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TRANSCRIPT
First Folio
by Henrik Ibsentranslated by Rick Davis and Brian Johnston
directed by Kjetil BangHansenAugust 29—October 22, 2006
Teacher Curriculum Guide
An Enemy of thePeople
Table of Contents Page Number
A Brief History of the Audience……………………..1
About the PlaywrightIbsen’s Biography…………………………………...……….3Realism—A Shocking Event in Its Time………….5
About the PlaySynopsis of An Enemy of the People..………….7Ibsen vs. Society……………………………………………...9Timeline of Ibsen’s World……………………………..11To Tell the Truth—Coverups, Lies and Scandals…………………………………………………...12
Classroom Connections• Before the Performance…………………………14
Find the Subtext—Realism in Performance Sibling Rivalry, Creating Characters Would You Have the Courage to Stand up for What’s Right? Coverups and Scandals
• After the Performance………………………………15Do the Right Thing
Other Places and Times Respond and Reflect The Majority is Always Right vs. The Minority is Always Right
Suggested ReadingAn Enemy of the People Resource List……….16
Welcome to the Shakespeare TheatreCompany’s production of An Enemy of thePeople by Henrik Ibsen!
Each season, the Shakespeare Theatre Companypresents five plays by William Shakespeare andother classic playwrights. The goal of allEducation Department Programs is to deepenunderstanding, appreciation and connection toclassic theatre in learners of all ages. Oneapproach is the publication of First Folio:Teacher Curriculum Guides.
For the 200607 season, the EducationDepartment will publish First Folio: TeacherCurriculum Guides for our productions of AnEnemy of the People, The Beaux’ Stratagem,Richard III and Titus Andronicus. The Guidesprovides information and activities to helpstudents form a personal connection to the playbefore attending the production at theShakespeare Theatre Company. First Folio Guidescontain material about the playwrights, theirworld and the plays they penned. Also includedare approaches to explore the plays andproductions in the classroom before and afterthe performance. First Folio is designed as aresource both for teachers and students.
The Shakespeare Theatre Company’s EducationDepartment provides an array of School,Community, Training and Audience Enrichmentprograms. A full listing of our programs isa v a i l a b l e o n o u r w e b s i t e a twww.ShakespeareTheatre.org or in ourEducation Programs Brochure. If you would likemore information on how you can participate inother Shakespeare Theatre Company programs,please call the Education Hotline at202.547.5688.
Enjoy the show!
First FolioTeacher Curriculum Guide
Welcome to the Shakespeare TheatreCompany’s production of An Enemy of thePeople by Henrik Ibsen!
Each season, the Shakespeare Theatre Companypresents five plays by William Shakespeare andother classic playwrights. The goal of allEducation Department Programs is to deepenunderstanding, appreciation and connection toclassic theatre in learners of all ages. Oneapproach is the publication of First Folio: TeacherCurriculum Guides.
For the 200607 season, the EducationDepartment will publish First Folio: TeacherCurriculum Guides for our productions of AnEnemy of the People, The Beaux’ Stratagem,Richard III and Titus Andronicus.. First Folio Guidesprovide information and activities to helpstudents form a personal connection to the playbefore attending the production at theShakespeare Theatre Company. First Folio Guidescontain material about the playwrights, theirworld and the plays they penned. Also includedare approaches to explore the plays andproductions in the classroom before and afterthe performance. First Folio is designed as aresource both for teachers and students.
The Shakespeare Theatre Company’s EducationDepartment provides an array of School,Community, Training and Audience Enrichmentprograms. A full listing of our programs isa v a i l a b l e o n o u r w e b s i t e a tShakespeareTheatre.org or in our EducationPrograms brochure. If you would like moreinformation on how you can participate in otherShakespeare Theatre Company programs,please call the Education Hotline at202.547.5688.
Enjoy the show!
A Brief History of the AudienceI can take any empty space and call it a bare stage. A man walks across thisempty space whilst someone else is watching him, and this is all that isneeded for an act of theatre to be engaged. — Peter Brook, The Empty Space
with what the Christians called “morally inappropriate”dancing mimes, violent spectator sports such as gladiatorfights, and the public executions for which the Romanswere famous. The Romans loved violence and theaudience was a lively crowd. Because theatre was free, itwas enjoyed by people of every social class. They werevocal, enjoyed hissing bad actors off the stage, and lovedto watch criminals meet large ferocious animals, and; soonafter, enjoyed watching those same criminals meet theirdeath.
The Far EastIn Asia, theatre developed in much the same way it haselsewhere, through agricultural festivals and religiousworship. The Chinese and Japanese audiences havealways been tireless, mainly because their theatre forms,such as the Japanese “Kabuki” and “Noh” plays andChinese operas, could last anywhere between a full day, ifnot three days, beginning between six to nine in themorning! In China, the audience was separated; the higherclasses sat closer to the action of the play, and the lowerclasses, generally a louder, more talkative bunch, would beplaced in stalls at the back. The audience expected asuperior performance, and if it lacked in any way, theaudience could stop the production and insist on a differentpresentation. In Japan, theatre began with allday ricefestivals and temple plays sponsored by priests. Theseevolved into “street performances” where the performersled the audience on a trip through the village. In theatrehouses, the upper classes sat in constructed boxes, andwomen in disguise (it was not considered proper for arespectable woman to be seen at the theatre) and lowerclasses would stand below with the “inspector” standing ona high platform in the middle, keeping a strict eye oneveryone.
A Couple of Hundred Years Without ArtTolerance takes a holiday during the period of Europeanhistory known as the Dark Ages. During this time periodculture of all kind goes on hiatus— most especially thatfrivolous, godless display of lewd and licentious behavior
The nature of the audience has changed throughout history, evolving from a participatory crowd to a group of people sittingbehind an imaginary line, silently observing the performers. The audience is continually growing and changing. There hasalways been a need for human beings to communicate their wants, needs, perceptions and disagreements to others. Thisneed to communicate is the foundation of art and the foundation of theatre’s relationship to its audience.
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A Brief History of the AudienceI can take any empty space and call it a bare stage. A man walks across thisempty space whilst someone else is watching him, and this is all that isneeded for an act of theatre to be engaged. — Peter Brook, The Empty Space
In the BeginningTheatre began as ritual, with tribal dances and festivalscelebrating the harvest, marriages, gods, war and basicallyany other event that warranted a party. People all over theworld congregated in villages. It was a participatory kind oftheatre; the performers would be joined by the villagers,resting on the belief that villagers’ lives depended on asuccessful celebration— the harvest had to be plentiful orthe battle victorious, or simply to be in good graces withtheir god or gods. Sometimes these festivals would last fordays, and the village proved tireless in their ability tocelebrate. Many of these types of festivals survive today inthe folk history of areas such as Scandinavia, Asia, Greeceand other countries throughout Europe.
It’s Greek to MeThe first recorded plays come from the Greeks (fourth andfifth centuries B.C.E.). Their form of theatre began in muchthe same way as previous forms did. It stemmed from thecelebration of the wine harvest and the gods who broughtcitizens a fruitful harvest— specifically Dionysus, the god ofwine. Spectators had a great deal of respect for their gods,and thousands would flock to the theatre to experience afull day of celebration. The day of drama and song madefor a lively crowd. Staffbearers patrolled the aisles to keepthe rowdies under control. While theatre was free, yourseat was determined by your station in life. The rich hadcushioned seats at the front, while the peasants, artisansand women were forced to take seats at the back. In thelater years, after a full day of drink, Greek audiences werenot above showing disapproval at a lessthanspectacularperformance. Stones were thrown, as well as other sloppyobjects, hissing was popular, and loud groanings ofdiscontent could usher any actor into early retirement.
The Romans, or the inspiration for GladiatorThe Romans took the idea of “spectator” an inch or sofurther. Their theatre (first through third centuries B.C.E.)developed in much the same way as the Greeks— withcomedy, tragedy and festivals— but unfortunately ended
with what the Christians called “morally inappropriate”dancing mimes, violent spectator sports such as gladiatorfights, and the public executions for which the Romanswere famous. The Romans loved violence and theaudience was a lively crowd. Because theatre was free, itwas enjoyed by people of every social class. They werevocal, enjoyed hissing bad actors off the stage, and lovedto watch criminals meet large ferocious animals, and; soonafter, enjoyed watching those same criminals meet theirdeath.
The Far EastIn Asia, theatre developed in much the same way it haselsewhere, through agricultural festivals and religiousworship. The Chinese and Japanese audiences havealways been tireless, mainly because their theatre forms,such as the Japanese “Kabuki” and “Noh” plays andChinese operas, could last anywhere between a full day, ifnot three days, beginning between six to nine in themorning! In China, the audience was separated; the higherclasses sat closer to the action of the play, and the lowerclasses, generally a louder, more talkative bunch, would beplaced in stalls at the back. The audience expected asuperior performance, and if it lacked in any way, theaudience could stop the production and insist on a differentpresentation. In Japan, theatre began with allday ricefestivals and temple plays sponsored by priests. Theseevolved into “street performances” where the performersled the audience on a trip through the village. In theatrehouses, the upper classes sat in constructed boxes, andwomen in disguise (it was not considered proper for arespectable woman to be seen at the theatre) and lowerclasses would stand below with the “inspector” standing ona high platform in the middle, keeping a strict eye oneveryone.
A Couple of Hundred Years Without ArtTolerance takes a holiday during the period of Europeanhistory known as the Dark Ages. During this time periodculture of all kind goes on hiatus— most especially thatfrivolous, godless display of lewd and licentious behavior
The nature of the audience has changed throughout history, evolving from a participatory crowd to a group of people sittingbehind an imaginary line, silently observing the performers. The audience is continually growing and changing. There hasalways been a need for human beings to communicate their wants, needs, perceptions and disagreements to others. Thisneed to communicate is the foundation of art and the foundation of theatre’s relationship to its audience.
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known as theatre. Fortunately it reemerges with somesevere restrictions during the Middle Ages.
Pageant WagonsWestern theatre further develops from the Greek andRoman traditions through the Middle Ages with “MysteryPlays” sponsored by the church. Organized theatre wasfrowned upon, as it was a place for congregation of thelower classes, encouraging disease and immoral behavior.Church leaders would allow performances of bible scenes,however, for the people who could not read. Theseproductions moved to different locations much like travelingthe “stations of the cross.” To spread the good word to thebroadest section of the population, these plays left theconfines of the church building and began to travel on whatwere known as “pageant wagons.” These wagons held oneentire location and a series of wagons hooked togetherpermitted a company to tell an entire story just aboutanywhere. Troupes of actors would roam the countrysidesetting up makeshift theatres in inns, pubs, public squares,pretty much anywhere they could park.
Within This Wooden ODuring Shakespeare’s era— the Elizabethan period—theatre companies were awarded status and privilegebased on patronage from wealthy landholders or the royalfamily. With patronage came money, so the companiesbegan building theatres. The theatre of Shakespeare’s daywas attended by all, was inexpensive, and was known tobe an incredibly good time. Surrounding the stage was thelower “pit” where the lower classes congregated— calledthe “groundlings”— and above, octagonally surrounding thepit, were the stalls reserved for the upper classes. If youwere stationed in the pit, it was not uncommon to have agoblet of wine dumped on your head, to be drooled upon,or spat upon by the “more civilized” people above you.Elizabethan audiences did not know what it meant to bequiet for a performance and would talk back to the actors.Thought to be involved in spreading the “black plague,” thetheatres were closed in 1592.
Look at me, look at me...During the Restoration, theatre became a luxury. For thealmost entirely upperclass audience, the purpose of goingto the theatre was “to see, and to be seen.” The stage wasa rectangular area between a long hallway of boxes. Thebest seats in the house were often right on stage! Thehouse lights were up full so the audience could see eachother better, not the action on stage. The theatre of theRestoration consisted mainly of light, fluffy comediesperformed in an oratory style— actors posing, wearing BIGcostumes and practically screaming over the din of theaudience. Theatre companies still existed on the patronage
of the very wealthy and often performed plays exclusivelyin the salons of the rich, famous and powerful. A fewhundred years later, Opera composer Richard Wagnerfigured out that to focus the audience’s attention away fromthemselves and onto the stage, the lights needed to beoff— forcing the audience to watch the performance. Sincethat time, the audience has taken its cue that theperformance is about to begin when the lights overheadbegin to dim. This small adjustment in lighting effectivelyerected a permanent barrier between the action onstageand the audience.
Freud … Tell me About Your MotherWhile dimming the house lights has drastically changed theoverall aesthetic of theatre another modern movement hashad even greater impact on theatre in the 20th century.Psychoanalysis— Id, ego, superego and subconsciousdesires— made theatre more introspective in its search fortruth. As theatre became more psychological, more arepresentation of real life, the audience felt as if they wereeavesdropping. Twentyfirst century theatre goers spend agreat deal of time and thought pondering the psychologicalmotivations of characters. There is now an imaginary wall,called the “fourth wall,” separating the performers and theaudience. It affects how we view the performance and howactors’ portray characters— we can observe the peopleonstage as they relate their problems, fears and desireswithout them noticing us at all.
Now the Options Are EndlessToday, for the audience, just about anything goes. Historyhas shared with us many types of theatre, and we, thespectators, bring our own experiences and histories to theevent causing us to react differently to differentproductions. Unlike movies or television, the actoraudience relationship is a “live” relationship: each is in theother’s presence, in the same place at the same time. It isthe exchange between the two which gives theatre itsunique quality. As audience members we have anobligation to be attentive, allowing the performers to fulfilltheir obligation— to entertain and enlighten us. There isalways a dialogue between audience and performer,whether visual or vocal. All individuals participating in thetheatrical event, whether as audience or performer, bring toit a personal background and experience which becomesvital to their response, to the interaction. In the same way,every participant leaves the performance enriched both bytheir own individual experience and that of the largercommunity to which they belong for a brief moment withinthe confines of the theatre walls. We must listen to captureand understand what the performers are trying tocommunicate, and, at the same time, they must listen tous.
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Henrik Johan Ibsen was born on March 20th,1828, in the small port town of Skien, Norway. Hewas the child of a merchant family and sufferedhardships in his youth when his father had to give upthe family business in 1835. At the age of 15, Ibsenleft home to become the apprentice to a pharmacistand began writing plays. In 1850, Ibsen moved toChristiania (now called Oslo, the capital city ofNorway) to study medicine at the University, but hedid not pass the entrance exam. Instead, hecontinued to write. He published his first play,Catiline, under the pseudonym Brynjolf Bjarme, soonfollowed by The Burial Mound, Ibsen’s first play to beproduced.
In 1851, Ibsen moved to Bergen, Norway to becomean assistant at the Norske Teater, which was animportant apprenticeship for his development as adramatist. He wrote and staged plays for the theatre,mostly based on Scandanavian myths called sagas.He also directed plays, thus gaining insight into allaspects of theatrical production. He moved back toChristiania in 1857 to become the artistic director ofthe Norwegian Theatre and married SuzannahThoreson, with whom he had one son, namedSigurd. The Norwegian Theatre went bankrupt in1862, and in 1864, dissatisfied with Norwegianpolitics and his lack of success as a writer, Ibsenmoved his family to Italy.
Ibsen’s LifeIn 1865, he published what is considered his firstmajor work, Brand. Ironically, this play was a greatNorwegian success and earned him a state stipendand financial stability. His success continued with PeerGynt, a fantastical verse drama for which Edvard Griegcomposed the music. One reason the work became sopopular was Ibsen’s use of Norwegian fairy tales asinspiration for the story. However, even in thisunrealistic drama, Ibsen had already begun toincorporate social satire into his work by creating amain character, Peer Gynt, who is completely selfishand unconcerned about the sacrifices others make toaccommodate him.
In 1868, Ibsen and his family moved to Germany,where they lived for many years while Ibsen wrote thebulk of his major works. During this time, Ibsen begancorresponding with Georg Brandes, a Danish literarycritic. Together, they brought the modern movementto Scandinavia, rebelling against the old Romantictraditions and responding to the new concerns of themodern world. Ibsen began writing in prose instead ofverse and began attacking modern, realistic socialproblems in his plays.
He was greatly influenced by his motherinlaw,Magdalene Thoreson, who was a leader of thefeminist movement in Norway. Many of his playscontain criticisms of marriage, portraying dominant,complex female characters who are trapped inunhappy situations by the constraints of strictVictorian traditions. Plays in this vein include A Doll’sHouse (1879), Ghosts (1881) and Hedda Gabler(1890.) Ibsen wrote An Enemy of the People in 1882,partly in response to the public outcry against A Doll’sHouse and Ghosts.
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Ibsen’s motherinlaw, Magdalene KraghThoreson, leader of the feminist movementin Norway.
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Henrik Ibsen at the age of 35, 1863.
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Ibsen’s Works
1850 Catiline
1850 The Burial Mound
1852 St. John’s Eve
1854 Lady Inger of Oestraat
1855 The Feast at Solhaug
1856 Olaf Liljekrans
1857 The Vikings at Helgeland
1862 Love’s Comedy
1862 The Pretenders
1865 Brand
1867 Peer Gynt
1869 The League of Youth
1873 Emperor and Galilean
1877 Pillars of Society
1879 A Doll’s House
1881 Ghosts
1882 An Enemy of the People
1884 The Wild Duck
1886 Rosmersholm
1888 The Lady from the Sea
1890 Hedda Gabler
1892 The Master Builder
1894 Little Eyolf
1896 John Gabriel Borkman
1899 When We Dead Awaken
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Ibsen’s wife, Suzannah Thoreson Ibsen, 1876.
Ibsen’s later plays represented a transition fromhis realistic social dramas to more symbolic andpsychological dramas. These plays include TheWild Duck (1884),Rosmersholm (1886) and TheLady from the Sea (1888). As Ibsen’s successfuldramatic career continued, he became acelebrated figure in Europe. A long black coat andwhite muttonchops became Ibsen’s signatureand a frequent subject of caricatures. For his70th birthday in 1898, there were largescalecelebrations in Christiania, Copenhagen andStockholm. In 1900, Ibsen suffered his first stroke,which ended his writing career. He died on May23rd, 1906 in Christiania, and was he honored bya large funeral procession at national expense.
Today, Ibsen is known as the “Father of ModernDrama.” Ibsen’s plays pioneered realistic dialogueand characters with psychological depth on thestage, and gave birth to the modern movement indrama. Ibsen is also heralded as the greatestNorwegian author of all time, and he isconsidered the most frequently performeddramatist in the world after Shakespeare. Ibsen’sdepth of character, naturalistic dialogue and useof subtext changed the way modern drama isproduced, and his social themes still haverelevance when his plays are produced today.
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Realism:
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A Shocking Event in Its Time
Victoria Ritchey as Aslaksen, Terry Edward Moore as Dr. Stockmann and Nikki Viselas Hovstad in Taproot Theatre Company's 2005 season opener, An Enemy of thePeople.
Modern audiences are accustomed to seeingcharacters on stage who look, speak and act like
they do. It is not unusual to walk into a theatre orwatch a television show and see a set that looks likethe realistic interior of a living room, inhabited bycharacters who dress in contemporary clothing anddeal with everyday social problems. In fact, audiencestoday expect characters to be realistic, criticizing theactors if their actions are not believable. Throughouttheatre history, however, performance expectationswere often very different. Performance traditionsthroughout the 1800s were very stylized. An actor’sgoal was to perform the text beautifully, not toimitate the motivations of a real person. Sets at thetime consisted of painted backdrops. In the 1800s,threedimensional, realistic settings and characterswere shocking to theatre audiences. Our modernexpectations for realistic theatre are largely due tothe innovations of the “Father of Modern Drama,”Henrik Ibsen.
In the early 1800s, mainstream theatre in Europeconsisted of tragedies, melodramas, comic operas,vaudevilles and spectacle plays. Audiences attendedperformances of epic tragedies about idealizedheroes, or melodramas with stock or stereotypicalcharacters.
Many plays were written in verse, or heightenedlanguage, and performed in a largerthanlife,exaggerated style. However, with the scientific andtechnological advances of the 19th century,intellectual thought turned to social reform andeveryday human concerns. These scientific advancesled to the Realism movement in literature and thearts, started in the mid1800s, in which authorsaddressed contemporary social issues, providing aforum for debate in their art. Realism, in theatre,sought to represent characters and situations fromreal life, without idealization or embellishment.Henrik Ibsen was at the forefront of this movement.He began to write plays in prose, the way that peoplespoke to each other in real life, and to focus onrealistic social issues. His plays Pillars of Society, ADoll’s House, Ghosts and An Enemy of the Peopleare considered classic works of Realism that changedthe way the western world viewed drama.
In each of these plays, Ibsen addressed acontemporary social problem and wrote his play as aforum for debate or criticism of the issue. Ibsenavoided the idealized heroes or stock characters fromthe other plays of his day. Instead, he createdfullydeveloped, realistic characters with deeppsychological motives.
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The environment that they inhabited was not thetraditional, twodimensional backdrop, but a fullyfurnished living room—as lifelike as the living rooms inthe homes of the audience members. At this time, thetradition developed in staging realistic dramas inwhich directors would call the barrier between thestage and the audience the “fourth wall,” as if thestage were an actual living room with one of the wallsremoved to allow the audience to observe thehappenings inside. Around this time, the house lightsalso began to be dimmed for the performance—takingthe focus of the audience’s attention away from thesocial event of “being seen” at the theatre, and on tothe work of art itself.
In his quest for realism, Ibsen also wanted his dialogueto be as natural as possible, mirroring the way peoplespoke to eachother in everydaylife. In a letter to aSwedish directorin 1883, hewrote:
“The languagem u s t s o u n dnatural and thef o r m o fexpression mustbe characteristicof each individualperson in theplay; one personcertainly does notexpress himselflike another. Inthis respect agreat deal can beput right duringthe rehearsals;that is when oneeasily hears whatdoes not strikeone as natural and unforced, and what must thereforebe changed and changed again until the lines achievefull credibility and realistic form. The effect of the playdepends in large measure on the audience’s feelingthat they are sitting listening to something that isgoing on in actual real life.”
Instead of speaking in verse and heightenedlanguage, characters spoke in natural rhythms andbroken trains of thought, interrupting each other andthemselves as people do naturally. To portray thesecharacters realistically, a new style of acting had to becreated, which is the basis for most acting trainingtoday. Konstantin Stanislavski (18631938) was aRussian actor and director who invented a system in
which actors deeply analyzed their characters’psychology and motivation and used their ownemotional memory to portray genuine feeling. Inaddition, Sigmund Freud (18561939) had begun hiswork on psychoanalysis, introducing the concept ofthe unconscious mind and the notion that people aremotivated by underlying psychological causes. Actorswho approached Ibsen’s realistic characters began toanalyze their subtext—emotions and thoughts thatmotivate characters without being explicitly written inthe text. That the actor would have to look beyondthe text to create a threedimensional character wasan enormous departure from the verse dramas beforeIbsen’s time, in which everything an actor needed toknow was explicitly written in the text. The characterson Ibsen’s stage, then, were not heroes and villainswho were very distant from the audience’s
experience, butdeep ly humanindividuals whowere motivated bythe joys and griefsof everyday conflict.
Realism in the artsw a s a srevolutionary asany other socialm o v e m e n t o fIbsen’s day. Thetheatre of Ibsenand Stanislavskiquickly became thestandard againstwhich all otherd r a m a w a smeasured. Theserealistic dramasr e v e a l e d a n dcriticized the ills oftheir own society,m a k i n g t h e md a n g e r o u s t oe s t a b l i s h e d
Victorian traditions. Realism became so widespread bythe beginning of the 20th century that actors, writersand directors began to rebel against the tradition,breaking the “fourth wall” to engage the audiencemore directly in the quest for social reform. Some ofthe movements rebelling against Realism includeDadaism, Futurism, Expressionism, Surrealism, EpicTheatre and Theatre of the Absurd. Despite thesemovements, Stanislavski’s style of acting has becomethe accepted method used by actors today on bothstage and screen, and Ibsen’s plays continue toinfluence theatremakers around the world. Modernaudiences continue to expect actors to hold the mirrorup to life.
August Lindberg and Hedvig Charlotte WinterHjelm in the first European production of Ghosts,Hälsingborg, 1883. Drottningholms Teatermusée, Stockholm.
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Synopsis of An Enemy of the People
I t is evening in a small Norwegian town. Mrs.Stockmann is hosting Mr. Billing and Mr. Hovstad,two reporters from the town’s liberal newspaper.
Dr. Stockmann has taken his two young sons, Mortenand Eilif, out for a walk. Peter Stockmann, the mayor ofthe town and Dr. Stockmann’s brother, arrivesunexpectedly at the house. He speaks grandly aboutthe recent economic boom of the town since itopened the baths, a health resort for the taking ofwaters. Peter is the Chairman of the Board of thebaths, and Dr. Stockmann is the Medical Officer.
Dr. Stockmann bounds in and his generous energy fillsthe room. He is somewhat restless, however, inanticipation of a letter he is expecting at any moment.The letter arrives after the mayor leaves. It contains theresults of laboratory tests of water samples Stockmannhas taken from the town baths. He has long suspectedthat the spa waters are infested with bacteria thatcould prove fatal to the tourists who flock there, andthis letter confirms it. The pollution comes from therunoff from a tannery. Stockmann is eager to revealthe truth, excited that he has discovered the dangerbefore anyone can be hurt. He believes that the townwill be grateful to him for his discovery, and thenewspapermen instantly back him and prepare topublish his findings. A servant is sent to the mayorwith Dr. Stockmann’s report.
The next day Peter visits Dr. Stockmann, having readhis report. The stiff, humorless and officious Peterdeclares his skepticism about Stockmann’s findings. Hepoints out that the expense of fixing the baths wouldhave to be shouldered by the townspeople. Peterdemands that Stockmann publicly refute his findings,and Stockmann refuses. The two brothers almostcome to blows but are interrupted by Petra and Mrs.Stockmann. Petra champions her father’s cause, butMrs. Stockmann is more cautious, considering theeffects on their family and income.
In the publishing office, Peter arrives and tells Hovstadthat the money to repair the baths will have to comefrom the taxpayers. Seeing the impact this would haveon their readership, the editors back off and decidenot to publish the report. Just then they see Dr.Stockmann bursting through the door, so Peter hastilyhides in the next room. Dr. Stockmann has come tocheck on the printing of his article, and his wife showsup unexpectedly, begging him not to print it.Stockmann finds Peter in the next room and confrontshim.
The two editors then reveal to Stockmann that theyare backing down and have decided not to publishthe article because they believe it to be false. In shockand disbelief, Stockmann declares that he will read thereport out at a public meeting. Mrs. Stockmann, seeingher husband backed against a wall, declares that sheis behind his cause for truth. A public meeting is aboutto take place in a room in Captain Horster’s house. Theroom is packed with a hostile crowd. A negativereport about Dr. Stockmann has been published inHovstad’s newspaper. Stockmann attempts to speakabout his findings, but the crowd prevents him. Facedwith a mob, he speaks in outrage about the pollutionof society and declares that the majority can never bein the right. The people vote unanimously to brandStockmann an enemy of the people for getting thebaths shut down and thus jeopardizing the economicfuture of the town. As the townspeople plan tovandalize his house, Stockmann leaves the meetingintending to depart for America with his family onCaptain Horster’s ship.
Tallis Moore as Eilif, Pam Nolte as Mrs. Stockmann, Terry Edward Mooreas Dr. Stockmann, Sarah Lamb as Petra and Jeremy Lee Weizenbaum asMorten in Taproot Theatre Company's 2005 season opener, An Enemyof the People.
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The next morning, the windows of theStockmann house have been shattered by rocks.They have been evicted from their house, Petrahas lost her teaching job, the two boys havebeen thrown out of school, and Captain Horsterhas been fired for attempting to help them. Peterarrives and tells Stockmann that he has beenrelieved of his position as Medical Officer to theBaths. Peter accuses Stockmann of inventing thestory about the baths to please his wealthyfatherinlaw, Morten Kiil, who hates the town’sleaders, so that Kiil will leave all his money to theStockmanns. No sooner has Peter gone thanMorten Kiil arrives to tell Stockmann that he hasbought all the shares in the baths with themoney he was going to leave the Stockmanns. IfStockmann does not renounce his findings thebaths will close, the shares will be worthless, andthe family will get no money. To make mattersworse, Hovstad and Aslaksen arrive, insinuatingthat Stockmann and Kiil have been planning allalong to defraud the town, and they now wantto blackmail Stockmann.
Stockmann resolves to remain where he is andnot leave “the field of battle.” Captain Horsteroffers his house to the family, and Stockmanndecides to open a school for the homelesschildren of the town to teach them to be freethinkers. Petra will be his assistant, thus regainingher career as a teacher, and his two sons will beamong his pupils. As he talks through his plans,he gathers his family about him.
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Mandy Patinkin and Annalee Jefferies in Williamstown Theatre Festival’s 2003production of An Enemy of the People.
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Cause and Effect:
The main character in An Enemy of the People,Dr. Stockmann, is a truthteller who standsalone against a selfish, uneducated majority.This character, who Ibsen created in his own
image, serves as a mouthpiece for the playwright’sfrustration with the critical response to his previousplay, Ghosts. Ibsen wrote An Enemy of the People ina storm of fury while the controversy over Ghostswas still raging. Ghosts, in turn, was a response to theuproar caused by A Doll’s House. Looking at thethemes of the three plays, one can trace Ibsen’sintellectual journey as he composed his first majorworks.
In A Doll’s House, Ibsen creates the character of NoraHelmer, a woman trapped in an unfulfilling role in astifling marriage. Her husband continually patronizesher and treats her like a doll. Nora has endured yearsof blackmail because she took out an illegal loan tosave her husband’s health. While attempting to keepthe blackmail a secret and save her husband frombeing dishonored, Nora realizes that she has neverbeen her own person. She has merely been subjectedto the roles her father and husband have created forher. Nora asserts her right to her own individualityand decides to leave her marriage and children topursue an independent life. Her husband reels fromthe decision, and the play ends with “the slam heard‘round the world”: Nora walks out, slamming thedoor behind her.
A Doll’s House was blasted by the critics in its time.Abandoning both her husband and children andrejecting her “duty” as a wife and mother wasconsidered immoral by conservatives. Many criticsattacked the “Realism” of the play, refusing to believethat any woman would choose to leave her childrenbehind. Critical outrage eventually forced Ibsen towrite a second ending. Ibsen regretted the decisionto write the “happy” ending, in which Nora gives herhusband a second chance after remembering herduty to her children. He called the ending a “barbaricoutrage” and demanded it only be used whennecessary.
After the uproar over A Doll’s House, Ibsendetermined to write a play in which a woman facesthe consequences of choosing to stay in an unhappymarriage. Ghosts tells the story of Mrs. Alving and herson, Osvald. Mrs. Alving chose to remain with herhusband and sent her son away to save him from hisfather’s debauchery.
Despite her efforts, “the sins of the father visit theson,” and it becomes evident that Osvald suffers froma venereal disease. The play also suggests thepossibility of incest between Osvald and his father’sillegitimate daughter. The play ends with Osvald toosick to function, begging his mother to administermorphine to end his life. Through Ghosts, Ibsenshows that the adherence to constraining socialnorms does not ensure our salvation or happinessbut can, in fact, inflict even greater harm.
The play received even harsher criticism than A Doll’sHouse, it was condemned by critics as foul anddisgusting. Theatres across Europe refused to stage it.The conservative press again blasted his work. Theliberal press, who had defended Ibsen in the past,turned against him. He was attacked from all sides.Ibsen was angered by this betrayal and wrote hisnext play, An Enemy of the People, furiously andcompletely in secret.
Henrik Ibsen as Disciplinarian, caricature in Vikingen, 1882. Ibsencriticizes the political left in The League of Youth, then criticizes the rightin The Pillars of Society. Finally, he censures all political parties in AnEnemy of the People.
Ibsen vs. Society
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In a letter to his publisher, he wryly mentioned thenew play he was writing: “This time it will be apeaceable production which can be read by Ministersof State and wholesale merchants and their ladies,and from which the theatres will not be obliged torecoil.” While Ibsen typcially published a new playevery two years, Ibsen wrote at twice his usual speedand published An Enemy of the People a mere yearafter Ghosts.
Dr. Stockmann, the main character of Enemy,becomes the mouthpiece for Ibsen’s anger. Thedoctor’s exposure of the truth about the baths quicklychanges from concern over the practical issue ofdecontamination to a larger, more abstract battlebetween the truthtelling minority and thecomplacent majority. In the play, Dr. Stockmann findsallies in the publishers of the liberal newspapers,Hovstad and Billing. The two are soon revealed ashypocrites, however; while they were initially eagerto publish the truth in order to criticize the currentadministration, they squash the story when theyrealize the decontamination of the baths will come atgreat taxpayer expense. This betrayal mirrors Ibsen’sdisenchantment with the liberal press.
Ibsen also viewed himself as an artist with an individualvision, and was continually frustrated by the public’srejection of his work based on what he believed werebanal, oldfashioned ideas. Dr. Stockmann stands up forwhat he believes in despite public opinion. He goes sofar as to compare the society he lives in to a cesspool—aworse one, certainly, than the contaminated baths—and states that the greatest enemy to freedom insociety is the “solid majority” and that “the minority isalways right.” Finally, he declares that “the strongestman in the world is he who stands most alone.”
Ibsen creates a complex character in Dr. Stockmann.The doctor is very idealistic and committed to truth, butat the same time, egotistical and prone to anger. Hisdesire to save the town and its people from thecontaminated baths eventually changes to rageand indignation against the society he lives in whenfaced with the townspeople’s rejection. In this way, wecan see Ibsen’s complex reactions to the censorshipand rejection of his own work—his desire to tell thetruth, his hurt at being rejected, and his angerat the complacent majority. The result is a fierce,streamlined play in which one can see both Ibsen’spersonal fury and his skill as a dramatist. Ironically, AnEnemy of the People became a popular and criticalsuccess for Ibsen, eagerly received by theatres acrossEurope.
Stockmannsgarden, Ibsen’s birthplace in Skien, is the last house on theright, facing the church, c. 1870.
Arnoldus Reimers as Dr. Stockmann and Henrik Klausen as Morten Kiil inthe first Norwegian production of An Enemy of the People, Christiania,1883.
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Ibsen’s Life and Works
1828 Henrik Ibsen born in Skien,Norway.
1864 Disillusioned with Norwegianpolitics, Henrik Ibsen moves his family toItaly.
1865 Henrik Ibsen writes Brand, his firstmajor work.
1868 Ibsen family moves to Germany.
18701880 Ibsen writes letters tofriends and fellow intellectuals expressingskepticism about the calls for democracyin Norway.
1877 Ibsen publishes his first Realistplay, The Pillars of Society. The playquickly spreads to avantgarde venuesacross Europe.
1879 Ibsen publishes A Doll’s House,first performed in Copenhagen. The playis met with harsh criticism fromconservatives throughout Europe.
1880 A Doll’s House premieres inGermany with an alternate ending,which Ibsen terms “a barbaric outrage.”
1881 Ibsen publishes Ghosts.Conservatives and liberals alike condemnthe play , and theatres across Europerefuse to stage it. Ibsen feels particularlybetrayed by the Norwegian liberal press,who had defended him during thescandal over A Doll’s House.
1882 Ibsen publishes An Enemy of thePeople as a reaction to critical responseto Ghosts. The play is warmly receivedthroughout Europe.
18831890 While living in Germany,Ibsen continues to publish successfulwork , including The Wild Duck,Rosmersholm, The Lady from the Seaand Hedda Gabler.
1891 Ibsen family returns to Norwayafter 27 years living abroad.
18921899 Ibsen publishes his lastplays, The Master Builder, Little Eyolf,John Gabriel Borkman and When WeDead Awaken.
1906 Ibsen dies as a national hero.
Scientific/Social Developments
1831 Electromagnetic current is discovered, making electric engines possible.
1837 Samuel Morse invents thetelegraph.
1848 Karl Marx publishes TheCommunist Manifesto, calling forProletariat revolution to eliminatesocial classes, and stating thatcapitalism is inherently unstable.
1854 First railway line laid inNorway between Christiania (Oslo)and Eidsvoll.
1859 Charles Darwin publishes TheOrigin of Species, introducing theconcept of evolution and rocking thescientific and religious worlds.
1876 Alexander Graham Bellinvents the telephone.
1877 Thomas Edison invents thephonograph.
1879 Thomas Edison develops alongerlasting electric light bulb.
1896 Sigmund Freud coins the term“psychoanalysis,” continuing hisresearch into the unconscious mind.
1908 Henry Ford massproduces theModel T.
Political Developments
1814 After Napoleon’s defeat, theEuropean continent is restructured.Norway gains independence fromDenmark, but soon enters into aUnion with Sweden, subject to theirmonarchy.
1848 After a series of crop failuresthat leave the working classesstarving, Europe is rocked byrevolutions in France, Germany andItaly. Bourgeois reformers revolt,calling for social change. Observingthe changing tide in Europe, calls fordemocratic reform in Norwayincrease.
1850 Austria and Prussia eliminatefeudalism.
1864 PrussianDanish War, aterritorial dispute, begins. To Ibsen’sdismay, Norway remains neutral,refusing to support the Danes in theconflict.
18741880 Norwegian politicalleaders struggle against the Swedishmonarchy, attempting to gain morepolitical power for the Storthing, theNorwegian parliamentary body.
1884 Liberals take control of theStorthing and impeach the primeminister. The Swedish monarchy isforced to recognize Norway’sparliamentary system.
1905 Norway declares itselfindependent from Sweden and theunion is dissolved.
Timeline of Ibsen’s World
The Norwegian Theatre in Møllergaden,Christiania, engraved by L. Kleiser, c. 1860.
Flag of Norway.
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To Tell the Truth:
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Coverups, Lies and Scandals
An Enemy of the People tells the story of an environmental disaster discovered by one scientist, who isthen defamed and relieved of his position by the government of the town in order to avoid scandal andmonetary expense. The following story was reported by CBS News on 60 Minutes on April 4th, 2004.
Read the summary below and compare the story to the synopsis of An Enemy of the People. Then consider thequestions below.
(Full text of the news story can be found here: http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/04/01/60minutes/main609889.shtml)
Jack Spadaro, former head of the National MineHealth and Safety Academy (MSHA), a branch of theDepartment of Labor, lost his job in 2003 when heblew the whistle on what he calls a coverup by theBush administration of a major environmentaldisaster. “I had never seen anything so corrupt andlawless in my entire career as what I saw regardinginterference with a federal investigation of the mostserious environmental disaster in the history of theEastern United States,” says Spadaro. In October2000, 300 million gallons of coal slurry—thick,puddinglike waste from mining operations—floodedland, polluted rivers and destroyed property ineastern Kentucky and West Virginia. The slurrycontained hazardous chemicals, including arsenicand mercury. “It polluted 100 miles of stream, killedeverything in the streams, all the way to the OhioRiver,” says Spadaro, who was second in command ofthe team investigating the accident. The disaster is 25times the size of the Exxon Valdez spill.
The slurry had been contained in an enormousreservoir, called an impoundment, which is owned bythe Massey Energy Company, the fifth largest miningcompany in America. One night, the heavy liquidbroke through the bottom of the reservoir, floodedthe abandoned coalmines below it and roared outinto the streams. Spadaro says that the MasseyEnergy Company knew the impoundment wasunsafe. There had been a previous spill in 1994.Spadaro spoke to an engineer at the company whosaid the problem had never been fixed, and allegedthat the company and the government knew aboutthe risk. So why didn’t they fix it? “It would have beenexpensive to find another site. And I think they werewilling to take the risk,” says Spadaro.
Spadaro and the team of investigators were going tocite the coal company for serious violations thatwould probably have led to large fines and evencriminal charges. But all that changed when the Bush
Mandy Patinkin and T. Scott Cunningham in Williamstown Theatre Festival’s 2003production of An Enemy of the People.
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What is the government’s responsibility to its people?Recent news is filled with stories of coverups, scandals andmisinformation. What do you think was the government’smotive in covering up the Massey Energy spill? What effectdid it have on local residents? Who is the governmentprotecting?
In An Enemy of the People, the citizens of the town sidewith the mayor against Dr. Stockmann to avoid the highertaxes that would be required of them if the town were todecontaminate the baths. Why do you think Ibsen wrotethis story? What does he think of the decision of thetownspeople? Do you think they are manipulated intobelieving that Dr. Stockmann is an enemy of the people?What effect does money have on people’s commitment totruth?
What is the individual’s responsibility to society?Both Dr. Stockmann and Jack Spadaro faced direconsequences due to their commitment to revealing thetruth and not backing down in the face of authority. Bothlost their jobs and were accused of crimes. Why do youthink they did what they did? Would you have done thesame thing in their situations?
Ibsen ends the play before we get to see Dr. Stockmann living with the consequences of his decision to stay in atown that despises and distrusts him. Jack Spadaro, after four years of fighting the government, was forced toretire from his battle for health reasons. (Coverage of Jack Spadaro’s decision can be found here:http://www.ohvec.org/newsletters/woc_2004_10/article_27.html) What do you think will happen to Dr.Stockmann and his family after the play has ended? In five years? In 10?
What is a journalist’s responsibility to society?In the midst of coverups and scandals, it is a journalist’s responsibility to report the truth to the public. Dojournalists today always fulfill that responsibility? In An Enemy of the People, the journalists of the town switchallegiances from Dr. Stockmann to the mayor when they find out that the exposure of the truth will come atgreat cost to the town and individual taxpayers. What factors get in the way of reporting the truth? How does asociety preserve freedom of the press?
Blowing the whistle on the coverup has led toserious consequences for Spadaro. Last year,government agents entered Spadaro's office, wentthrough his files, and locked him out. “They changedthe locks on my door and still have not allowed me toreturn to my work place,” says Spadaro, who spendshis days at home. The government says he wasremoved from his job primarily for abusing hisauthority, failing to follow procedures, and also forusing his government credit card withoutauthorization. Spadaro denies all the charges. “Youhave a guy in one of the regulatory agencies thatactually wants to stand up for what's right,” says LincChapman, whose property was flooded in theaccident, “And because he rocks their boat, he getsthrown overboard.”
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administration took over and decided that thecountry needed more energy—and less regulation ofenergy companies. The investigation into MasseyEnergy, a generous contributor to the RepublicanParty, was cut short. “The Bush administration camein and the scope of our investigation wasconsiderably shortened, and we were told to wrap itup in a few weeks,” says Spadaro.
Spadaro says his supervisor insisted he sign a watereddown version of the report on the investigation—aversion that virtually let the coal company and MSHAoff the hook. “He said, ‘I'm in a hard spot here and Ineed you to sign this report,” recalls Spadaro. “I said,‘You'd best take my name off that report because I'mnever going to sign that report.’”
Henrik Ibsen in 1883, woodcut by Wilhelm Rohr.
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Classroom Connections Before the performance...
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Would You Have the Courage to Stand up forWhat’s Right?
Dr. Stockmann stands up against his brother, the mayor,and the entire population of the town for what hebelieves is right. Ask students to journal about a timewhen their beliefs contradicted those of their family orpeer group, or when they had to stand up for the truthwhen no one believed them. What happened? Whatemotions did they feel in that situation? Did they stick totheir beliefs, or did they go with the group? Ask studentsto share their responses, then break up into groups anddevelop one group member’s journal entry into a shortscene that students can perform.
Find the Subtext—Realism inPerformance
Ibsen used very realistic dialogue in his plays. Use thetext below to explore how an actor approachesIbsen’s text. The scene is from act 1, in which PeterStockmann stops by for an unexpected visit at hisbrother’s house.
PETER: (entering from the living room) GoodEvening! Katherine!MRS. STOCKMANN: (entering) Oh, it’s you.How nice of you to come and see us.PETER: I was just passing, so…(lookingupstage) But you have company.MRS. STOCKMANN: No. No no no… He juststopped by. Won’t you have a little bite?PETER: Me? No thank you. No cooked mealsat night for me. Digestion problems.MRS. STOCKMANN: Oh, but just for once…PETER: No, no…That’s very kind of you. Istick to bread and butter at this time ofnight. It’s healthier and cheaper.MRS. STOCKMANN: Are you suggesting thatThomas and I spend too much money?PETER: Not you, my dear. It never enteredmy mind. (looking at the study)Isn’t he in?MRS. STOCKMANN: No. He’s gone for awalk with the boys.PETER: So soon after dinner? Not wise…(hears a noise) Ah, that must be him.MRS. STOCKMANN: No, I think not yet.
Ask students to get into pairs and work on the scene.First, read the scene for meaning. What are thecharacters talking about? What happens in thescene? Then go back and try to find the subtext.What do the characters reveal about themselves andtheir feelings even if they don’t say it outright? Readthe scene again, keeping the subtext in mind. As agroup discuss ways that actors use the subtext to playsubtle, realistic characters during performance.
Sibling Rivalry, Creating Characters
In An Enemy of the People, Dr. Stockmann and hisbrother, Peter, become enemies. As a group, brainstormevents that might make brothers turn against each other.Ask students to make a list of the qualities of both Dr.Stockmann and Peter Stockmann. (For example, Dr.Stockmann may be “passionate” and Peter may be“rigid.”) Then ask students to move around the room in aneutral walk. Ask them to experiment with leading withdifferent parts of their body: head, chest, hips and feet.After each type of movement, discuss with students howit made them feel, and what type of character may beinspired by that type of movement. Ask students toimagine that they are actors preparing to play the parts ofeither Dr. Stockmann or Peter Stockmann. How wouldthe students portray each of those characters? What typeof “lead” might inspire their movement? Ask students tomove around the room as one of the characters, then theother. What did they learn about the characters bymoving like them?
Coverups and Scandals
The themes of An Enemy of the People are veryrelevant today, as the truth is continually hiddenbehind deception and coverups. Ask your class tobecome a watchdog organization for governmentcoverups. Ask students to search through thenewspaper or the internet to find recent news storiesabout a government coverup or scandal. Make abulletin board in the classroom where students canpost their news stories every day leading up to the
Classroom Connections …After the performance
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Respond and Reflect
Ask students to read each of the quotes below. Discusshow each applies to An Enemy of the People. Askstudents to choose one quote and write a brief journalentry about how it relates to the performance theyattended.
“It is difficult to get a man to understand something whenhis salary depends upon his not understanding it.”— Upton Sinclair
“In religion and politics, people’s beliefs and convictionsare in almost every case gotten at second hand, andwithout examination.” — Mark Twain
The Majority is Always Right vs. The Minority isAlways Right
The central debate of act 3 takes place between Dr.Stockmann and the group of townspeople at CaptainHorster’s house. Tempers flare as each side passionatelydefends what they believe to be right. The townspeopledefy Dr. Stockmann, stating that “the majority is alwaysright.” They believe that fixing the baths will come at toogreat an expense to the town and that Dr. Stockmann isan enemy of the people. Dr. Stockmann cannot believethe the townspeople are willing to keep thecontaminated baths instead of paying some extra taxes.Faced with the mob mentality of the group, Dr.Stockmann states that “the minority is always right.” Askstudents to choose one of the two statements to support.Split the class into two groups and assign one to arguethe statement “the majority is always right” and the otherthe statement that “the minority is always right.” Askstudents to make lists in support of their statement, andthen organize a class debate. Students can use examplesfrom the play, knowledge from history or social studiesclasses, or their own experience to support theirarguments. After the debate, ask if any students changedtheir minds from their initial thoughts.
Do the Right Thing
Dr. Stockmann and his family had to make a greatsacrifice to stay true to their convictions. Dr. Stockmannand Petra lost their jobs, the family was ostracized andtheir house was vandalized by the townspeople. Wastelling the truth worth the cost? The Stockmanns thendecided to stay in the town that had rejected theminstead of fleeing to another country. Ask students tomake a list of pros and cons of Dr. Stockmann’s decision.Then ask students to make a list of any beliefs that wouldmake them give up money, security and social standingto uphold their convictions.
Other Places and Times
Ibsen’s plays are set in very specific locations, usually smallcoastal Norwegian towns, and deal with social issues thatwere relevant in the late1800s. Despite this specificity, hisplays have a universal quality that applies to other placesand times. For example, Arthur Miller wrote anadaptation of An Enemy of the People in the 1950s,relevant to the McCarthy Era. In 1989, the famous Indiandirector Satyajit Ray directed an adaptation of An Enemyof the People called Ganashatru, set in modernday India.If students were to write an adaptation of the play, whereand when would they set it? Ask students to write aproposal for an adaptation of the play, explaining theirsetting and why they chose it. Present the proposals tothe class for discussion.
Right: Michael Rudko as George Tesman and Judith Light as Hedda Gablerin the Shakespeare Theatre Company’s 20002001 production ofHedda Gabler.
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An Enemy of the People
Essays
• Riis, Johannes. Naturalist and Classical Styles in Early Sound Film Acting. Cinema Journal, 2004.
• Robins, Elizabeth. “From Hedda Gabler to Votes for Women.”Theatre Journal, 1996.
Books on Ibsen
• Bernhardt, Rudiger. Henrik Ibsen und die Deutschen. Henschelverlag Kunst und Gesellschaft, 1989.
• Brandes, George. Henrik Ibsen. Critical Studies, 1999.
• McFarlane, James. The Cambridge Companion to Ibsen. Cambridge University Press, 1994.
• Meyer, Michael. Ibsen: A Biography. Doubleday & Company, Inc, 1971.
• Postlewait, Thomas (ed.) William Archer on Ibsen. Greenwood Press, 1984.
• Templeton, Joan. Ibsen’s Women. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
• Wisenthal, J.L. (ed.) Bernard Shaw’s The Quintessence of Ibsenism and Related Writings. Universityof Toronto Press, 1979.
Websites
• www.ibsen.net—Reference site for information on Henrik Ibsen’s life and works
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen—Biography and Complete listing of works of HenrikIbsen
• www.littlebluelight.com—Concise introduction featuring a biography, major works and a discussionof his themes and style
• http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/ibsen.htm—Ibsen’s major works put in perspective against the events ofthe playwright’s life
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Resource List