquam immortales concupisci-
444. ~ · ci i , 2.445. De Otio, v, 7.
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And he says of mankind·in general that we plan for the
eternity.447
~ u i t e obviously mortal man cannot at tain his immortal s ta-
us here below in this l i fe . I t is , therefore, but taken for
that a l l immortality spoken of by Seneca refers to exist-
af ter death. He assures Marcia that not her son, but only
is very imperfect likeness has perished. For the boy himself is
and in death has reached a far bet ter state, stripped of
l l outward encumbrances and l e f t simply to himself, "ipse quidem~ status est , despoliatus oneribus alien-
s et s ibi rel ictus."448 A person in l i f e , considered in his
is actually immortal, but he does not take on the evidence
f immortality unt i l his death. After death "aeternus est."449
e of the joys of a soul reaching i t s destiny af ter i t s separa-
from the body, is the knowledge that i t s fe l ic i ty will en-
forever. In the l ight of this knowledge, i t proceeds to the
of a l l that has been or will be throughout the ages of
l l time, "aeternitat is ~ memor in ~ quod fui t futurumque
st vadit omnibus saeculis."450
The fact of immortality is but an attribute of the main
446. De Brevitate Vitae, i i i , 4.447. ~ · C1, 1.448. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xxiv, 5.449. Ad Polybium de Consolatione, ix , 7.450. Ad Helviam de Consolatione, xx, 2.
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111
feature, the existence of l i f e af ter death. As such, i t i s in -
dependent of i ts subject, regardless of the nature of this l i f e .
But we have seen, that in Seneca's order of things, there is but
the one mode of existence af ter death. Happiness i s the lo t of
man in the next world, and eternal is his joy: "Felices animae
animae et aeterna sorti tae.n45l
451. Ad Marciam de Consolatione, xxvi, 6.
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CHAPTER XII
SUMN.ARY AND CONCLUSION
112
I t has been our endeavor in this thesis to col lect from the
many writings of Seneca, those expressions of moral and philo
sophic thought, the summation of which might be termed nsenecan
Philosophy.n For several reasons this was not an easy task.
Firs t , throughout the course of Seneca's works many contradic
t ions occur, a fact tha t often prohibits the drawing of definite
conclusions as to which of several opposing courses Seneca ad-
heres. Secondly, and somewhat following from the above-mentioned
point , the statements of Seneca almost invariably need analysis
and interpretation. The contradictory elements and ambiguous
terminology on occasion give r ise to a number of possible mean-
ings, and i ti s
our conclusion tha t Seneca himself was often at aloss as to just what he intended to say. In looking into the
man's l i fe for confirmation of some principle or another, we were
further confused, in that the philosopher Seneca was a much dif -
ferent man than Seneca the statesman. With regard to this l a t t e r
point , his inconsistency led Fabius to remark tha t had his judg-
ment and action been answerable to his wit, i t had been much more
for Seneca's reputation.
~ u i n t i l i a n describes Seneca as a shallow thinker , ' " in
philosophia parum diligens.n452 This expression adequately
452. Inst i tu t iones Oratoriae, x, i , 125.
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113
the depth or lack of depth of Senecan thought. His weak-
was his love for compromise, in action and in teaching.
he seemed convinced of nothing. His was a type of
existence, the l iving of l i fe to avoid pain. In some
ew instances, he attempts to just ify by his writings this ser-
to changing circumstances; in most cases, however, he
what he thinks should be done, with a bland disregard of
is own condemning actions.
He prided himself on being a pupil of the Stoic school,
taught a system of rigorous self-discipl ine that trained
t s adherents to cope with any of the vicissi tudes of l i fe .
was afraid of l i fe and of emotions because they hurt ,
nd i t was to this school that Seneca all ied himself. But the
following of these precepts was too much for his vacil
and negative wil l . He was a bold, inconsistent moralist
rather than exemplifying Stoic vir tue. Thus i t i s ,
Seneca's l i fe , his writings, and often his thoughts formed
divergent streams in a l l of which Seneca found himself to
is own consternation.
The writings of Seneca a t the ir best , show no evidence of
been inspired by the teachings of Christ ianity. He, l ike
other Romans of the day, could not help having learned about the
new Religion, but he made no dist inct ion between the Christians
and the J"ews, whom he termed "gens sceleratissima."453 Seneca's
453. Quoted by St. Augustine, De Civitate Dei,Lib.vi ,Cap.i i .
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114.
brother, Gallio, refused to hear St. Paul speak in his own be-
half , and with this refusal there passed forever the opportunity
for influence of the great Apostle on this gifted but haughty
Roman family. Seneca's conceptions of recti tude, death and the
future l i fe must be viewed as l i terary speculations, rather than
as his·religious beliefs . And any resemblance which Senecan mo-
ra l i ty holds to Christian Doctrine is purely material in sub
stance. Moreover, we hasten to add that , contrary to the prac
t ice observed ina number
of commentarieson
Senecan morality,
one cannot isolate phrases of Senecan teaching and correctly
understand them. His philosophical opinions offer of accurate
interpretat ion only when associated with thei r respective con
texts . In t ~ e course of this. paper, a l l citations from the works
of Seneca have been interpreted in this l ight .
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115
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