an overview of online learning, second edition

An Overview of

Online Learning

Second Edition

Saul Carliner

HRD Press, Inc. ” Amherst ” Massachusetts

Published by: HRD Press, Inc.

22 Amherst Road

Amherst, MA 01002

(800) 822-2801 (U.S. and Canada)

(413) 253-3488

(413) 253-3490 (Fax)

http://www.hrdpress.com

Second Edition, First Printing

Copyright © 2004 by VNU Business Media

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright

Conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form

or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,

without permission in writing from the publisher. All inquiries

should be addressed to HRD Press, Inc., 22 Amherst Road,

Amherst, Massachusetts 01002. Published in the United States

by HRD Press, Inc.

ISBN 0-87425-740-9

Typesetting by Pracharak Technologies (P) Ltd., Madras, IndiaCover design by Donna Thibault-WongEditorial work by Suzanne Bay and Sally Farnham

Printed in Canada

Table of Contents

Preface .............................................................................................. vii

About This Overview ................................................................. vii

Who Should Read This Overview ............................................. vii

Primary Users .............................................................................vii

Secondary Users .........................................................................vii

How the Overview Is Organized .............................................. viii

Changes in the Second Edition ................................................... ix

Acknowledgments ............................................................................ xi

Chapter 1: An Introduction to Online Learning ........................... 1

Online Learning: A Definition ..................................................... 1

What Does Online Learning Look Like? .....................................2

How Does Online Learning Compare with

Distance Learning? .................................................................... 4

How Does Online Learning Compare with E-learning,

Web-based Training, and Computer-based Training? .......... 4

Is Online Learning More Effective than Classroom

Learning? .....................................................................................6

Will Online Learning Replace the Classroom? .......................... 7

What are the Key Considerations in Planning an Online

Learning Program? ................................................................... 7

Consideration 1: Learning Goals ................................................8

Consideration 2: Technology .....................................................11

Consideration 3: Project Issues ..................................................13

Chapter 2: Learning Goals ............................................................ 15

About Learning Goals ................................................................ 16

Starting at the End .................................................................... 16

Moving Beyond the Boundaries of the Classroom .................. 18

Formal Learning Online ............................................................ 19

Learning through Online Education ......................................... 19

Learning through Online Training ............................................ 25

Adapting Formal Learning to the Computer ............................ 28

Informal Learning Online .......................................................... 29

Learning through Knowledge Management ............................. 30

Learning through Electronic Performance Support .................. 33

Blending Different Types of Learning ...................................... 36

Learn More about the Contexts of Learning Online ................ 38

Chapter 3: The Technology of Online Learning .......................... 39

Technology for Developing Online Learning Programs ......... 41

A Background .............................................................................. 42

Consider the End Product First ................................................ 44

The Storyboard: A Tool to Visualize the End Product ............. 44

The User Interface: A Central Element of an Online

Learning Program ................................................................. 46

Characteristics of a Good User Interface ................................. 47

The Components or Building Blocks of the

Learning Program .................................................................. 49

Productivity Tools for Simple Text and Graphics ................... 51

What Productivity Tools Are .................................................... 51

When to Use Productivity Tools ............................................... 52

Issues to Consider When Using Productivity Tools ................. 53

Media Production Tools for Creating Complex Images ......... 53

What Media Production Tools Are ........................................... 53

When to Use Media Production Tools ..................................... 57

Issues to Consider When Using Media Production Tools ........ 58

The Tools Needed to Integrate Individual Components

in a Single Program ................................................................. 62

Tools Needed to Prepare an Asynchronous


Tools Needed to Prepare a Synchronous Learning

Experience: Virtual Classroom Software............................... 70

The Technology for Managing Online Learning ..................... 73

Learning Management Systems ................................................ 74

Hybrid Systems ......................................................................... 79

iv An Overview of Online Learning

Learning Content Management Systems .................................. 80

Specialized Software...................................................................83

Standards.....................................................................................83

The Technology for Delivering Online Learning ..................... 85

Choosing Technologies to Assist with Delivery

on a Network ........................................................................ 86

Delivering the Learning Program ...............................................91

What Does this Mean to Someone Developing Online

Learning Programs? ................................................................95

Consider the Hardware and Software Available to

Individual Learners .................................................................96

What a Learner’s Configuration Means to Someone

Developing Online Learning Programs ................................ 98

Learn More About the Technology for Delivering

Online Learning .................................................................... 99

Chapter 4: Project and Learning Considerations ..................... 101

Overview of Project and Learning Issues .............................. 101

Issues Associated with a Strategy for Moving to Online

Learning ................................................................................. 103

Issues Associated with Designing and Developing Online

Courses ................................................................................... 107

Similarities with Design for the Classroom and

Workbook ................................................................................108

Differences between Online Course Design and

Traditional Course Design ................................................... 109

Analysis Issues......................................................................... 110

Design Issues .......................................................................... 120

A Case Study in Needs Analysis ......................................... 133

A Case Study of an Online Community of Practice............ 135

A Case Study of a Simulation Learning Experience ........... 136

A Case Study of Advanced Professional Training............... 137

Developing the Components.................................................... 137

Developing Your Skills............................................................ 140

Managing the Process .............................................................. 144

Producing the Learning Program............................................. 145

Testing the Components............................................................147

Table of Contents v

Maintaining and Supporting the Online


Distributing and Marketing the Learning Program ................. 148

Supporting the Learning Program ........................................... 149

Maintaining the Learning Program.......................................... 150

Evaluating the Learning Program............................................ 152

Purchasing Software and Services ........................................... 157

Types of Services Purchased ................................................... 157

Issues to Consider When Purchasing....................................... 158

To Learn More About Online Program Development............. 159

Appendix ........................................................................................ 161

Glossary of Terms Used in Online Learning ...............................205

vi An Overview of Online Learning

Preface

About This Overview

An Overview of Online Learning introduces the reader to online learning

and addresses the key issues that should be considered before develop-

ing or participating in online learning. Specifically, this overview

• Describes what online learning is and identifies its major uses.

• Identifies the four major types of online learning.

• Outlines the technology needed to make online learning work.

• Lists the project issues—that is, the management considerations

and design challenges—that need to be addressed before develop-

ing materials for online learning.

Note, however, that this book is intended only to introduce you to

online learning. It is not intended to provide you with detailed

instructions on how to develop an online learning program or use

online learning technology.

Who Should Read This Overview

This book has been re-written to address the needs of four different

audiences:

Primary Users

People with education or training backgrounds who have little experi-

ence with online learning

Secondary Users

• People with backgrounds other than training who will play a role

in online learning

• People who have experience developing online learning, but

are interested in having a framework for understanding its

complexities

• People who have read the earlier version of this book and want to

familiarize themselves with the updated content

How the Overview Is Organized

The book has been organized into four chapters:

1. An introduction to online learning. The chapter starts with a

quick introduction to online learning and moves on to identify

the topics that are addressed in-depth later in the book.

2. Learning goals. This chapter provides detailed information on

each of the major types of online learning—knowledge manage-

ment, performance support, and training and education.

3. Learning technology. This chapter provides a simplified

overview of the technology needed to create, deliver, and manage

online learning. More than anything, the goal of this section is to

familiarize you with the technical issues that must be considered,

rather than provide you with a detailed listing of all the available

technologies. Supplying such a list would be an admittedly futile

effort; within a few months of writing the list, the technology

would have changed anyway.

4. Project issues. The chapter discusses several issues that must be

considered when planning any online learning project. These

issues include project issues, people management, and learning

issues.

This new edition also includes sample designs for two online learning

lessons: one module from a compliance-training course, and one

module from a product training course. A glossary of helpful terms

and definitions appears in the back. When appropriate, related

resources, especially those that are available online, will be listed.

viii An Overview of Online Learning

Changes in the Second Edition

The general structure of the second edition of An Overview of Online

Learning has not changed since the first edition.

There are, however, important changes to the content. These changes

result from two trends: a growing maturity within the field and of

online learning and the emergence of a new class of technology.

Specifically, the following areas in this second edition reflect new

understanding:

• Learning Goals (chapter 2). The distinction between formal and

informal learning has been clarified as interest in informal online

learning has grown. Learning goals are now grouped according to

whether they are formal or informal, and the description of online

collaboration has been dropped because online collaboration

usually happens within the context of some other form of learning.

This chapter also includes an expanded discussion of “blended”

learning, which has become more popular since the first edition was

published. (Blending mixes online and classroom learning and for-

mal and informal learning into a single learning program.)

• Learning Technology (chapter 3). The classifications of technology

for developing and delivering learning have remained remarkably

stable, but there is now a new class of technology for helping organi-

zations administer learning programs (referred to as learning man-

agement systems). Another new class of technology, which is also

described in this chapter, has emerged to help course designers and

developers use content that has already been developed for other

purposes: learning content management systems.

• Project Issues (chapter 4). This chapter addresses the same types

of issues covered in the first edition, but also reflects the wisdom

of additional years of collective experience with online learning.

In addition to explaining how instructional design and

development vary for classroom and online learning, this chapter

also covers how to develop a strategy for moving learning online,

issues to consider when purchasing technology and services, and

how to support and maintain an online learning program.

Preface ix

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Acknowledgments

Several people have helped me prepare the technical content for this

edition of the Overview. Huge thanks goes to Gloria Gery, who

provided much of the intellectual backbone of this book. I would also

like to thank Clark Aldrich, who clarified my understanding of LMSs

and LCMSs, and Margaret Driscoll and Patti Shank, who provided

sanity checks on the content from time to time.

I would like to thank the folks at HRD Press and VNU Business

Media for their leadership and publishing support. At HRD Press, a

thank you goes to Chris Hunter for patiently waiting for the draft ver-

sion and suggesting changes that would make the content most useful

to readers; Bob Carkhuff, who shepherded this book through produc-

tion; and Debra Draper and colleagues for marketing the book.

At VNU Business Media, thanks go to Phil Jones for his enthusiastic

executive sponsorship of this book; to Julie Groshens for suggesting

that I write it (and for countless other opportunities and hours of

conversation); to Steve Dahlberg for feeding me the latest industry

news and providing technical support for the Web version of this

book; to Marc Hequet and Sarah Boehle for feeding me information

and providing succinct weekly words of wisdom in the various

electronic newsletters from VNU; and finally, to Leah Nelson for

general support of online learning events and, in particular, for

support for the “live” versions of this content.

I would also like to thank the people who assisted me with screen

shots and other graphics: Geoff Cox and John Kruper from Cardean

University; Kevin Oakes and Karen Peck from Click2Learn; Bob

Mosher and Bob Voelker from Element K; Maurice Heiblum from

Elluminate; Jennifer Hofmann of InSych Training Synergy; Julius

Edlavitch from International Pediatric Chat; Heather Holleander from

Macromedia; Chris Maxwell from Ojala.com; and my former student,

Cesira Daukantas.

Chapter 1:

An Introduction to

Online Learning

Before you consider how online learning can be used in your organization and which investments in technology you will need, you must first know:

• What online learning is.

• What you should consider when planning an online learningprogram.

Online Learning: A Definition

Simply put, online learning refers to learning and other supportiveresources that are available through a computer.

In an online lesson, the computer displays material in response to a learner’s request. The computer prompts the learner for moreinformation, and presents appropriate material based on the learner’sresponse.

The material can be as simple as lessons from a classroom courseand accompanying tests that are transcribed into a computer pro-gram, or as complex as a program that tracks user input and sug-gests appropriate learning material. It can be a work session thatoccurs on a computer, in which case the learning is a byproduct ofthe experience, or it can be designed for purposes other than learn-ing, in which learners go through it with a goal of extracting parti-cular content.

The material can be presented as text, graphics, animated graphics(that is, graphics that move), audio, video, or a combination of any of these.

At the end of this topic, you can link to examples of simple andcomplex online learning materials, each of which makes use of avariety of media.

What Does Online Learning Look Like?

For starters, online learning looks like the screen in Figure 1-1.

2 An Overview of Online Learning

Figure 1-1: Example screen from an online course.

This book is designed as a reference rather than a course, but it has an educational purpose. In its online form, it is all about the mostbasic form of online learning: some text, simple graphics, and a lim-ited amount of interaction.

More-complex online learning will involve a larger amount of inten-tional interaction than hyperlinks. This interaction might include drillssuch as those used to teach rote mathematics skills or make sure thatworkers know and follow safety procedures when working with toxicchemicals. More-complex systems include simulations such as air-craft simulators or fictitious situations involving medical patients ormanagement challenges in the workplace.

Computers offer so much flexibility and variety, making online learningversatile and flexible, as well. Examples of more-complex forms ofonline learning courses are regularly scheduled lectures by videoconfer-ence on the Internet; a Web page with supplemental materials such as

Chapter 1 3

Figure 1-1 (continued): Example screen from an online course.

videos of previous lessons; discussions outside of class by electronicmail; and online tests whose results are automatically recorded in stu-dent records.

Finally, online learning can be used to teach any subject. Subjects such astechnical training and lower-order thinking skills (such as memorization)lend themselves most easily to online learning. But imaginative coursedesigners have successfully taught all sorts of other subjects online: cours-es on compliance with equal opportunity laws, screenwriting, leadershipskills for business managers, how to make scientific and technical presen-tations, and delivering courteous customer service, to name a few.

How Does Online Learning Compare with

Distance Learning?

People often use the term distance learning to refer to online learning.Actually, online learning is just one form of distance learning.According to the United States Distance Learning Association, distancelearning is any type of educational situation in which the instructor andstudents are separated by time or location. Correspondence courses andcourses by television are forms of distance learning.

How Does Online Learning Compare

with E-learning, Web-based Training,

and Computer-based Training?

People often interchange online learning with the terms e-learning,

Web-based training, computer-based training, computer-based

instruction, and technology-based instruction. Actually, each of theseis a form of online learning, and each term has a specific meaning,but some terms are synonymous.


• Online learning in its broadest form refers to all types of learningthat takes place via computer.

• Ε-learning is often used to refer to online learning, but learningexpert Marc Rosenberg contends that it is only e-learning if thecomputer is connected either to the Internet or to an intranet orextranet (private forms of the Internet that limit access to author-ized users). Because learning materials are available through theInternet, they can be linked to resources outside the learning program, such as references, electronic mail, and discussions.Because they do not require that the computer be connected to theInternet, learning programs on CD and DVD are technically notforms of e-learning, although they are forms of online learning.

• Web-based training is a synonym for e-learning.

• Computer-based training (also called computer-based instruction)is an older term (used before the widespread availability of theInternet) and refers to courses presented on a computer. Thecourse does not provide links to learning resources outside of thecourse. Often, learners take a computer-based training course on acomputer that is not connected to a network.

• Technology-based instruction has a broader meaning; it refers tolearning through any medium other than the classroom. Thisincludes computers, but also refers to television, audiotape,videotape, and print.

Not surprisingly, the term online learning confuses people because itrefers to a broad range of approaches and involves new and complextechnology that people in the industry enthusiastically advocate and attimes even hype. Terminology and concepts become confused ( justlook at the confusion over the terms online learning and e-learning),and project proposals become muddied as people equate deliverymechanisms with program structure and focus on technical issues,sometimes to the oversight of content.

Chapter 1 5

Is Online Learning More Effective than

Classroom Learning?

That depends on how you define the term effective.

If you define effective as faster then, in some instances, online learn-ing is more effective. Some studies show that online courses taughtexclusively asynchronously (that is, the instructor and learner are notonline at the same time) can reduce learning time by about a third.One of the reasons for this is that learners can skip material theyalready know; in the classroom, learners must sit through such material.

If you define effective as students learning the material better than inthe classroom, no conclusive answer exists. Some enthusiasts ofonline learning argue theoretically that learning is more effectiveonline because it engages more senses. The more senses involved inlearning, the higher the retention of the material.

In reality, this view assumes that every online course actually engagesall of these senses. Many existing online courses are electronic pageturners, and do not engage the senses. Research on online readingsuggests that reading online is less effective than reading printedmaterials: reading speeds are 25 percent slower online. Learners alsotend to skim online material rather than to read it carefully.

That might suggest, then, that online learning is less effective than the classroom or workbooks, but studies have not found that to be thecase. Instead, most studies that compare classroom and online ver-sions of the same material suggest that online learning is as effectiveas classroom learning—no more, no less.


Will Online Learning Replace the Classroom?

Absolutely not.

Admittedly, some of the early advocates of online learning suggestedthat the computer might replace the classroom, but most peopledismiss this point of view.

Instead, designers have learned that the best online learning comple-ments classroom learning. In fact, some of the most effective onlinelearning programs are blended with classroom programs, letting eachmedium do what it does best.

For example, IBM’s management training program combines onlineand classroom segments. Online segments introduce learners to therote content and are available for reference when learners need thematerial on the job. This type of material is primarily fact-based.

Classroom segments focus on real world application of the conceptsdiscussed in the online segments. This type of material is primarilyjudgment-based; learners must make assessments of when and how toapply rules.

What Are the Key Considerations in Planning

an Online Learning Program?

The most central consideration in designing online learning programsis the same as that for programs intended for the classroom or pre-sented as workbooks: the content. Course designers and developersmust choose, sequence, and present content so that learners can mas-ter it most effectively in the least amount of time.

But the computer imposes a number of new opportunities and chal-lenges. On the one hand, it allows you to present content in radicallydifferent ways than were previously possible. On the other hand,computer technology is ever-evolving, and courses must be developedwithin organizational and educational constraints. Many considera-

Chapter 1 7

tions need to be addressed when planning an online learning program.The next several sections will explore three of them in more detail:

1. Learning goals2. Technology3. Project issues

Consideration 1: Learning Goals

Is online learning a more efficient way of placing students in seats, oris it a new kind of learning experience?

Part of the answer depends on the learner’s ability to master the

technology.

Think about how writers, directors, producers, and performers mas-tered a related communications technology: television.

The first television shows were radio shows, in which viewers couldsee pictures of the performers. Instead of performers standing arounda microphone and talking, they sat on a stage set and talked.

Then Lucille Ball came along.

Because she had recently given birth to her first child, Lucy did notwant to work evenings, when comedies were broadcast live. So theshow was recorded before it was televised, the first prime-time com-edy series to do this.

The production team saw an opportunity to experiment. Freed fromsome of the restrictions of live television, the production team coulduse three cameras to record the show, and edit the film afterwards. Thisthree-camera approach effectively showcased Lucy’s trademark physi-cal comedy (some say it is responsible for her success) and became thestandard production technique for decades following Lucy’s series.


As an unanticipated byproduct, the recordings could be sold again asreruns. Lucille Ball and Desi Arnez not only invented televisioncomedy, they invented the rerun business (or, as we like to call themin the learning world, reusable learning objects).

Television took another leap forward in the early 1980s with thearrival of Hill Street Blues, which told stories primarily through pictures, rather than through dialogue. As a result, television becamemore like film. As screenwriting author Syd Field describes it, filmrepresents stories told through pictures, supported by words.

Over time, online learning, too, will move from the “just off of radio”phase through an I Love Lucy phase and into a Hill Street Blues

phase. Online learning programs vary from “off the radio” phase(replacing the lecturer with the computer) to the “Hill Street Blues”phase, a fundamentally different learning experience that breaks theboundary of the classroom and creates radically new ways of learningspecifically suited to the computer.

More fundamentally, the answer depends on the goals of the

learning program.

One of the key questions to consider is whether your goal is to makethe learning intentional, or to let it be a byproduct.

In the classroom, people always assume that the learning is intentional, but computers let people store and review a variety ofinformation anywhere. As a result, learning can happen unintention-ally. For example, an individual browsing through a reference onheart valves might stumble onto information about diets for healthyliving, and retain the material. In other instances, the computer performs work for the learner; learning is not necessary. An exampleof this is the use of online calculators to compute loan paymentschedules so people will not have to learn how to calculate them on their own.

In other words, online learning can be more than just an intentional,sit-and-study type of learning. But that other type of learning onlyhappens if you intentionally plan for it.

Chapter 1 9

As you develop the objectives for an online learning program, youcan choose the context that best supports the learning you hope toachieve:

• Formal learning, in which the course designers and developersidentify the intended outcomes long before the course begins andlearners are considered to have successfully completed the learn-ing program only when they can demonstrate successful masteryof the intended outcomes. Formal learning takes two forms:

— Education—a structured learning event whose outcomes areintended to have a long-term benefit to learners.

— Training—a structured learning event whose outcomes areintended to have an immediate benefit to learners.

• Informal learning, in which learners define what they want tolearn and the learning is considered successful when learnersbelieve they have mastered their intended objectives (whetheror not the course designers believe that the learners have orhave not demonstrated mastery). Informal learning takes twoforms:

— Knowledge management—work environments that capture,store, and organize the knowledge and experiences of indi-vidual workers and groups, and make that content availableto others in the organization. Organizational learning isintentional, individual learning is a by-product.

— Performance support—work environments that are designed around a software application; performers receiveassistance with tasks or in completing work from a com-puter. The learning resources are built into the software.Performance—not competence—is the goal in these con-texts: The goal is to help learners perform the task, whetheror not course designers feel that learners have mastered the task.


Chapter Two, Learning Goals, describes each of these contexts indetail, and offers samples of materials prepared for each of thesecontexts.

Consideration 2: Technology

Does technology drive teaching, or does teaching drive the

technology?

Before you can consider this question, you must have a good under-standing of which technology is needed to support online learning.

Three types of technologies support online learning:

• Technologies for managing learning programs. Primarilysoftware, this type of technology performs the tasks of a registrar:It enrolls learners in courses (not just online courses, but alsoclassroom courses), tracks their progress through courses (such as “attendance,” and progress on tests and other assessments),records completions, sends notification of completions and certifi-cations to other systems, and provides reports on learning.

• Technologies for developing learning programs. The hardwareand software technology can help you create the learning materi-als, prepare them for “publication,” and exchange materials withother learning programs. The standards you might have heardabout primarily affect the technology for developing and manag-ing online learning programs.

• Technologies for delivering the learning program. These technologies include the computer hardware (most often a PC) andthe software installed on it (such as the operating system thatcontrols the computer) that lets learners use the learning materials.These technologies can also include specialized hardware andsoftware for playing video and audio and for handling complexinteractions between the student and the computer, the cables andsoftware that connect the computers in a network, the protocols and

Chapter 1 11

standards or “smarts” that help computers accurately read informa-tion transmitted on the network, as well as specialized software suchas database programs.

In an ideal world, you would choose the technology for managing,developing, and distributing online learning materials after you haveset objectives and determined the most appropriate learning context.The technology you choose would most likely bring about theintended results.

In the real world, that doesn’t happen. Much of the technology used for online learning is already installed and used for other pur-poses, such as processing orders, managing computer networks, andstoring customer records. It is probably already used by most otherdepartments in the organization, such as finance, customer service,human resources, and manufacturing. In fact, the needs of thesegroups often drive the choice of technology. You often have to“inherit” the selection.

If that is the case, make sure you understand the technology infra-structure available in your organization and its compatibility withyour learning objectives and context. Then you can adapt it to yourneeds and make sure that additional technology investments harmo-nize with the technology already available.

As you and your organization become more familiar with onlinelearning, you will no doubt seek a more active role in choosing hard-ware and software to make sure that the technology is compatiblewith the goals for online learning in your organization.

Chapter 3, The Technology of Online Learning, describes theelements of a technical infrastructure needed to support onlinelearning, identifies choices that might have been made already, and suggests the choices yet to be made.


Consideration 3: Project Issues

Once goals are established and technical issues are addressed, youneed to consider how to adjust your existing processes for developingand delivering learning materials and which skills you need to makethe most effective use of the medium. These are project issues,because they pertain to the project processes of designing, develop-ing, launching, evaluating, and supporting online learning programs.These issues include

• Project management. No solitary effort, developing online learn-ing materials involves a team of people with diverse skills, rang-ing from course design to acting, graphic design, andprogramming. Orchestrating and harmonizing these effortsrequires specialized processes; tracking them benefits fromspecialized software for project management.

• Strong needs analysis and well-defined objectives. These two“musts” are the starting point for effective classroom and work-book materials, as well as effective documentation. The need forstrong analysis and well-defined objectives does not change justbecause the end product is online. However, the analysis mustexplore issues about the learning technologies and their accept-ance by various types of users in the organization.

• Unique repertoire of teaching skills. Teaching online involves adifferent repertoire of teaching techniques—some similar to thoseused in the classroom, others rarely seen in the classroom. It alsoinvolves designing the user interface (the look and feel of thesoftware that users interact with) and considerations for re-use(using materials from the course elsewhere in the organization).Online instructors might have to adapt classroom presentationskills and workbooks to the computer screen.

• Development for the computer screen. At the least, thisinvolves programming and testing. If the online learning program includes audio, video, and animated segments, thisinvolves extensive production. If the online learning programsmake use of other information elsewhere in the organization, pro-gramming and permissions will be necessary. (By the way, if your

Chapter 1 13

needs are generic, consider purchasing or tailoring an off-the-shelf learning program before developing your own.)

• Launch, marketing, support, maintenance, and administration.

Just because you publish an online learning program doesn’t meanthat the intended learners will find it, much less use it. Just becauselearners are out-of-sight does not mean that they will not havequestions and concerns that need to be addressed. And just becausethe online learning material has been published does not mean thatit won’t need to change. In other words, your online learning proj-ect is not complete if you have not considered how to get materialsto intended learners, how to keep records of learner participationand performance (particularly if your organization needs this infor-mation), how to address problems that arise as learners go throughthe course, and how to update the course on a timely basis.

Chapter 4, Project and Learning Issues, explores each of these con-cerns in detail.


Chapter 2:

Learning Goals

Planning for online learning begins at the end, with the goals youhope to achieve. This chapter explores the different types of learninggoals that you can achieve with online learning—many that you cannot achieve in a classroom. Specifically, this chapter covers thefollowing:

• About learning goals

— Starting at the end

— Breaking beyond the boundaries of the classroom

• Planning for formal learning

— Learning through online education

— Learning through online training

— Adapting formal learning to the computer

• Planning for informal learning

— Learning through knowledge management within an organization

— Learning through electronic performance support

— Adapting informal learning to the computer

• Blending different types of learning

About Learning Goals

Starting at the End

Planning for online learning starts at the end, with the outcome or resultsto be achieved. The results will vary:

• From a learner’s perspective, the learning outcomes are tied to personal goals. In some cases, a learner can easily define his or her goals, such as “processing an insurance claim,” “preparing adetailed work plan for a client,” “troubleshooting a piece of equip-ment,” or “describing the management issues faced in a particularbusiness situation.” Sometimes the goals are less defined, such aswhen a worker for a medical device manufacturer wants to under-stand how the devices he or she works on affect a patient’s quality oflife. Similarly, a participant on a team might want to understand allthe job tasks in a development process or a student in a college-levelart appreciation course might like to “better understand art.”

• From a manager’s perspective, the learning outcomes are tied tobusiness issues driving the manager. In some organizations, man-agement seeks financial results, which can usually be achievedthrough the reduced cost of delivering online learning programscompared to classroom courses. In other organizations, manage-ment seeks performance results—improved work performancepromised by training, such as a decreased time to performance

(that is, the time needed for a new worker to perform like a moreexperienced one) or increased accuracy.

• From a programmer’s perspective (also called a developer), thelearning outcome is to produce a flawlessly running program. Aflawless program:

— Runs quickly and does so because it uses the fewest systemresources. One group of resources might facilitate communi-cation among computers. The wires that transmit informationfrom one computer to another (as well as wireless channels)carry a finite amount of information. The more informationyou try to send, such as graphics, audio, and video, the morelikely you are to reach the capacity of the system.


— Runs without errors. Do all of the links identified in the programreally link to the material indicated? Do the answers displayedafter learners respond to questions match the answers given?(That is, if someone enters a correct response, does the systemrespond with “Incorrect”?) In the process of running, does theprogram cause the system to crash because it inadvertentlycaused a problem in another program?

— Can be developed and delivered with the technology that’savailable. For example, suppose you are developing materialsthat are available only on the Internet, yet users do not haveeasy access to the Internet. The course might be great, but iflearners have no access to it, the online program in this caseis useless.

• From the designer’s perspective, the learning outcomes or resultswill depend on the learning objectives—those statements indicat-ing the visible and measurable skills learners should master as aresult of using the online learning materials.

In some situations, the learning is intentional; the learners mustmaster the objectives, including training and education. In othersituations, learning is a coincidental outcome, and learners willacquire new skills and knowledge as they work on more familiartasks, such as knowledge management and performance support.

Whether learning is intentional or coincidental affects the way inwhich people design online learning experiences and the waythese people plan for learners to acquire new skills.

The next several sections describe learning goals from this last per-spective: intentional or coincidental learning. By taking this perspec-tive, the people who design and develop online learning programs canassess which approach best helps learners achieve their goals and create experiences designed to promote learning in the most effectivemanner.

Chapter 2 17

Programmers support learners in this effort through use of efficient,effective programs. Finally, if learners achieve their goals, manage-ment should achieve the business results it seeks.

Moving Beyond the Boundaries of the Classroom

Because the primary package for training in the classroom is thecourse, we educators and trainers naturally gravitate to the idea ofdelivering learning material online as courses. In fact, the processesand systems used by most training departments and educational insti-tutions are designed for developing and delivering courses. It’s theunit in which we deliver content, and it’s the primary deliverable forour efforts. For many training organizations, it’s also the unit forwhich we charge for our services, as well as the unit on which wemeasure our effectiveness. Most training departments and educationalinstitutions assess the effectiveness of their work by assessing theeffectiveness of their courses.

Classroom courses represent a type of learning called formal learning

because the learning has stated objectives and is supposed to yieldpre-determined results. Some types of online learning re-create theformal learning experience online. Formal learning online takes the form of education and training.

Other forms of online learning move beyond formal learning toprovide learning when, where, and how learners need it. Suchlearning does not have stated objectives, because each learner hasa different goal, though many can achieve their goals through thesame learning material. This type of learning is called informal

learning, because it does not identify outcomes that learnersshould achieve. Learners determine these outcomes for themselves, often after taking the course. Informal learning online takes the form of knowledge management and performance

support.

The next several sections describe these two broad categories ofonline learning, and the specific forms of learning within them. Andthe following figure represents the different categories and types oflearning.


Formal Learning Online

The first type of online learning to be discussed is formal learning. Asmentioned earlier, formal learning is intentional: The learning materi-als begin with specific objectives that have been identified by thecourse developer in conjunction with the sponsors and subject matterexperts. Learning is assessed as the extent to which learners achievethose objectives. This learning is characterized by a level of controlby the course designer over the learner, because the learner must meetthe designer’s goals before he or she can officially complete thelearning experience.

Formal learning online takes two forms: online education and online

training.

Learning through Online Education

What is “online education”?

Education is a structured event specifically intended to developdurable knowledge and skills—skills that have long-term use. Whenthe event occurs in a classroom, the instructor is a person. When theevent occurs online, the computer becomes the instructor. At least twotypes of education are considered to be online:

• Virtual classrooms—classroom-like events in which students andinstructors are separated by geography, but they do their work atthe same time.

Chapter 2 19

Types of Online Learning

Formal Learning

• Education

• Training

• Blended with classroom and

printed versions of the same

Informal Learning

• Knowledge management

• Electronic performance support

• Blended with related materials in

other media

At the least, instructors and students interact with one another by“chatting” online—typing in messages that all of the people con-nected to the event can see. The chat might be a formal one inwhich an instructor “lectures” first, and follows up with an onlineconversation.

At the most, the event includes an Internet broadcast of theinstructor and a simultaneous presentation of a related visual(perhaps a whiteboard on which instructors can write notes so allparticipants can see them). Students respond with oral or writtenquestions.

Because the instructor and learners are online at the same time,the instruction is called synchronous.

• Online courses—structured learning experiences presented on acomputer, in which the instructor and the learner are separated bytime and geography.

Materials are organized into courses, which can include a combi-nation of formal teaching sequences and exercises, such as prob-lems to solve and simulations to experience.

Individual learners directly interact with the computer to proceedthrough the courses. Ideally, these courses engage studentsthrough meaningful interaction and allow students to direct theirown learning. These courses often include assessments (testing).

Because learners and the instructor do not need to be online at thesame time, this type of online training and education is calledasynchronous.

Participants usually take virtual classes and online courses in the academic style: a few hours a week over a period of several weeks or months. Between class sessions, participants usually have home-work assignments such as assigned readings, papers, and even groupassignments.

To facilitate a sense of community outside the regularly scheduled synchronous classes and help students who take


courses asynchronously, many instructors facilitate ongoing discussions outside of class.

Many online courses also provide extensive resources online, including

• Textbooks, which can be created by assembling readings from avariety of sources into a single text, with instructor’s notes.

• Supplementary readings.

• Remediation (that is, an alternate presentation of course contentthat helps learners who did not master the material on the first try).

• Enrichment exercises.

• Worksheets.

• Interesting links.

Organizations often provide tutors for online courses that learners takeasynchronously. Tutoring might be available by telephone or e-mail.One institution even has “beeper” tutors: tutors are paged when a learnerhas a question, and must respond to the page within two hours.

Because the learning has formally stated objectives and is supposed toyield specific results, the learning is said to be formal. This is not thecase with online training.

Also note that, although it is not technically online education, themost common use of online learning in higher education is to supple-ment classroom courses with course Web sites. These course Websites are usually administered with special software such asBlackboard and WebCT, which also lets instructors give tests online,keep grade books, and facilitate communication among members ofthe class. But the actual learning occurs in a classroom.

How are organizations using online education?

Uses of online training and education are as varied as the organiza-tions themselves. Consider these varied educational uses:

Chapter 2 21

• Basic skills training. Online education provides adults whohave limited literacy skills with a safe place to develop thoseskills at an individualized pace. Some of the courses areadapted from similar programs that teach children basic readingand mathematics skills; others are developed specifically foradults.

• Online degrees. Established universities offer individual courses,certificate programs, and degree programs online. For example,San Diego State University offers a certificate in educationaltechnology online.


Screen copyright 2002 by Cardean University. Used with permission.

Figure 2-1: This is a screen from a finance course in the MBA program at

Cardean University. Notice the different parts of the window: the left-hand side

informs students of their location in the course; the central part of the screen

presents a case; the upper pop-up window shows an interactive visual calcula-

tor; and the lower pop-up shows a video of Nobel laureate Merton Miller telling a

“war story” related to the teaching material.

• Management education. Some major corporations conduct partof their management education online. Participants are assignedto work groups who “meet” online a few hours per week for several weeks preceding a classroom course. During their onlinecollaboration, participants first read policies and backgroundmaterial, and then work through cases of actual managementproblems.

Chapter 2 23

Technology Needed for Online Education

Synchronous courses

To develop courses, the following technology is needed:

• Virtual-classroom software, which lets the instructor “connect”with learners and manage the online discussion (examplesinclude Centra and WebEx).

• Office productivity software, for creating visuals and docu-ments (software like Microsoft PowerPoint and Word).

• A browser.

• A microphone.

• A Webcam (optional), so the instructor can transmit an image tolearners.

• Other software applications that the instructor would like todemonstrate in a class session.

To deliver courses to learners, the following technology is needed:

• A sound card, to hear students’ comments.

• A computer that is capable of connecting to the Internet.

• A browser.

• Virtual-classroom software (learners generally use a limitedversion of this software and can download it from the instruc-tor’s or the educational institution’s Web site).


• A microphone (optional), for speaking with the instructor (mostgroupware also includes chat software so that learners withouta microphone can still communicate with the instructor).

• Additional software for playing audio, video, and other types ofspecialized media (“plug-ins”).

Asynchronous courses


• A computer capable of handling large graphics and video files.

• A word processor for preparing the text of the learning pro-gram.

• Authoring tools (software for creating interactive material), such as Click2Learn’s ToolBook or MacromediaDreamWeaver. Course management software, such asBlackboard and WebCT, also lets you author material.

• Presentation software for preparing slides and visuals, if any,such as Microsoft Powerpoint or Macromedia Flash.

• Software for retouching photos, such as Adobe PhotoShop.

To deliver asynchronous courses to learners, the following tech-nology is needed:

• A computer.

• If sound is to be used, sound card and speakers.

• Software for playing the course material.

• Software for reading the course material on the Internet.

• Software for playing sound bytes.

• Software for playing video sequences.

To supplement classroom courses:

• Course management software, such as Blackboard and WebCT.

• HTML editors for creating course Web sites.

Learning through Online Training

What is online training?

Like online education, training is a structured event specificallyintended to develop knowledge and skills. What distinguishes trainingfrom education, however, is that the skills and knowledge taught intraining are expected to be used immediately.

Online training takes the same forms as online education:

• Synchronous Webcasts• Asynchronous courses

Unlike online education, learners in online training courses usuallytake them start-to-finish, with minimal interruption, and rarely havehomework between classes. For example, a learner might take anonline training course in a single two-hour session. Because theskills taught might be needed at any time, online training coursesare usually asynchronous so that learners can take them wheneverthey need them. In fact, online training courses are often referred toas just-in-time training because of their anytime-anywhere avail-ability.

To provide online learners with a sense of community and a feelingthat their learning is not anonymous, some organizations also provideonline discussion groups for courses so that learners can interact withone another. Similarly, some organizations provide tutoring servicesso that learners have someone to contact if they have questions orneed tutoring on challenging course material.

Because online training courses have explicitly stated objectives andoften have tests to assess whether students mastered these objectives,the learning is considered to be formal.

How are organizations using online training?

Although the trade press might make online training seem like a newconcept, corporations have been using it since the 1960s. At about

Chapter 2 25


that time, the Control Data Corporation developed PLATO, softwarefor creating and delivering training courses (called an authoring tool).Since then, uses of online training have become as varied as theorganizations themselves. Consider these uses:

• Teaching the use of common business applications, such asWordPerfect, Microsoft Access, and Lotus Notes. See Figure 2-2for an example.

• Teaching quality control, especially topics like statistical processcontrol.

• Orienting new employees. Organizations especially like to placeroutine and technical content online, such as safety procedures.Most organizations still present material that communicates

Screen copyright 2002 by Element K. Used with permission.

Figure 2-2: This is a sample screen from an asynchronous training course on

Excel. Notice that the background of the screen shows an actual Excel work-

sheet, and the pop-up explains how to use formulas.

corporate culture in a classroom setting, however, because they feelthat this kind of content benefits from human presentation.

• Providing training required by regulators, such as an annualrefresher course on the procedures used to protect informationwithin the company from inappropriate and unauthorized use.

Chapter 2 27

The Technology Needed for Online Training

Synchronous courses


• Virtual classroom software, which lets the instructor “connect”with learners and manage the online discussion (examples ofvirtual-classroom software include Centra and WebEx).

• Office productivity software, for creating visuals anddocuments (software like Microsoft PowerPoint and Word).

• A browser.

• A microphone for speaking to learners.

• A Webcam (optional), if the instructor wishes to transmit animage to learners.

• Other software applications that the instructor wants todemonstrate in a class session.

To deliver courses to learners, the following technology is needed:

• A computer capable of connecting to the Internet.

• A browser.

• Virtual-classroom software (learners generally use a limitedversion of this software and can download it from the instruc-tor’s or the educational institution’s Web site).

• A microphone (optional), for speaking with the instructor (mostgroupware also includes chat software so that learners withouta microphone can still communicate with the instructor).

Adapting Formal Learning to the Computer

Formal learning online resembles its classroom counterpart in manyways. Like classroom training, formal online learning also has statedlearning objectives. It challenges designers to create an interactiveand supportive learning environment, uses tests and other types ofassessments to evaluate learning, and involves extensive record keep-ing. Learners receive credit for a formal learning experience only ifthey complete the course and pass a test (or some similar type oflearning assessment).


Asynchronous courses

To develop courses, the following technology is necessary:

• A computer with the capability of working with large graphicsand video files.

• A word processor for preparing the text of the learning program.

• Authoring tools (software for creating course interactive material), such as Blackboard, Click2Learn’s ToolBook, orMacromedia DreamWeaver. Newer authoring tools likeMacromedia, Breeze, and RoboPresenter let designers createonline learning programs from PowerPoint files.

• Presentation software for preparing slides and visuals, such asMicrosoft Powerpoint or Macromedia Flash.

• Software for retouching photos, such as Adobe PhotoShop.

To deliver asynchronous courses to learners, the following tech-nology is necessary:

• A computer.

• If sound is to be used, a sound card and speakers.

• Software for playing the course material.

• Software for reading the course material from the Internet.

• Software for playing sound bytes.

• Software for playing video sequences.

A computer simplifies parts of this effort. It can automate testing andrecord keeping.

Computers complicate other parts of this effort. For example, instruc-tional designers must make sure that learners have the necessary soft-ware on their computers and that the courses run without errors. Even ifthese parts work, the connections with computers can fail while the stu-dent is supposed to be taking the course. Students can also “cheat” byhaving someone else do the work or take the tests.

A more significant complication, however, is that computers areimpersonal devices. Self-enrollment and not being in a physical class-room can make online learning an anonymous experience. Thatanonymity de-motivates learners.

Interactivity, already a challenge in the classroom, becomes a moresignificant challenge online. Conversations that instructors can easilyinitiate in the classroom become impossible in asynchronous class-rooms. Interactive simulations and exercises, popular forms of inter-action with learners, often require complex programming to appearfully engaging.

So many designers of online instruction rely heavily on text. Turn-ing endless pages of text (perhaps mixed with some ornamental clipart) can be dreary, but doing so online presents an additional com-plication: Reading text online is less “accurate” than reading print.Designers must address this reality when presenting information.

Informal Learning Online

Formal learning is often necessary in the workplace, but just asfrequently, people learn without the direction of learning profession-als. In some instances, workers identify what they need to learn,determine where the content exists, and continue to work on theirlearning until they master the topic. In other instances, workers learnunintentionally. They serendipitously encounter useful content that theychoose to retain.

Chapter 2 29

This type of learning is called informal learning, because it does notbegin with objectives that were initially established by learning pro-fessionals. Instead learning occurs at the instigation of learners, ratherthan as a requirement by management or with the anticipation of anyoutside recognition. Its measures of effectiveness vary with the needsof the learners.

The classroom primarily limits learning professionals to formallearning. E-learning, on the other hand, allows us to explore thepotential of informal learning. Informal learning online takes twoforms: knowledge management and electronic performance

support.

Learning through Knowledge Management

What is knowledge management?

Knowledge management is capturing, storing, transforming, and dis-seminating information within an organization, with goals rangingfrom promoting efficiency to promoting innovation and competitiveadvantage. More specifically, the goal of knowledge management isto provide access to the following types of information to all whoneed to know it:

• Formal corporate information, such as policies, procedures, andproduct information

• Informal information, such as documents, reports, presentations,and proposals

• Expertise recorded in documents, but also available through directinteraction, such as lessons learned, stories, and case histories.

The recorded information is stored in a special database called aknowledge base. Because the knowledge base is a large reference, itis sometimes called an online reference. Because users have access to


information and the resulting learning whenever they need it, knowl-edge management promotes just-in-time learning.

People interact with the knowledge base when they need informationfrom it, and learning occurs. This learning occurs in ways that aremeaningful to the users, much as learning occurs from an encyclope-dia. Such learning is asynchronous.

Knowledge management can also include online chats, discussions,and symposia. Participants can exchange tacit knowledge—contentthat exists within an individual or organization but that has not yet been recorded or exchanged. Because participants are online at the same time, the learning is synchronous. See Figure 2-3 for an example.

Chapter 2 31

Copyright 2003 by International Pediatric Chat. All rights reserved. Used with permission.

Figure 2-3: This is a screen from the International Pediatric Chat, a Web site

devoted to exchanging knowledge among pediatricians internationally. The site

includes regularly scheduled learning sessions for formal learning (such as

those named in the screen above), and live chats and links to resources and peo-

ple for informal learning.

How are organizations using Knowledge Management?

Many of the pivotal developments in knowledge management comefrom the Information Systems (IS) community. Thomas Davenportand Lawrence Prusack, for example, have written a number of booksabout the value that can be gained from corporate information.

Consulting firms lead the way when it comes to applying knowledgemanagement. Although each of the clients served by these firms hasunique needs, the problems are somewhat similar. When consultingfirms find these similarities, they can use previous proposals, workplans, programs, and other materials prepared for clients who facedsimilar challenges. Consultants can re-use these materials, adapt themto a unique situation in a second client’s environment, and changethose elements of the materials that didn’t work in the first client’senvironment to avoid repeating mistakes.

These knowledge bases often include information about lessonslearned in a particular situation and contact information so that a consultant on a second account can get more information about theearlier experience.

To make sure that employees contribute to the company knowledgebase, some consulting firms assess contributions to it as part of the employee appraisal process. Organizations have learned thatemployees will not contribute to the knowledge base unless theirperformance appraisals reflect this contribution.


Technology Needed for Knowledge Management

• A network

• A database program

• A well-designed database that uses terms and categoriesfamiliar to all users

• Groupware programs that encourage people to share information

Learning through Electronic Performance Support

What is Electronic Performance Support?

Electronic performance support refers to a work environment on acomputer in which performers receive assistance with tasks or incompleting work. For example, with the help of performance support,a customer service representative at an e-tailer might be prompted toask if a customer wants to purchase the matching scarf when buying aknit hat.

The software that provides performance support is often called anelectronic performance support system (EPSS). This software systemprovides the information, training, coaching, and monitoring neededto promote effective human performance in the workplace. They’repart online help, part online tutorial, part database, part application program, and part expert system. They can be separate programs orincluded as part of existing programs.

In a learning context that is focused on performance support, per-formance—not competence—is the goal. If the system can performthe task for users, then the system does so and users learn to do thetask, not the whys and whats underlying the hows.

Learning is therefore coincidental, and performers may or may notdevelop specific skills and achieve domain learning. The learner isnot directly connected to a live instructor or coach when performanceis supported, so the learning is asynchronous.

Figure 2-4 shows an example screen from an EPSS.

How are organizations applying electronic performance support?

AT&T first developed the concept of performance support; GloriaGery popularized it in her 1991 book, Electronic Performance

Support Systems.

Chapter 2 33

Organizations are using performance support in almost every aspectof corporate life. Consider this example from customer service:A customer calls, asking if the customer service representative canextend the credit limit. After requesting an account number and security information, the customer service representative looks at thecaller’s record on the computer. The representative asks the computerto evaluate the caller’s credit history and to recommend whether anincrease is appropriate (and, if so, the extent of the increase).

In this situation, performance support lets a relatively inexperiencedcustomer service representative perform work that, in the past, hadbeen performed by a more experienced and specialized credit analyst.

Electronic performance support systems are used in medicine. One of the most significant problems with prescribing medicine is the effects of the interaction of one medicine with another. But


Copyright 2003 by the Success for All Foundation. Used with permission.

Figure 2-4: Example screen from an electronic performance support system (EPSS)

to support volunteers who tutor children in reading skills.

predicting the effects isn’t easy: Experts estimate that doctors tryingto keep up with new developments in drugs have to spend an aver-age of seven hours a week reading the background material.

A performance support system was developed to allow doctors toenter a patient’s medical history into the system, list the drugs cur-rently taken, and name the ones they would like to also prescribe. Thesystem responds with a list of potential interactional effects. Based onthis information, doctors can determine whether or not to prescribe agiven medicine to a patient.

Performance support helps experts make better-informed decisionsthan was previously possible without the system. Figure 2-4 shows an example of an EPSS.

Chapter 2 35

Technology Needed for Electronic Performance Support

To prepare informative text, the following technology is necessary:

• A word processor

• Help authoring tools

• Course authoring tools

• HTML authoring tools (or other tools for preparing informationto be read online)

To prepare databases of needed information, the following technol-ogy is needed:

• Programming language to monitor work performance

• To automate tasks:

— Programming language

— Course-authoring tools

— HTML authoring tools

• Optional: Connection to a network

Blending Different Types of Learning

Some people are concerned that online learning might spell the end ofclassroom training or that it is inferior to classroom training. The his-tory of introducing new media suggests otherwise. If the impact ofradio on newspapers and that of television on radio are any indica-tion, then the arrival of online learning will cause an adaptation ofthe traditional classroom, rather than its demise.

Rather than replacing the classroom, online learning will ultimatelycomplement it. Training and performance improvement professionalswill use classroom training for what it does best, and do likewise foronline learning.

Online learning is outstanding for teaching rote skills: It has infinitepatience. With the privacy of the computer, slower learners can havethe extensive remediation they need, while fast learners can speedthrough a course, unencumbered by their classmates.

Online learning is also an excellent tool for teaching prerequisitematerial. Instructors can require learners to study prerequisite materialand pass a pre-class test before coming to the classroom. In that way,the instructor can begin the classroom course at a higher level, confi-dent that each learner has completed the prerequisite learning. As aresult, the classroom course can provide either a more in-depth learn-ing experience, a shorter learning experience, or both.

In contrast, the classroom provides an opportunity to develophigher-order thinking skills and simulate interpersonal exchanges.These can be accomplished online through simulations and synchro-nous learning, but they often have more impact with learners in theclassroom.

In some cases, the online learning can complement a classroomcourse. For example, because instructors must focus classroomcourses on the middle-of-the-road learner, they can rarely meet theneeds of individual learners. Instructors can develop course Websites with remedial material, which provides slower learners with


additional opportunities to master the content. If learners need toadapt the material to specific needs or want to continue with thematerial, instructors can use a Web site for enrichment material.

Similarly, some online learners have difficulty with the material, even though it might have been extensively tested with prospectivelearners. Others need gentle reminders to motivate them to completecourses. In such cases, personal coaching provides assistance. Thecoach is a person with whom the learner interacts, whether it be inperson, online, or by telephone.

When a learning program involves a combination of classroom andonline components, the learning is said to be blended. Ultimately,blending classroom and online learning and formal and informallearning can help learners transfer the new skills.

A typical online learning program ideally encompasses more thanan isolated learning program. It encompasses a series of relatedlearning products that, together, create a campaign for improvedlearning or performance. Some of these products are intended tointroduce a topic and inspire interest among prospective learners.Most frequently, these are informal learning products, such asdemonstrations and marketing materials.

Some of these learning products teach people how to apply new skills and knowledge and assess their mastery of them. These areusually formal learning products, such as classroom and onlinecourses.

Some learning products are intended to help people apply the skillsback on the job and extend their use of the skills. Frequently, theseare informal learning products such as job aids, coaches (softwarethat monitors performance and provides feedback), reference material, and databases with answers to questions not raised in the course.

Chapter 2 37

Learn More about the Contexts of Learning Online

To learn more about the different contexts of online learning, visit theWeb site of the online version of this book at www.vnulearning.com/wp/2-links.htm.


Chapter 3:

The Technology of

Online Learning

Technology is a tool.

Tools help extend people’s capabilities by doing things that they can-not easily do or do as efficiently as the tools can. In the case of onlinelearning, technology serves these purposes:

• Developing: the software used to prepare the learning materialsfor presentation online, such as the elements of a database used to manage knowledge; modules in online tutorials; lessons incourses broadcast on the Internet; or tools to monitor a worker’sperformance and provide relevant coaching.

• Managing: the software used to oversee the administration ofonline learning and related development efforts. Software assistswith such administrative tasks as registering learners, trackingprogress, recording completions, tracking skills, and providingreports. Software also helps manage the content that was devel-oped so that it can be efficiently used again in other programs.

• Delivering: the hardware and software needed to store learningmaterials and transmit them to learners when and where the learn-ers need them.

The technology of online learning poses two key challenges to mostpeople:


There is an

abundance of

choice—almost to

excess.

One of the key features of all technology is its

flexibility; it offers several ways of achieving

the same goal. In some cases, one choice is

clearly superior to others. More often, how-

ever, any of the options will help you achieve

your goals. Often, the financial costs are

similar.

The result is choice paralysis, sometimes leav-

ing even the most-experienced online learning

professionals with confusion about how to

proceed.

There is a high

degree of intimida-

tion, especially for

people with less

experience.

Much available technology is unfamiliar to

people who develop online learning materials

because it is expensive and requires complex

skills to use. Because it changes so frequently,

dealing with technology can be intimidating to

many learning specialists.

As a result, many people give preference to

technological considerations when designing

online learning programs, sometimes at the

expense of learning.

For example, when developing online learning

materials, some people choose to show off

technological capabilities such as video and

audio, even when they do not add value to a

course. In other cases, video and audio might

augment the learning experience, but not all

learners will have access to computers that can

play sound.

(continued)

The following topics provide you with an overview of the technolo-gies for developing, managing, and delivering courses.

Technology for Developing Online LearningPrograms

After you determine the type of online learning program that youneed (such as an online training course or electronic performance support system), you then determine the type of content you plan toinclude (such as text, illustrations, video, animation, and interaction).

Once these two things are done, you can prepare the content to bepresented on the computer: This is called developing the online learn-ing program. A variety of software can help you with this task, eachassisting with a different task. The table that follows shows you thecategories of software available. The following section describes eachtype of software in detail.

Chapter 3 41

There is a high

degree of intimida-

tion, especially to

those with less

experience

(concluded).

In other instances, people making choices do

not fully understand the technology they are

purchasing and might make an inappropriate

purchase. The mistake can be costly.

A Background

One of the key challenges in developing online learning programs isto choose the technology that will help you develop them. To do so,you need to consider the following:


What should the end

product look like?

Only with an image of the end prod-uct in mind can you best determinewhich tools you need to create thatproduct.

What are the

components or building

blocks of the learning

program?

Specifically, you would consider:

• The material in each component.

• The media used in each component.

• The complexity of representing theinformation in each component.

For producing ani-

mation: animationtools such as Flash

For producing audio

sequences: audio production tools

For producing

graphics: graphicstools

For adapting

photography:

photo-editing software

For composing text and

simple graphics: The productivity tools thatmost of us use every daywill work, such as wordprocessors (such asWordPerfect andMS Word) and presenta-tion programs (such asPowerPoint and Freelance)

For producing

related printed

materials: desktoppublishing tools

For producing

simulations: simu-lation authoringtools

For producing

video: video editingsoftware and otherproduction tools

For authoring courses: Authoring tools such as ToolBook and

DreamWeaver, and conversion tools such as RoboPresenter.

(continued)

Chapter 3 43

What are the

components or building

blocks of the learning

program? (concluded)

For example, does the learning program include an online referencethat includes text, graphics, and videoclips on several topics? How wouldusers get to a particular entry? Would users have to scroll throughevery previous entry? Type a termand instruct the computer to search?

Which tools help you

prepare the individual

components of the

learning program?

When preparing the material, do youuse common productivity tools suchas a word processor and a presenta-tion graphics program that you use inyour everyday work? Or do you usespecialized media production tools,such as animation software?

Which tools help you

bring together the

individual components

into a single course?

The tools vary, depending on the typeof learning experience you are creating.

• If you are creating an asynchro-nous course (such as a Web-basedtraining course), you might use specialized software called authoring tools to create the course materials.

• If you are creating a complex simulation (such as a simulation of the control station in a nuclearpower plant), you might use a programming or authoring

language.

• If you are creating a synchronouscourse such as an online lecture,you would use virtual–classroom

software.

The following sections explore each of these issues.

Consider the End Product First

The technology of learning begins with an end—your learninggoals—just as the technology of developing online learning materials begins with an end—what the finished product looks like. A tool called storyboard helps you visualize the end product.

The Storyboard: A Tool to Visualize the End Product

Many developers of online learning programs prefer to first develop aworking image of the completed product before choosing productiontools, just as people who commission buildings first like to developan architectural plan before deciding whether or not to use construc-tion techniques.

Many people have difficulty visualizing an end product that has notyet been created, so many developers of online learning products cre-ate storyboards.

A storyboard is the same basic tool used to visualize films and videosbefore they’re shot. For online programs, storyboards visually repre-sent proposed screens and shots from video and animation sequences.A storyboard typically includes the following elements:

• An identifier for the screen or visual image

• A drawing of the visual image where it should appear

• Text of any narration or words that appear on the screen

• Production instructions, such as “fade to the next scene” and“Link this screen to screen 141”

Figure 3-1 shows an example of a storyboard.


Production instructions

• Increment the screen counter to 8.• Create an illustration of a business person in a library.• Continue to use the standard layout grid for presenting information.

Programming instructions

• Update links at the top of the page to show that it is Screen 8.• Glossary opens the Glossary in a pop-up window.• Help opens the Help menu in a pop-up window.• Exit goes to the Exit screen, without indicating that the lesson is

complete.• Menu goes to the Main Menu, without indicating that the lesson

is complete.• Back (<) goes to Screen 7.• Next (>) goes to Screen 9.

Chapter 3 45

Screen 1-23

O O O O O O O O O Screen 8 of 10O

Overview of Research Strategies for Business

Library Research

Objective covered: Describe thepurpose of library research in business.

How the content will be pre-

sented: Start with a continuation ofthe example about a new product.Then, explain how the workerwould find useful information in thelibrary—and why that informationis not available on the Internet.

Glossary Help Exit Menu < >

Figure 3-1: Example of a storyboard.

The User Interface: A Central Element of an Online

Learning Program

The central element of a storyboard for online learning materials isthe user interface. User interface refers to the parts of the programthat learners interact with. It includes a variety of elements:

• Appearance of the screen also called look and feel. Someaspects of the look and feel are aesthetic, while others have animpact on learners’ ability to find information. For example,depending on where you place related links on a screen, usersmight have a harder or easier time finding them.

• Navigational elements, which help users move among parts ofan online learning program. Specifically, navigational elementsguide learners forward and backward, to the glossary, to help, tothe menu, and to exit the learning program. Note the use of thesenavigational elements in the storyboard in Figure 3-1.

• Icons, which are visual symbols that users can click to performactions, such as moving backward and forward, and jumping toparticular sections. In Figure 3-1, the links to other pages in thelesson are indicated by the symbol “o” in the upper left corner.Backward and forward are indicated by the symbols “<” and “>” respectively in the lower right corner.

• Requests for information, such as the choice of questions andresponses on forms that users complete online. For example, youmight use radio buttons to present learners with a small numberof choices, but a drop-down box when the number of choices islarger.

• Text. Some aspects of text are creative and left to the writer, but technical terms and instructions must often be consistent with other parts of an online course and their use must be coordi-nated. Therefore, designers of many user interfaces also include terminology and standard phrases as part of their design plans.


Characteristics of a Good User Interface

An ideal user interface is intuitive—that is, learners can figure outtheir way through the program without instructions. Learners shouldbe able to understand terms without the use of a glossary, and under-stand icons without the use of an interpretation guide. Learnersshould easily find the buttons to move them forward, backward, andto other sections within the program. If those buttons are shown onthe bottom of one topic, they appear at the bottom of all topics. Seethe example of a user interface in Figure 3-2.

The most common type of interface is called a graphical user

interface (GUI; it is pronounced as the word “goo-ey”).

A graphical user interface incorporates a variety of media, especiallytext and graphics. Windows and the Mac Operating System (OS) areexamples of programs that have a graphical user interface. Often,graphical user interfaces make extensive use of visuals and have iconsthat represent actions the system can perform. Figure 3-2 shows ascreen with callouts to elements of the user interface.

Contrasting with the graphical user interface is a character interface,in which the system can only interact with users through text.Character interfaces, developed before graphical ones, are commonon mainframe and UNIX computers. The DOS command prompt inWindows and programs that only run under DOS are examples ofprograms using a character interface. Typically, users interact withsystems that have a character interface by typing commands or choosing options on menus.

Once you prepare a preliminary design for the user interface andidentify the type of content you would like to include, then you will be ready to consider the components or building blocks of thecourse.

Chapter 3 47


Screen from an asynchronous training course by Element K. Screen copyright 2002 by Element

K. Used with permission.

Figure 3-2: Components of the user interface. Note that the interface looks different from

program to program; the components of the interface will also vary.

Menu bar (states the title of the screen): In some instances, additional menus and buttons might appear.

Screen title (so learners can verify their location)

Cueing area (the center of the screen, where learners look for content)

Navigational Instructions Feedback box Status bar elements (which (which tell (which displays (where messages tell learners how learners how to the answer to from the system to move between respond to the the question) appear) screens) question)

The Components or Building Blocks

of the Learning Program

Once you have visualized the end product, you can begin to identifythe individual components needed to build it.

First, determine the content of each component. For example, a learn-ing program for writing sales proposals might include several tutorialmodules, a database of successful and unsuccessful proposals, and astep-by-step guide for creating a new proposal. In contrast, a learningprogram for a college course on physics might include a syllabus, aseries of readings, lecture notes, exercises that learners perform offline(that is, apart from the online learning program), online labs that simu-late classroom experiences, online lectures (and recordings of previouslectures), and an online discussion board (where learners can postquestions and comments about the readings, exercises, and labs).

Next, identify the types of media needed to create each of the compo-nents. Specifically, you need to determine which of the followingmedia you intend to include, and the complexity of each:

Chapter 3 49

Medium Issues to Consider

Text Do you plan to include paragraphs and headingswith occasional lists, or do you intend to usetables and other forms that require more-com-plex formatting? Or do you intend to let usersfind information in a database? Does the data-base already exist, or must it be created?

Graphics Do you intend to use stock images from a clip artgallery, and do you plan to customize theseimages? Or do you plan to commission adesigner to prepare illustrations for your learningprogram? Also, must the graphics be of highquality (which will take a long time to appear onthe computer screen), or can low-quality graphicsdo the job?

(continued)


Photographs Do you intend to use stock images from a photoCD? Do you plan to customize these photos, ordo you plan to commission a photographer totake specific photographs for your online learn-ing program? At what level of quality do youintend to display photos? (The higher the qual-ity the more time needed to load.)

Animation Do you intend to show moving graphics as partof the learning program?

If so, do you intend to use simple animations toadd visual variety to an online program, or do youintend to create complex animations that simulatea real-world situation, such as a flight simulator?

Audio Do you plan to include narration, backgroundmusic, or sound effects?

If so, do you intend to include a few sound cueseither to gain learners’ attention or to amplify(literally) learning material (such as the soundsof particular types of warnings)? Do you intendto provide extensive narration?

Similarly, does the sound need to be theatre-quality, or just good enough so that people canunderstand it?

Video Do you intend to show moving images in thelearning program?

If so, do you intend to include simple clips takenfrom a home video camera, or do you plan toinclude staged segments? At what level of qual-ity should the video be? Must it mimic commer-cial television, or would users tolerate the jerksand “snow” symptomatic of low-quality video?

After you identify the media that you intend to include in the online learning program and the complexity of the images you intend to include, choose the tools to help you develop them.

The next several sections describe what is used to develop an onlinelearning program: productivity tools for simple text and graphics;media production tools for creating complex audio and visual images;and authoring tools to bring the entire learning program together.Each type is defined, uses are explained, and considerations regardingthe use of various kinds of software are identified.

Productivity Tools for Simple Text

and Graphics

What Productivity Tools Are

The term productivity tools refers to a category of software used ineveryday work to prepare drafts and other pieces of learning materi-als. This software includes

• Word processors such as Microsoft Word, Lotus WordPro, andWordPerfect, which many people use to write drafts of scripts and additional resource materials.

• Presentation programs such as Microsoft PowerPoint and LotusFreelance, which let you create slide shows that include simpleanimation (though they do not let you include interaction).

• Database programs such as Microsoft Access, FileMaker Pro, and Oracle, which let you store source material for learning programs that you can “mix and match” as needed, or live databases that users might consult within an online learningprogram.

Chapter 3 51

• Personal organizers such as Microsoft Outlook and LotusOrganizer that let you keep track of appointments and manage to-do and contact lists, and project management software such asMicrosoft Project. This information is a helpful resource duringthe development of the online learning program.

When to Use Productivity Tools

You might use productivity tools in a variety of situations such as these:

• To prepare draft text of online course materials. Later, you would import this text into another program to create a course.(Importing text is copying it from one program to another.) Mostlikely, you would use a word processor, but you might use a database program.

• To prepare storyboards of online courses. Most likely, you woulduse a presentation program, but you might use a word processorto prepare storyboards. Later, you would create the actual screensfrom these storyboards.

• To prepare databases of business information, which learnerswould check during an online learning program. You would linkto these databases in the program.

• To quickly prepare course materials. Much of the softwareneeded to prepare online learning programs requires specialskills; productivity tools generally do not. If you already knowhow to use productivity software, you can quickly prepare asimple course without additional training on specialized software.

• To oversee the development process and to manage the progressof projects. Personal organizers are especially helpful in scheduling appointments and placing deadlines on calendars and to-do lists.


Issues to Consider When Using Productivity Tools

Use software that easily exchanges content with other application pro-grams. Most likely, you will use productivity tools to prepare draftmaterials. At some point, you will need to import the material intoanother program with an authoring tool (software used to createscreens for online learning programs). If the software does not easilyexchange content with the software you use to prepare the final draftof the online learning program, you might have to enter all the infor-mation again. (Although this is less of a problem than it once was,problems still occasionally arise.)

Media Production Tools for Creating Complex

Images

What Media Production Tools Are

The term media production tools refers to software that lets you produce complex segments in specific media, such as a video clip oran audio clip. The clips are intended to be shown at a different timethan the time they are produced. Because the media are varied, thenature of the work performed by the software varies. The general categories of media production tools are summarized in the followingchart.

Chapter 3 53

Types of Media Production Tools


(continued)

Animation

programs

These tools let you create animated sequences,such as showing the flow of materials througha manufacturing process or an animated shortabout a conversation between a manager and aworker.

You might create the visual images in the ani-mation program, import the images from anillustration program, or scan in the imagesfrom another source.

Animation programs let you alter the originalimage (for example, you might change colors),and rotate and move the image so that it cre-ates the sense of movement. An example of ananimation program is Macromedia’s Flash.

Audio editing

programs

These tools let you record and edit narrationand music, drop in sound effects from othersources, and transfer the program to disk.

Illustration

software and

other graphics

applications

These tools let you prepare illustrations andother types of graphics. Illustration and graphicssoftware also let you prepare images that werecreated elsewhere (such as graphics from acourse manual, entered into the computerthrough a scanner). Graphics software lets youchange the images, such as rotating the image soit appears from a different perspective, cuttingout part of the image, adding visual effects, andchanging colors. Adobe Illustrator is an exampleof illustration software.

In addition, specialized applications let youcreate special types of images.

Chapter 3 55

Illustration

software and

other graphics

applications

(concluded)

These include

• Three-dimensional imaging software,which lets you create life-like environ-ments (for example, Adobe Atmosphere)

• Moving heads software, which lets youscan in a photograph of a person and createa moving image of that person. The “moving head” can then narrate an online learning program, thus saving the expenseof shooting video.

Photo editing

programs

These tools let you prepare photographs for usein other programs. Specifically, photo editingprograms let you capture photos or use photosthat were scanned into the system or transferredfrom a digital camera, and then re-touch theimages. Graphics removing packages let youremove blemishes and red eyes from faces,remove extraneous visual material, change theproportion of the image, change colors, and addeffects (such as half-tones needed for printing).Adobe Photoshop is an example of a photoediting application.

Simulation tools These tools let you prepare a simulation.Specifically, simulation tools let you createan online situation in which users can trytheir hands at something and see the implica-tions of their actions. Some simulation toolslet you simulate only specific tasks or events,such as the simulation capabilities built intothe authoring tools for computer-based and Web-based training. Other simulations thatre-create an entire environment can only becreated with a programming language.Examples of simulation tools include AbobeAtmosphere, XHLP, and eHelp’s RoboDemo.

(continued)


Video editing

programs

These tools let you perform on a computermany of the functions of video editing sys-tems. Video editing software lets you editseparate video clips into a single program,retouch video images, add video transitionssuch as wipes and fades, add titles and cred-its, and transfer the images back onto video-tape or onto disk for use in your onlinelearning program. Adobe Premiere, AppleFinalCutPro, Apple iMovie, and Avid XPressDV are examples of video editing software.

Publishing

programs

These tools let you prepare text for publica-tion. You might want to include articles in anonline learning program yet not want learnersto copy text, or you expect learners to printout copies and read the material off line.

In other instances, you need to prepareprinted materials that accompany an onlinelearning program (i.e., workbooks) or theprinted material on the package of a CD,DVD, or diskette. Desktop publishing programs let you design and lay out thismaterial.

Although word processors let you preparepages for printing, they have limited optionsfor doing so. For example, word processorsdo not let users easily integrate graphical elements into a page design or let you “dropin” boxes with related information on a page(you are often limited to placing such information on a separate page or at the endof a section). That’s why many professionals prefer desktop publishing programs.

(continued)

Figure 3-3 shows a sample screen from Flash.

When to Use Media Production Tools

Use media production tools whenever you need to produce special-ized segments, such as video, audio, and simulations. You first createa graphical image or prepare a video clip in the specialized program,and then import the file with this image in your learning program.Most authoring software has procedures for using these specializedfiles.

One tool deserves special mention. The learning program might beonline, but you might still need to use publishing tools. You woulduse them to prepare a package for programs distributed on DVD or CD-ROM. Specifically, you would use publishing tools to prepare the master copies of DVD or CD jackets, disk labels, and any otherpackaging used for the learning program.

Similarly, if you distribute printed learning materials such as work-books with your online courses or quick references for performance

Chapter 3 57

Publishing

programs

(concluded)

QuarkXpress, Adobe PageMaker, andMicrosoft Publisher are examples of publishing programs.

In addition, Adobe Acrobat lets you “pub-lish” the printed material online so that learn-ers can view it as they would see a printedpage. Acrobat works like a printer—that is,you would prepare text on a word processoror desktop publishing program, and “print” itusing Acrobat. Rather than printing on paper, however, the system saves the Acrobat printout in a file, which you can post on the Web.

support programs, you would prepare the master copy with a publishing tool.

Issues to Consider When Using Media Production Tools

Here are some general issues to consider when using media and

publishing tools.

How much training and specialized knowledge do you need in

order to use this tool? Because they usually assume that the personusing the tool has expertise in production of the particular medium,most media and publishing tools require specialized training. Theyuse specialized terminology and assume a basic understanding of production in the medium.


Screen copyright 2002 by Macromedia Corporation. Used with permission.

Figure 3-3: Sample screen from the animation tool Flash.

For example, photo editing programs assume that the users haveknowledge of photography and photo production terminology, such ashalf-tone and crop. If you do not have such knowledge, you will needtraining in that medium, in addition to training on the software.

For the more popular media tools such as certain publishing tools andphoto editing tools, training is readily available, often through com-munity and continuing education programs.

For more specialized software, especially video and production tools,finding training is more difficult. It is usually available through thesoftware publisher and professional art schools.

What formats can the program produce—and can your authoring

system or other teaching software use media in those formats? Tomake sure that media clips produced on one system can be read byprograms on another, software publishers have developed a few common formats for recording media. Most software publishershonor these formats.

Although each format has a specific use, if you’re just moving intoonline learning, what’s most important is making sure that the mediaproduced by your tools can be widely used on other systems.

The following chart lists these formats and the file extensions usedwith them (the file extension is noted by the three letters that followthe period in a computer file name, such as course.doc andpicture1.jpg):

Chapter 3 59

MediumCommon Formats

in General

Common Formats

Used on Internet

Animation • .avi• Executable (.exe)• Quicktime (.mov)• Windows media (.wmv)

• Flash (.swf )• motion picture (.mpeg)• Quicktime (.mov)• Windows media (.wmv)

(continued)

If the program does not produce images in a commonly used format,you might not be able to easily incorporate the media clip in youronline learning materials.

What is the quality of the images? The quality of photos variesamong newspapers and coffee-table books, so the quality of mediaimages will vary among graphics, sound, and video online. The moreinformation that the media production tool records about the image,the higher the quality of the image. For example, systems can recordsounds at various quality levels; the higher quality levels have lessdistinction among tones.

The extra quality comes at a cost: slower performance. The higherthe quality of the image, the more information the system needs


Medium Common Formats

in General

Common Formats

Used on Internet

Audio clips • audio information format (.aif )

• MP3 (.mp3)• Wave (.wav)

• audio (.au)• real audio (.ram)• Midi (.mid)• MP3 (.mp3)

Graphics andphotos

• bitmap (.bmp)• graphic interchange

format (.gif )

• graphic interchange format (.gif )

• Jpeg file interchange format (.jpg)

• Vector format (.swg)

Text • rich text format (.rft)• MS Word format (.doc)• plain text (.txt)

• Hypertext (.htm)• ASCII (.asc or .txt)• Acrobat (.pdf )

Video • .avi• QuickTime movie

(.mov)

• motion picture (.mpeg)• QuickTime movie

(.mov)

to transfer when using it. And the more information the systemneeds to transfer, the longer the learner must wait to see or hear animage. For example, a photo saved in the TIF file might take 2megabytes of space, while the same photo saved in the JPG formatmight only take 200 kilobytes (approximately 90 percent less spaceneeded).

How much storage do the images need? As just mentioned, the fileswith higher quality images contain more information about an imagethan a lower quality image. Not only do these images take longer topaint on the screen, but they also need more storage space. A learningprogram with many images might need more disk storage than thelearner’s system has or a CD-ROM can hold, or more than you wantto store on the server.

What is the life of the image? If you intend for your course to havea long shelf life, you might consider using graphics and animations,rather than photographs and video clips; fashion and hair styles ofpeople in photographs and videos look dated within a couple years.

How easily does the image transfer to a different delivery format?

Some video and audio clips do not cleanly transfer from CD-ROM tothe Internet. Others convert easily if you use conversion software likeCleanerPro.

How does the choice of a medium affect the learner? Before youmake a commitment to a media production tool, make sure that themedia image enhances the learning experience. Depending on thedelivery medium, the format of the media clip, and the softwareinstalled on learners’ computers, the clip might not play well. Forexample, video stored and played in certain formats appears snowy(full of white flakes in the image) or the movements are jerky. This is uncomfortable for learners to watch.

Similarly, mini-movies in Flash take a long time to load on learners’computers. Impatient learners might not wait for the movie to loadbefore surfing to another screen.

Chapter 3 61

The Tools Needed to Integrate Individual

Components in a Single Program

Which tools help you bring together the individual components into asingle course? The software used to compile the individual pieces intoa coherent program varies depending on whether you are producingan asynchronous or synchronous learning program.

The following sections explore each type of software.

Tools Needed to Prepare an Asynchronous Learning

Program

When creating an asynchronous learning program such as a module of a computer-based course or as part of Web site supporting onlinelearning, you need to use one or both these:

• Authoring tools, which combine elements into a single learningprogram.

• Programming and authoring languages, which let you handlecomplex interactions and simulations not permitted by the authoring tool.

Authoring Tools

Authoring tools are software applications specially designed to let you create modules that bring together all the components of anonline learning program: text, audio visual presentations, and graph-ics, as well as program in exercises and test questions; link learners toappropriate material based on their responses; and track the perform-ance of learners.


For an asynchronous

learning program

For a synchronous

learning program

• Authoring tools• Programming languages

Internet broadcasting tools

Some authoring tools also let you create simulations of tasks per-formed on a computer, such as a simulation of order-entry software.

Authoring tools also let you add materials created in other softwareapplications, such as video and audio clips, photographs, specializedgraphics, and animations.

When to Use Authoring Tools. Use authoring tools to create self-studylearning materials, which learners use at their own convenience. (If youare creating a Webcast [program broadcast on the Web], use tools forsynchronous learning programs.)

Issues to Consider When Using Authoring Tools. You need to con-sider a variety of issues when using authoring tools. Here are some ofthe most fundamental:

Chapter 3 63

What does the

authoring tool

do—and is it what

you want it to do?

An authoring tool is supposed to simplify devel-

opment of the program, but it can only do so if

the authoring system can create the kind of pro-

gram that you want.

Most authoring tools let you easily (or relatively

easily) present information, incorporate graphics

and video and audio clips, ask questions, and

provide appropriate feedback.

But exactly what types of media does the author-

ing tool let you include—and with what restric-

tions? For example, some authoring tools let you

include video clips, but the clips always begin

running when the screen first appears. You can-

not control the video sequence to start after a

certain period of time.

Similarly, authoring tools let you quiz learners

during a course, but what kinds of questions can

you use? Are these the types of questions that

you want to ask? Most only let you ask objective

questions, such as multiple-choice or true-false.

(continued)


How widely is

the authoring

tool used?

The more widely used the tool, the more likely that

you will find assistance with questions and the more

likely that the software will be supported in the

future. The most commonly used authoring tools are

AuthorWare, Dreamweaver, and ToolBook. Newer

authoring tools work with PowerPoint and let you

add learning material and quiz questions. These tools

include Breeze and RoboPresenter.

How easily can

you import

information

into the

authoring

tool?

Each course developer has a particular working

style. Some like to prepare material exclusively in

the authoring tool. Others like to first work in a pro-

ductivity tool. Only after subject matter experts and

others have reviewed it do such course developers

prefer to work in an authoring system. The ease with

which these developers can move draft materials into

the authoring system can affect their productivity.

In an ideal situation, the authoring tools link directly

to word processors and other productivity tools, or

can read files prepared in those productivity tools

without special conversion procedures.

How easily can

you learn the

authoring

tool?

Complex products require training to use.

Authoring tools are complex products. For example,

they let you perform complex tasks (asking ques-

tions and then linking learners to appropriate mate-

rial based on their responses, etc.).

But how much training is needed? You should be

able to master the basics of an authoring tool—

preparing basic presentations and multiple choice

and true/false questions—in a short period of time

(no more than one day and often only a couple of

hours, depending on your software experience) so

that you can feel an early surge of success.

(continued)

Chapter 3 65

(continued)

How easily can

you learn the

authoring

tool?

(concluded)

More-complex tasks, such as asking open questions

(questions that have one or more words as answers),

and producing simulations require more extensive

training, but should be easily mastered.

In addition, how readily available is formal training?

Find out whether training is available in your com-

munity and how frequently it is scheduled. Some

thoughts to consider:

• Some software publishers certify the people who

provide training on their authoring tools.

• Some universities offer continuing education

courses on certain authoring tools.

One last thought to consider: to be easy to use and

learn, does the authoring tool sacrifice “power”?

That is, does the authoring tool let you create only a

basic learning experience because the more-complex

elements might be hard to create?

What does the

final product

look like?

Authoring tools are designed to support online learn-

ing. Although they let you include graphics, anima-

tion, and video and audio clips, the quality of these

materials and your ability to control their appearance

on the screen are usually not as good as might be

expected in presentation software, such as with

Macromedia Flash or Director.

In exchange for the lower quality and decrease in

control, you can easily include questions and other

types of interaction, and easily link learners to

appropriate material based on their questions.

Although you can include interaction in presentation

programs, it requires specialized programming skills

that are not usually needed in authoring tools.

Figure 3-4 shows an example of a screen from the authoring toolDreamweaver, which can be used to develop online learning programs.


Screen copyright 2002 by Macromedia Corporation. Used with permission.

Figure 3-4: Sample screen from the authoring tool Dreamweaver.

What does the

final product

look like?

(concluded)

Finally, many of the authoring tools provide tem-

plates or control the appearance of screens to some

extent. Make sure that you like the templates or that

the aspects of screen design that are out of your con-

trol are acceptable to you.

Programming and Authoring Languages

What are programming and authoring languages? Programming

and authoring languages are software that let you develop interactivecontent exactly as you planned it.

When should you use programming and authoring languages?

Use programming and authoring languages when an authoring tooldoes not have the capability to develop the program as you designedit or you might compromise your course to make it work within thelimitations of the authoring system.

For example, suppose you want to ask multiple-choice questions thathave several correct answers, yet your authoring tool only lets you write multiple-choice questions with one correct answer. You couldeither rewrite all the questions so that they have one correct answer,or write special programs that let you ask multiple-choice questionswith several correct answers.

Generally, developers use languages to write a series of instructionsto the computer that perform a task. This set of instructions is called a program. For example, you might write a program to test a learnerbefore placing him or her in an online course.

A programming language is a language used to write any type of program. An authoring language refers to commands and statementsthat are used with a particular authoring tool, such as special statements used with Flash, ToolBook, or Authorware.

In addition, most authoring tools let you include programs written incommon programming languages within a learning program. Some ofthe more common programming languages are:

• ActiveX, which is a language to write programs that run on theInternet. Learners link to these programs through home pages onthe World Wide Web.

• C++, which is a language used to write applications that rununder Windows. Learners usually start these applications from the Program Manager.

Chapter 3 67

• Java, which is another language used to write programs that runon the Internet. Learners link to these programs through homepages on the World Wide Web.

• Visual BASIC, which is one of the languages most commonlyused to write programs for Windows-based systems. Learnersusually start these applications from the Program Manager.

Issues to Consider When Using Programming and Authoring

Languages


(continued)

Specialized

skills

Programming requires specialized skills, yet a programmer skilled in one programming language might not be able to write programs in another because (1) different languages havedifferent instructions (called commands) and (2) different types of languages use differentapproaches to programming, which means thatthe entire process of structuring programs in onelanguage differs from that in another.

Capabilities

of learners’

computers

Just because someone can write it does notmean that the program will actually run on thesystem that learners use.

Before writing programs, make sure that they can run on the systems that typical learners have. To be safe, design programs so that theyrun on the most basic equipment that users areexpected to have, rather than the most elaborateequipment.

The more basic systems often cannot run pro-grams intended for more elaborate systems. Forexample, some older systems cannot run certainrecent graphics programs.

Chapter 3 69

Testing Nothing is more frustrating for a learner thanreceiving an error message when he or sheexpected to see meaningful content.

To prevent such occurrences, all programs needto be tested before they are made available tolearners. Programs should be tested in severalways to make sure that:

• They work as intended.

• All links display the intended information.

• Messages and other feedback that appear areappropriate for the situation.

• They do not cause problems with other pro-grams (sometimes, when two programs arerunning, instructions in one might interferewith instructions in another, and cause the sys-tem to stop working).

Documentation Because programmers are a highly mobilegroup of people and because each program hasa cryptic quality that’s difficult to decipher, youshould make sure that programmers writedescriptions inside their programs that explainwhat the different sections of the program do. Ifthe original programmer leaves the project, thenext one would have guidance in following thelogic of the program and completing or main-taining the work.

Documentation seems like an easy thing to do—and it is, if programmers document their work asthey write the programs. If programmers waituntil after the program is complete, the task ofdocumenting the code will seem daunting andwill likely be left undone.

Tools Needed to Prepare a Synchronous Learning

Experience: Virtual Classroom Software

What Virtual Classroom Software Is

Virtual classroom software is software that lets you transmit a livepresentation over the Internet, such as a class or a meeting. This typeof software usually lets you include one or more of the following:

• Video image, such as the image of the instructor or a video that’splayed. (Those systems that cannot transmit a video image let youbroadcast a photograph of the instructor.)

• Audio (often a live discussion or lecture).

• Whiteboard, which lets a person write something on the screen inone location, and others can view the writing in another.

• Computer images, such as a series of slides in a PowerPoint fileor text from a word processing file. Computer images might alsoinclude media clips produced in a media production tool.

• Polling tools, which let instructors ask multiple-choice andtrue/false questions and receive aggregated responses, such as “40 percent chose option A, 20 percent chose B, 30 percent chose C, and the rest chose D.”

• Classroom management tools, such as “electronic hand raises”and private chats between learners and the instructor, which letlearners and instructors interact with one another during the class.

Examples of Internet broadcasting tools include Centra, Placeware,vClass, and WebEx. Figure 3-5 shows a sample screen from a synchronous lesson.


When to Use Virtual Classroom Software

Virtual classroom software has two primary uses:

• To create an online classroom for synchronous online learning.Virtual classroom creates a traditional class in the sense that allpeople participate at the same time, but it does so through theircomputers, not a classroom, and can be geographically dispersedthroughout the world. They are especially popular for corporatetraining and distance degrees.

• To collaborate. Virtual classrooms let people working in differentlocations—whether across the building or across the world—meettogether without ever leaving their offices. Virtual classrooms

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From the virtual classroom software vClass. Screen copyright 2002 by Elluminate, Inc. Used

with permission.

Figure 3-5: Example of the whiteboard from a virtual classroom. Notice how the

instructor has circled certain items and written on the screen.

usually let people see the same material at the same time, so peo-ple can make substantive changes to designs and reports whilethey are meeting and can ensure that everyone understands therevisions.

Issues to Consider When Using Virtual Classrooms


Capabilities of

the receiving

equipment

When planning an Internet broadcast for a vir-tual classroom make sure that the systems atthe receiving location can view the entire learn-ing program. For example, to use some virtualclassroom software, users must have specialsoftware called “plug-ins” to view the audioand video sequences.

In other instances, learners must be connectedwith a broadband connection to fully participatein the learning experience. For example, manysystems require broadband connections forlearners to share files with others in the classsession.

Quality of the

broadcast

Usually, the broadcast of computer files workswell. But because of the limited capacity of theInternet to send data (called bandwidth), videoimages often come across with blips, snow, andjerky movements.

Administration Essential to the success of virtual class is effec-tive administration. Most systems require thatall learners pre-register for the broadcast and download special software to view the session. An administrator usually manages the

(continued)

The Technology for Managing Online Learning

Designing and developing online learning programs involve only oneset of tasks with technology. The next set of tasks pertains to manag-ing courses. Technology can handle enrollment and tracking of learn-ers (for both online and classroom programs), oversee testing andscores, and provide reports. Specifically, these types of softwareaffect management:

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Administration

(concluded)

enrollments and provides directions to learners.The more quickly the administrator replies and the clearer the instructions, the smoother thebroadcast.

Similarly, the administrator usually trainsinstructors in using the system. Instructors need training to manage the broadcast, conductpolls, control interaction with learners duringthe broadcast, and prepare files (such asPowerPoint slides and Excel spread sheets) for viewing during the broadcast.

Limits Most systems limit the number of people whocan simultaneously participate in the broadcast.The limits result partly from the limitations ofthe software, but also from the terms and condi-tions of the license for the software. Theseterms and conditions state the maximum number of participants.

Learning management systems,

which act as online registrars

Hybrid systems, which are partly

learning management systems and

partly authoring tools

Learning content management

systems, which track content that

your organization has developed

Specialized software, which han-

dles specific tasks, such as check-

ing for plagiarism

Because learning management systems must work with a variety ofsoftware, the issue of standards is related to the consideration oflearning management systems. Standards also apply to re-using content, called re-usable learning objects.

The next several sections explore software for managing online learning.

Learning Management Systems

What Learning Management Systems Are

The term learning management systems (LMSs) refers to software thatperforms administrative tasks. Learning management systems performsome or all of the following tasks for online as well as classroom courses:

• Registration

• Tracking of participation (classroom attendance, and sign-ons,and sign-offs for online courses)

• Tracking of completions (including final scores or grades, if any)

• Testing

• Providing aggregated reports, such as the numbers of people registered for particular courses

• Sharing information with other systems, such as with humanresource information systems

• Suggesting curricula for learners

• Tracking skills of individuals and groups of people within anorganization

• Providing learners with a one-stop place to go for their learningneeds (especially online programs) and their personalized infor-mation, such as a customized learning page that includes recom-mended paths through learning material

Over 100 learning management systems are on the market at the timethis book was written. Among them are Aspen, Docent, Ingenium,LearningSpace, Plateau, and Saba.


Figures 3-6, 3-7, and 3-8 show various views of the learning manage-ment system Aspen. Figure 3-6 shows how the LMS appears from thestudent’s perspective. Figure 3-7 shows how the LMS appears fromthe administrator’s perspective, and Figure 3-8 shows a sample of areport that might be generated by the LMS.

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Screen copyright 2002 by Click2Learn Corporation. Used with permission.

Figure 3-6: Sample screen showing the learning management system Aspen from

a student’s view.

When to Use Learning Management Systems

Use learning management systems to automate some or all of theadministrative tasks of an educational operation.



Figure 3-7: Sample screen showing the learning management system Aspen from

an administrator’s view.

Issues to Consider When Using Learning Management Software

Chapter 3 77


Figure 3-8: Sample management report provided by the learning management

system Aspen.

An expensive

purchase

Analysts in the online learning industry com-ment that learning management systems areoften the most expensive investment in learningmade by organizations. Costs can easily rangefrom half a million to several million U.S. dollars.

Learning management systems are also difficultto implement, which is why many organizationsplace the purchasing decision in the hands of theinformation technology staff, rather than thetraining or academic staff.

(continued)


A changing

technology

The technology used for learning managementsystems is changing rapidly. Therefore, whenchoosing one, plan on replacing it within twoyears (three at most).

Ease of

tailoring

Each organization has unique issues in administering its learning operations, andlearning management systems are designed toaddress this broad range of needs. Tailoringthem to meet the unique needs of your organi-zation thus poses a technical challenge. Mostorganizations require the expertise of program-mers and system analysts to do so.

Interoperability

with other

learning

material

Because learning management systems are sup-posed to provide a one-stop shop to learners aswell as track all learning activities, these sys-tems should easily provide links to all onlinelearning programs and easily share trackinginformation, test results, and similar materialwith courses. Unfortunately, this does not workeasily in practice. These exchanges and trackingdo not always work and should be verifiedbefore those courses are made available withinthe organization.

Interoperability

with other

applications

Just as learning management systems are sup-posed to exchange information with individualcourses, they are also supposed to easilyexchange information with other systems, suchas human resource information systems. Forexample, many employers keep training recordsin an employee’s personnel file, and universitieskeep grades in an official transcript. Learningmanagement systems should easily exchangeinformation with other software that uses thisinformation, so the data does not have to beentered twice.

Hybrid Systems

What Hybrid Systems Are

The term hybrid system refers to software for online learning thatexhibits qualities of authoring tools as well as learning managementsystems. They are like authoring tools because instructors can usehybrid systems to prepare material for presentation online. The pri-mary difference is that instructors can use material prepared inMicrosoft Office. They do not need to convert it to a Web format.

Hybrid systems exhibit qualities of learning management systems, too,because instructors can use the systems to track student attendance,test learners, keep online grade books, and communicate with learners.Learners use a central page to gain access to all of their courses, andinstructors and administrators use the system to receive reports.

Examples of hybrid systems include Blackboard and WebCT.

When to Use Hybrid Systems

Hybrid systems are especially useful in these instances:

• When instructors do not know how to use authoring tools norhave an interest in learning them.

• To support classroom learning, by providing a Web site wherelearners can see a course syllabus or description, class notes, andexercises.

Hybrid systems are especially popular in colleges and universities,where they are primarily used to help instructors provide course Web sites and to help with the management of classroom courses.

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Issues to Consider When Using a Hybrid System

Learning Content Management Systems

What Learning Content Management Systems Are

The term learning content management system (LCMS) refers to soft-ware for creating, storing, retrieving, changing, and reusing materialintended for use in an online learning program. Such a system also


Ease of use The popularity of hybrid systems stems in largepart from the ease with which people can usethem. Many instructors begin providing onlinelearning materials by converting materials theyalready use in the classroom to an online format.Hybrid systems let instructors use existing materi-als in MS Word, MS PowerPoint, and MS Excelwithout learning HTML or an authoring system.Instructors merely need to learn how to upload thematerial.

Similarly, the features for managing interactionswith students between class sessions are easy tolearn and are popular with instructors.

Limited flexi-

bility in course

design

To remain easy to use, hybrid systems do notprovide instructors with much flexibility indesigning courses. They usually come with stan-dard sections that instructors must provide, andthe section names are not easily altered.

As a result, when instructors want to providemultimedia learning experiences or speciallydesigned units, they generally link to anotherlearning program. Unfortunately, the results ofany tests conducted in the second learning pro-gram cannot be easily exchanged with the hybridsystem.

stores test questions and can be used to track activities in developingcontent for online learning programs. Finally, an LCMS can formatthe same content for presentation online and in print, and with a num-ber of word processors. Examples of LCMSs include Aspen, CentraKnowledge Server, OutStart, and TopClass.

Figure 3-9 shows an example of a screen from Aspen, a learning content management system.

When to Use a Learning Content Management System

Consider using a learning content management system when you have already developed a large number of courses and would like touse the same content in several additional courses. Also considerusing a learning content management system when you plan to use

Chapter 3 81


Figure 3-9: Sample screen showing the learning content management functions

of Aspen, as seen from a developer’s perspective.

sophisticated testing to assess learners. If you are just starting to useonline learning in your organization, you probably do not need anLCMS.

Issues to Consider When Using a Learning Content Management

System


A learning-

object approach

An object is a part of a learning program, suchas a lesson or each of the questions in a bank oftest questions.

Taking an object-oriented approach assumesthat materials developed separately can bemixed and matched as needed, according to theneeds of the learner or of the context of learn-ing. For example, to create a training course ona new product, the system might automaticallyassemble a course for sales representatives fromgeneral information about the new product andsales strategies for the product. In contrast,training for the technical staff might include the same general information about the newproduct, but also a lesson about the underlyingtechnology.

Similarly, tests can be automatically generatedfrom the test questions an instructional designerprepares for a single objective. No two learnerswould receive the same test, minimizing thelikelihood of cheating.

Interoperability The term interoperability refers to the capability oflearning content management systems to exchangedata with other systems, especially learning man-agement systems (LMSs). Because an LCMS isonly used to develop content, it must easilyexchange content with systems that display mate-rial for learners and that manage the learningprocess.

Specialized Software

Specialized software helps with specific tasks in managing learningactivities. Usually, the software is designed for use in particular environments, and most of the software assists with essays andreports. Examples include the following:

• Software to assess the likelihood of plagiarism. Instructors submit electronic copies of learners’ papers and essays, and thesoftware assesses whether or not the material came from anonline source.

• Software that grades essay tests. Instructors provide key pointsand terms, and the software assesses how well learners haveaddressed these issues.

• Language software, which assists learners in acquiring languageskills by assessing their ability to speak in a given language.

Standards

What standards are. The term standards refers to rules that havebeen set up by various professional and trade organizations to addressthe following aspects of online learning programs:

• Content sharing among authoring, learning management, andlearning content management systems

• Testing (re-using test questions and providing learners with specialized paths through the content)

• Finding content

• Accessibility of online content to persons with disabilities

• The quality of online learning programs

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How to implement standards. Here are some tips on implementingstandards:

The standards that apply to online learning


Standards for

software

Software standards are invisible to you. The stan-dards work when you can use learning programscreated with a chosen authoring tool with thelearning management system of your choice. Youronly responsibility is to choose software that com-plies with the standards, much as you mightchoose Windows-compatible software if yourcomputers run the MS Windows operating system.

Standards for

content

Standards for content have to do with using certain keywords to find material, designing foraccessibility, and assessing quality. Meeting thesestandards requires special design efforts, but notspecial technology or programming skills.

Examples of

standards for

using and

sharing

content

prepared on a

variety of

platforms

• Shareable Courseware Object ReferenceModel (SCORM), which is an initiative led bythe U.S. government to define standards thatlet systems exchange learning materials, espe-cially test questions and scoring information.

• Aviation Industry Computer-Based TrainingCommittee (AICC), which is an initiative within one industry to define standards so thatorganizations can share learning materials.Much of their work has fed into the more recentSCORM standards.

• Instructional Management System (IMS), aninitiative led by developers of online learningprograms to define interoperability. Theirefforts are overshadowed by SCORM andAICC standards.

(continued)

The Technology for Delivering Online Learning

DVDs. Bluetooth. WAPs. T1 lines. The terms alone intimidate, as dothe complexity of the technologies.

But the bottom line of delivering technology is actually straightfor-ward: getting learning materials to users in the most effective andefficient manner.

Chapter 3 85

Standards for

writing tests

SCORM and AICC. The idea is to develop abank of questions that can be exchanged amongusers, as well as information about student performance on the questions.

Standards

for finding

content

IMS. The organization is trying to define commonterms (called metadata) that can be used to classifylearning programs, much as the Dewey DecimalSystem provides a common set of terms for classi-fying books in a library. Other efforts are underway to define metadata, but the IMS effort is one ofthe few that are directly focused on online learning.

Standards for

developing

accessible

content

Section 508 of the Americans with DisabilitiesAct (ADA). Definitions and guidelines for making online resources available to personswith visual, hearing, and other impairments.Although only those who provide materials forthe U.S. government are required to follow theguidelines, doing so is considered a thoughtfulbusiness practice. The guidelines have beenadopted by governments, non-governmentalorganizations, and businesses around the world.

Standards for

the quality of

online learning

content

American Society for Training and Develop-ment’s e-learning standards. For a fee, organiza-tions can submit learning programs forevaluation. Those courses that conform to stan-dards will receive a formal certification, whichcan be mentioned in promoting the program.

To determine the most effective and efficient way to deliver the learn-ing, first answer these questions:

• What type of learning goals are you trying to achieve?

• Which technologies assist with delivery on the network?

• How do you intend to deliver the learning program?

• What type of computers do learners have or have access to?

The following sections address the questions just asked.

Choosing Technologies to Assist with Delivery

on a Network

If you are delivering a program on a network, chances are that you’lluse a network that your organization already installed to connect itscomputers. But the hardware and software that make up that networkaffect your ability to exchange information. So here’s a crash coursein networks.

Basic Components of a Network

Figure 3-10 shows computers in a computer network.


Figure 3-10: Overview of a computer network.

Client

Client

Client

Client

Client

Connection between

Computers

ServerServer

Client

The following are the hardware components of the network.

• Server computers. Central computers that most users within theorganization have access to. Organizations typically store suchcommonly used data and programs on servers, price lists, employeedirectories, and training courses.

• Client computers. Individual computers in learners’ offices

• Connections between Computers. Here’s where things get tricky:The connections involve hardware. The hardware varies, dependingon the size and location of the network.

If linking the client and server computers does not require that anywires cross a street, they are linked in a local area network (LAN).In such cases, an organization installs wires in the building thatsend information back and forth among the computers. The wiresare like telephone wires, except they connect computers and do notinvolve the telephone company—as long as no wires cross a street.

If linking the client and server computers involves crossing a street,then the telephone company (or another telecommunications ven-dor) needs to get involved. The organization can still have a LANwithin its building, but the connections that cross the street involvetelecommunications. In some instances (such as home users), usersconnect to the network directly through a telephone line. Mosthome users do this each time they connect to the Internet.

In other instances, especially in large organizations, the individualcomputers are linked into a LAN, and one computer on the LAN isconnected to the larger network. This connected computer offers a“gateway” and all of the computers in the building have a connec-tion to it. In some organizations, the gateway is connected throughan ordinary telephone line.

Ordinary telephone lines don’t carry much information, so whenyou want to use storage-hungry media like video and audio, youare likely to need more capacity than a typical telephone line canoffer.

Chapter 3 87

Some organizations choose a premium type of line called broadband that has more capacity than a typical telephone line,because it can carry a significantly higher amount of data than typical telephone lines. Examples of broadband include T1 andISDN lines. Cable lines (also an example of broadband) have evenhigher capacity, so some organizations connect their networksthrough their television cable company. If privacy is important,organizations can arrange for private telephone lines to carry theirtraffic, or use satellite connections. Some satellite connections areoperated by telephone companies; some are operated by otherorganizations.

To make online resources available to people who travel, you canconnect to networks using an infrared connection, rather than acable. No wire is needed, though there must be equipment toreceive the infrared signal from the computer in the area (called awireless connection). Wireless connections can have speeds that aresimilar to those of phone and broadband lines, because ultimatelythe signals are sent through them.

Most telephone lines send analog signals (sound waves that areconverted to electrical power) and computers operate digital signals(flashes of light that represent the symbols 1 and 0, the basic ele-ment of all computer work). Computers need a special device toconvert the digital signal to an analog signal when going over thetelephone lines and also to convert the analog signal back into adigital signal at the other computer. The device that handles thisconversion is a modem.

Connections also involve software. The software includes the following:

— The learning program, such as a unit of information in a course, an e-mail message that’s part of an online discussion, or a transmission of a video image. To make sure that the com-puter receiving the information can process the information sentto it, many software publishers use some common formats. Forexample, files containing graphics, video clips, audio clips, and


photographs are stored in a certain format. Similarly, some pro-gramming languages, such as Java and Active X, run with themost common Internet browsers.

— Tools to transmit this information most efficiently.

a) In some instances, the software “compresses” the informa-tion (removing unnecessary information so that there’s lessto send over the telephone wires) and adds back the informa-tion at the other end.

b) In other instances, the software sends information in smallunits so that learners can begin working as soon as the firstpart of the material arrives at the learner’s computer (andwhile the system continues to transmit information). That’sthe concept behind “streaming” video and audio signals.

— Another set of software prepares packets of information to betransmitted over the network, identifies its destination, sends it,and unpacks the information at the other computer. The postalservice follows certain conventions in addressing and deliveringsurface mail, so computers follow certain guidelines called pro-tocols to exchange information for addressing and deliveringinformation on networks.

Software for Using the Internet

The Internet is the most widely used network. It is a public networkthat any user can connect to. What follows are some of the most com-mon elements of the Internet that affect online learning.

Chapter 3 89


Internet

Service

Providers

(ISPs)

People make the connection through a serverthat is a direct gateway to the Internet. Largeorganizations have their own private gateways.Smaller organizations and individuals use thegateways of Internet Service Providers (ISPs)and connect to their ISPs through their owntelephone or broadband connection.

Browsers On the Internet, users view information and useprograms from the network through specialsoftware called a “browser.” Netscape Navigatorand Microsoft Explorer are the two mostcommonly used browsers.

Intranets and

extranets

Intranets and extranets are variations of theInternet. Both use the same software as theInternet, but limit access to certain users. Access to an intranet is limited to people withinan organization as the “intra” in its name sug-gests. Access to an extranet is limited to keycustomers and suppliers of an organization.Organizations limit access by requiring thatusers enter a password when they connect to thenetwork and limit access to files and programsto those authorized to use them.

Firewall The software that keeps unauthorized users fromaccessing information on intranets or extranetsand stored on hard drives.

Server When organizations provide information to beused on the Internet or on an intranet orextranet, they store it on an Internet server.AnInternet server is intended to be available 24hours a day, 7 days a week.

Delivering the Learning Program

When planning to distribute online learning programs to learners, youneed to make one of these two key decisions:

• If you are distributing the learning program on the Internet, willthe learning programs be distributed to learners through your com-puters, or on space rented on another organization’s computers?

• If you are not distributing the learning program on the Internet,which medium will you use to deliver the program (such as aDVD)?

The following sections explore these issues.

Options Available for Distributing Learning Programs

through a Network

When you distribute learning programs through the Internet, you canstore them and make them available on the computers in your organi-zation or through someone else’s. The computer to which learnersconnect to receive a learning program is called a server. Storing andrelated maintenance needed to make an online learning programavailable on a server is a service called hosting.

Many considerations affect this decision about hosting your own pro-gram or contracting with an outside service:

Chapter 3 91

Security As it relates to the distribution of learning pro-grams, security primarily refers to the sensitiv-ity of content.

In many instances, the learning material isabout sensitive subjects (trade secrets or othersimilarly sensitive material). By keeping infor-mation on your server, you have direct controlover the access to it, as well as records ofaccess. This is usually a concern with internaltraining. In other instances, the learning

(continued)


Security

(concluded)

material is about general subjects that are notconfidential, but your organization’s serversalso contain sensitive information. In theseinstances, you might consider using a hostingservice so that learners do not accidentally findtheir way to more sensitive material.

Staffing Staffing primarily refers to the staff availablewithin the information technology group to provide technical support to the online learningprogram. These services include posting programming and content changes, backing upmaterial, printing and reviewing reports, andadministering any learning management software.

If your organization has staff available, thenyou might consider hosting the online learningprogram on your own server. If not, you woulduse a hosting service. Support is one of theservices that a hosting service provides.

Ownership of

course content

In some instances, your organization owns thecopyright to all the content in its online learningprograms.

In other instances, your organization eithershares copyrights with another organization orhas a license to use material to which othershold the copyright. If your organization ownsthe copyright, you might consider hosting thecourse on your own system.

If your organization does not own the full copy-right, the license agreement might state whetheror not you can host content on your own system.

Delivery Media Other than the Internet to Deliver Learning

Programs

You do not have to distribute online learning programs through theInternet. As mentioned in the previous section, the other optionsinclude the following:

Chapter 3 93

(continued)

Diskette A diskette is a device on which you can record alearning program stored on one computer. Youcan then take the diskette to another computer,and copy the learning program onto the harddisk drive of the second computer.

Because users can easily copy information onto adiskette and because diskettes easily fit into shirtpockets, they have remained a popular means ofdistributing online learning materials. However,diskettes hold the least amount of information ofany of the methods of distributing information.

Still a viable means of recording data, diskettesare considered old technology and on their wayout. Their capacity is often lower than needed tostore storage-hungry video, audio, and animatedimages. If you deliver online learning materialson diskette, as you might do for performancesupport and asynchronous training and educa-tion, you need to make sure that learners have a diskette drive installed on their system.Increasingly, new systems do not have diskettedrives installed.

Compact

disk (CD)

A computer CD is just like an audio CD, exceptthat it can also contain text, video, and othercomputer images in addition to sound.

Both audio and computer CD players use thesame technology: They record information on adisk that is read by a laser. Hence, CDs aresometimes called laser disks. CDs hold over 400


Compact

disk (CD)

(concluded)

times more information than diskettes, and thusoffer a more efficient means of recording anddistributing information. However, most CDsare “read only” (ROM—read-only memory);you cannot easily record information on them (a process called writing).

Until recently, organizations had to go to specialproduction houses to record and duplicate CDs.Equipment is now available that lets organizations record and duplicate CDs in-house. Also, the PCs in many corporations arenot equipped with CD players. Those learnerscannot use CDs, even if they are provided.

If you deliver online learning materials on a CDas you might do for performance support andasynchronous training and education, you need tomake sure that learners have a CD player installedon their system or have one available on a net-work that the learner’s computer is connected to.

Digital virtual

disk (DVD)

CDs offer significantly more storage capacitythan diskettes, but DVDs offer significantlymore storage capacity than a CD. A CD canhold 30 minutes’ worth of video; a DVD canhold an entire 2-hour movie.

DVD players can read CDs and DVDs arequickly replacing CDs. If you deliver onlinelearning materials on DVD (as you might do forperformance support and asynchronous trainingand education), you need to make sure that eachlearner has a DVD player installed on their system (most likely in organizations that haveinstalled equipment since 2003). However, ifyou distribute online learning materials on CD,learners who have a DVD player can still usethe CDs.

Issues in Choosing a Delivery Medium

When you choose the method for delivering the learning program,you want to choose one that most quickly transmits the information,but is also available to all learners.

For example, suppose you are developing an electronic performancesupport system. If you install the program on a network, users alwayshave the most current version of information available because youcan update it at one central location. Users get the new version eachtime they work with the information.

However, if users do not have modems on their computers or the network is available only at certain times, you might distribute theperformance support system on a diskette, CD, or DVD so that userscan install the program on their own computers.

Furthermore, whenever you update the program, you must prepareall new diskettes, CDs, or DVDs, and make sure that each user notonly receives a copy, but also installs it. Make sure that users areall working with the most current version of information, too.

What Does this Mean to Someone Developing Online

Learning Programs?

On a good day, most of the efforts to transmit information over a net-work are invisible to users. However, you can design online learningprograms to make the transmission most efficient.

Multimedia touches, such as graphics, audio, and video clips enhancean online learning program, but they require a lot of information to besent with them on the network. This is why they are slow to transmitgiven current technologies. Using these images sparingly speedstransmission of the course.

However, if all of your users have high-speed connection to theInternet, the network has a much larger transmission capacity (called bandwidth) and can easily transmit these images.

Chapter 3 95

Consider the Hardware and Software Available to

Individual Learners

The last consideration in delivering online learning programs is thetype of computer that each user has. The setup of an individual computer is called a configuration. The configuration describes boththe hardware and software on the computer. Specifically, consider theissues raised in the following sections.

What type of hardware do learners have?

Typically, the hardware of a PC configuration consists of thefollowing:

• Α processor, which is the center of all action on the computer.Processors are defined by their type, such as a Pentium processor,and then speed, stated in megahertz.

• Main memory, also called Random Access Memory (RAM),whose capacity is usually mentioned in megabytes (MB)—millions of bytes. A byte is one character of information, such as a letter.

• Storage capacity for each type of storage device:

— A hard disk, whose size is usually mentioned in megabytes(MB—millions of bytes) or gigabytes (GB—billions ofbytes).

— A diskette drive, whose size is assumed to be 1.44 MB.

— A CD drive, whose size is usually stated in speed (such as10X or 20X) because all CDs have the same storage capacity.

— A DVD drive, whose size is also usually stated in speed.

• Α monitor, which is usually identified by the type of technologyrunning it (such as XGA). On notebook computers, the monitor isalso identified by the type of screen. Active matrix offers a morevivid image.


• Α network connection. Common options include

— An Ethernet card, which connects to a network using theEthernet technology. This is only used within large corporations.

— A modem, usually stated in speed per second, such as 56 kilobytes (KB) per second.

— A wireless card, which lets learners connect to the Internet oran intranet without using a cable.

Other options are available, and a system can have several typesof connections simultaneously. For example, one PC might have amodem and an Ethernet card.

• Multimedia capabilities, such as sound cards, digital cameras, andsimilar equipment. Even though this equipment is widely avail-able on home computers, some business organizations purposelyleave them off to avoid problems with sound in the workplace orto prevent misuse of equipment.

What type of software do learners have?

When considering the software configuration of the learner’s PC,specifically consider the following:

• An operating system that controls the overall operation of a computer, such as Windows or Mac OS.

• Personal productivity programs, including word processors, presentation programs, and spreadsheets.

• Communications software, including:

— Software for connecting to the network

— An Internet browser, such as Windows Explorer or NetscapeNavigator, as well as plug-ins

Chapter 3 97

— Specialized software (plug-ins) to play various media, such assoftware that lets learners play audio CDs, play Flash demos,and view video clips.

What a Learner’s Configuration Means to Someone

Developing Online Learning Programs

When designing online learning programs, be sure you consider thecapabilities of the computers that learners have.

On the one hand, you want to take full advantage of all the capabilities available to learners that make sense within the learning context.

On the other hand, you do not want to design online learning programs that use capabilities that some of the learners do not have.

Typically, the equipment available to learners varies. If you aredesigning programs for use within a given organization, you can workwith your Information Systems (IS) group to determine what thisvariance is and define a minimum configuration that the course runson. For example, you might decide that learners must have at least aPentium III processor to use the program. Learners who try to use thelearning program on a Pentium II processor will not be able to do so,but you planned it that way.

When designing programs for use over the Internet, you do not haveany way of knowing the variance among systems. Many organiza-tions therefore have decided that they will design their courses to run on certain versions of Internet browsers. If users cannot run thebrowsers on their system, they cannot use the program. Typically,organizations design their online learning programs to support themost current versions of the common browsers, as well as the versionbefore that.


Learn More About the Technology for Delivering

Online Learning

To learn more about the technology of online learning, visit the Website of the online version of this book at www.vnulearning.com/wp/3-links.htm.

Chapter 3 99

Chapter 4:

Project and Learning

Considerations

The last of the major issues surrounding online learning pertain to the business and creative aspects of designing, developing, andadministering an online learning program. This chapter addressesthese issues. Specifically, it addresses the following:

• An overview of project and learning issues

• Establishing a strategy for moving learning online

• Designing and developing courses

• Maintaining and supporting online learning programs

• Purchasing software and services

Overview of Project and Learning Issues

Success at delivering online learning is directly linked to more thanjust the technology. It also involves the following:

Establishing a strategy for

appropriately moving

learning online

One of the challenges of onlinelearning is the endless choicesavailable. A strategy provides a framework for managing thechoices. It gives you specificissues to consider at appropriate

(continued)


Establishing a strategy for

appropriately moving

learning online

(concluded)

points along the way, and a framework for movingcourses online on a timetablethat is comfortable for yourorganization.

Designing and developing

courses

Although the general process of instructional design foronline learning is the same asfor classroom learning, manydifferent issues arise at eachphase. Some of the issues aretechnical, while others focus onways to compensate for the lackof face-to-face contact in mostonline learning.

Maintaining and supporting

courses

As people participate in onlinelearning courses, questions andtechnical issues are likely toarise. Also, the technical con-tent could change. Maintenanceand support activities addressthese concerns.

Purchasing software and

services

Learning management systemsand libraries of online coursescan be among the most costlysoftware purchases that anorganization makes. Similarly,services for developing onlinecourses can be expensive.Doing your homework inadvance of a purchase canresult in a more satisfactorybusiness deal for all partiesinvolved.

Issues Associated with a Strategy for Moving to

Online Learning

In the first moments of enthusiasm for online learning, some profes-sionals make earnest proclamations that a significant percentage oftheir corporate or university learning will move online within a shorttime, such as a year. Others, in an effort to launch an online-learningprogram, feel compelled to choose learning management software andmove entire curricula online, even though they do not feel that theyfully understand online learning or that their organization can readilyadapt to it. Such learning professionals, overwhelmed with theamount of choice in online learning, make hasty selections and end up making costly errors.

Strategic planning is a process where you plot out how you canintegrate online learning into your organization and introduce it at a comfortable rate. A comfortable rate is one that lets you first learnabout options before you are required to make choices and one thatlets the organization adequately prepare for the move online.

Implementing online learning generally goes through these phases:

Chapter 4 103

Phase in the

Strategic

Planning

Process

What Happens at This Phase

Phase I:

Advance Notice

(as you prepareto implementonline learning)

This phase precedes the implementation ofonline learning in organizations. During thistime, the people who will introduce, develop,and manage online learning become knowl-edgeable in these areas. Specifically, people dothe following:

(continued)


Phase I:

Advance Notice

(as you prepareto implementonline learning)(concluded)

• Get an overview of online learning. This isthe time to learn what online learning is andto become familiar with the technology andproject issues—the types of topics addressedin this book.

• Find executives and managers who are inter-ested in championing the first online learn-ing projects in your organization. Thoseprojects have a much higher likelihood ofsuccess if an executive strongly supports theeffort.

• Develop strategic relationships with othergroups in the organization whose help youlaunch online learning. The most importantis the Information Systems group, because itcan help manage some of the complicatedtechnology.

• Take e-learning courses. People cannot adequately advocate for online learning ifthey do not understand the experience ofbeing an online learner. During this phase,the people who are leading the online learn-ing effort take courses, if they have not doneso in the past.

Phase II:

Getting Started

(the first 6 to 12months)

Start small, and build for success. Set yourselfup for success by choosing to implement justone or two projects. Choose those that have a high likelihood of success. Some suggestedprojects:

• Develop one or two online courses.

• Sign a trial contract to use a small library ofoff-the-shelf online courses, and promotetheir use and success in your organization.

(continued)

Chapter 4 105

Phase II:

Getting Started

(the first 6 to 12months)(concluded)

• Pilot the use of a learning management system (LMS), even if its primary use is tomanage classroom courses.

Also during the pilot:

• To ensure success, make sure that you promote the pilot program to the intendedaudience. Also limit the amount of softwarethat you purchase. Because the pilot is a trialof sorts, you might find that you are notcomfortable with choices of some software.By limiting your purchases now, you leaveyour options open for later phases of thestrategy.

• Plan to build your skills in the areas ofcourse development and learning manage-ment. Record the lessons learned so that others in the organization can benefit fromyour experience.

• Evaluate the pilot to determine what workedand what did not. Use these lessons to formulate later strategy.

Phase III:

Building Up

(the next 12 to18 months)

During this phase, you apply the lessonslearned in the pilot to significantly increase theuse of online learning in your organization.Issues to consider fall into three categories:

• Content. During this phase, you transfer curricula online, one at a time. You alsoexperiment with other forms and formats ofonline learning. For example, you mightreplace a quiz-based program with a simula-tion program. Or you might replace a tips-and-techniques course with a knowledgemanagement site and a Webzine.

(continued)


Phase III:

Building Up

(the next 12 to18 months) (concluded)

• Technology. During this phase, you increaseyour use of course development tools—youlearn new things to do with the tools youalready have, and you begin purchasing specialized software like Flash to polish theappearance of online content. You also intro-duce an LMS (if you have not done soalready) and expand its use. Last, youexplore the possibility of re-using content,especially if you find that the content youare developing can be used in manuals, marketing materials, and other print andonline publications.

• Management. You improve the “human”management of online learning by refiningthe methods for marketing it to potentiallearners and by building stronger businesscases for creating online learning programs.

Phase IV: Fully

Integrated

(the long-term)

During this phase, online learning becomesfully integrated into the organization. Usingthe lessons learned in the earlier phases, youdesign increasingly more effective learningprograms and make more efficient and effec-tive use of the technology. Issues to considerfall into three categories:

• Content. You begin designing integratedonline learning programs, and design various courses and related materials so thatthey interconnect with one another. Forexample, rather than designing a qualitycourse, you might design an entire qualityprogram. You also overhaul entire onlinecourses to more effectively teach materialonline. You develop strategic partnerships,using content from other sources when it

(continued)

Issues Associated with Designing and

Developing Online Courses

The next set of issues to consider pertain to designing and developingcourses. Specifically, consider the following:

• The process and how it compares to the instructional designprocess for classroom courses and workbooks

Chapter 4 107

Phase IV: Fully

Integrated

(the long-term)(concluded)

makes sense. Working with other content-development groups such as marketing and technical communication departments,you start sharing content (that is, develop-ing material once and using it over andover in other types of communicationproducts).

• Technology. During this phase, you expandthe use of Learning Management Systems(LMSs). For example, in addition to manag-ing enrollments and recording completions,you might begin using the ability of an LMSto track skills within the organization. Youalso experiment with software that can helpyou develop more effective learning pro-grams, such as simulation tools. Finally, youmight begin using content management orlearning content management systems tomake it possible to re-use content withinyour organization.

• Management. You use the reports fromLMSs and similar systems to find out what’seffective and what’s not, and improve yourprocesses and techniques. Instructors buildtheir repertoire for teaching online, as wellas their skills.

• Issues associated with analysis

• Issues associated with project design

• Issues associated with project development and implementation

Similarities with Design for the Classroom and

Workbook

In many ways, designing, developing, and administering onlinelearning programs is the same as designing, developing, and admin-istering classroom courses and workbooks. The general process isthe same:


1. Conduct a needs analysis.

2. State objectives.

3. Design the evaluation.

4. Choose the medium.

5. Develop the course (or choose an off-the-shelf course).

6. Conduct a formative evaluation.

7. Revise the course.

8. Produce the course materials.

9. Distribute the course materials.

10. Conduct post-course administration (testing, enrollments,record keeping).

11. Maintain the course.

Like their more traditional classroom counterparts, online learningprograms emerge from a well-researched analysis, which yields clearobjectives.

The best way to meet those needs is with a strong course design thatis developed on time, within budget, and at the desired level of quality. After the course is complete, it must be efficiently distributedwithin the organization. Student participation must be tracked andrecorded and, when content changes, the course must be revised.

Differences between Online Course Design and

Traditional Course Design

Although the process is similar to what you would use when developing classroom and workbook programs, the considerationsyou address at various phases of online learning program develop-ment differ. The following sections identify these considerations:

During Needs Analysis

Assess a business case for online learning, determine whether thelearning environment supports this approach, and identify any tech-nology requirements (such as an LMS that must be used).

During the Design Phases

Online learning presents many possibilities for teaching—many arenot readily available in the classroom or in workbooks. Specifically,you can:

• Address a broader range of learning styles and issues than is possiblein a classroom or a workbook, where one size must fit all.

• Use a broad range of media, including video, animation, andgraphics.

• Develop content once, and use it again in a variety of differentlearning materials (either as-is or with minor modifications).

As a result, you need to adapt your teaching repertoire when movingonline.

Chapter 4 109

During the Development Phases

Course development becomes more complex online than for othermedia. It usually involves

• A large team of people with diverse skills.

• Extensive testing, including (a) pilot tests to make sure that stu-dents understand the content without assistance from anyone andthat the software operates as intended; and (b) functional tests tomake sure the software functions as planned.

After Development

Because the bulk of the effort involved in online learning occurs inanalysis, design, and development, the distribution and maintenancerequire a different set of activities than those used for classroom andworkbook courses. These activities include:

• Making extra efforts to receive feedback on learning materials(more than what is needed for workbook or classroom courses).

• Developing a plan to manage updates (always a problem withsoftware, often a problem with courses).

• Making sure that learner participation is tracked and recorded.

In addition, because online learning programs are software applica-tions, some aspects of the design process are adjusted to reflect a soft-ware development process.

The next several topics describe each of these project issues in detail,as well as one more issue: using software to manage the developmentof online learning.

Analysis Issues

If you want to consider online learning as an option for your organiza-tion, you need to think about it from the very beginning of a project—during the analysis phase.


When conducting an analysis, ask questions to determine whetheronline learning is feasible for the organization you are serving, andunder what constraints. Specifically, consider:

• Assessing the feasibility of an online learning project.

• Determining the constraints affecting an online learning project.

The Feasibility of an Online Learning Project

When assessing the feasibility of online learning for an organization,you need to look into the following issues:

Chapter 4 111

Financial

feasibility

Online learning programs are often more costlyto develop than traditional programs currently inuse. They tend to justify themselves in thereduced cost of delivery.

Often, proponents of an online learning program in an organization do not thoroughlyidentify all the development costs, nor do theyattempt to identify the delivery costs of thealternative and prepare a comprehensive busi-ness case. The worksheet later in this sectionhelps you prepare working figures to comparedevelopment and delivery costs for classroomand online learning programs.

Access to

computers

Online learning happens on computers; learnersmust have access to them. Most desk-boundworkers have computers at their desks. Manyother types of workers do not, such as produc-tion workers in manufacturing plants, retailworkers, security staffs, and hospital staffs.

Some of these workers might have limitedaccess to computers through a central work area

(continued)


Access to

computers

(concluded)

(such as a nurse’s station or back office of a store)or through a learning center (a specially equippedarea where students can take self-study courses).

If computer access is not presently available,you’ll have to make provisions for the comput-ers before the program will be feasible.

Environmental

issues that

promote or

hinder use of

the program

Some online learning programs are intended tobe used on the job. Others are intended to be aspecialized learning event.

Whatever the intended use, consider how distractions, noise, and work spaces affect useof the program. For example, although manysales people have access to notebook computers,they are easily distracted by e-mail and tele-phones when studying at their workplace, andoften do not finish the courses they start.

Similarly, people working in large call centershave access to computers, but noise from a multimedia program distracts their co-workers.

Previous

experience

with

computers

in general

People cannot use online learning if they don’tknow how to use the computer. If you want touse online learning with learners who have noprevious computer experience, you probablyneed to include computer literacy training aspart of the effort.

Previous

experience

with online

learning in

particular

Like anything in life, past experience predictsfuture behavior. If people have a positive previ-ous online learning experience, they’ll morereadily accept an online course than if the previous experience was negative.

Similarly, managers who have had unsatisfac-tory experiences with online learning in the pastoften resist future efforts.

The Constraints Affecting an Online Learning Project

When identifying the constraints under which you would develop anonline learning program, consider these issues:

Chapter 4 113

Budget and

schedule

Certain aspects of online learning are relativelyquick to develop (such as text and simple graph-ics). Others require more expense and time(such as extensive interactions, videos, simula-tions, and animations).

How much is the sponsor (internal or external toyour organization) willing to pay to produce theprogram? If you cannot get a firm time frameand budget figures, at least get relative ones.Classify the project as one of the following:

• McDonald’s (low cost, fast service)

• TGI Friday’s (moderate budget, leisurelyservice)

• Morton’s (high budget, time for full traditional dining)

Quality So many organizations have limited experiencewith online learning, so investigate the prevail-ing notions of quality online learning within theorganization you are serving.

For example, some organizations have difficultywith the transition from classroom to computer-based training and become overwhelmed whendiscussing the possibilities of performance support.

(continued)

Worksheets for Determining Constraints on an

Online Learning Project

About these Worksheets

Use the worksheets that follow to uncover some of the issues you’ll need to address when implementing online learning in yourorganization. You’ll certainly need to add questions about the contentyou’re working with. Use the space provided for brief notes.


Quality

(concluded)

Use this information to determine whether theinternal or external sponsors’ expectations of quality are realistic, given the budget and schedule you have to work with.

Staff Who’s going to work on this program, either ina development capacity or as an advisor on the content? More specifically, what’s theirexperience with online learning?

General

technology

infrastructure

Determine what types of equipment, networks,and software are available in the organization,and find out where they are headed so that youcan determine the configuration of the comput-ers on which your programs will be used.

Available

technology for

online learning

Determine which software and hardware arespecifically already available in theorganization for online learning. Chances are,executives will want you to use the technologythat’s already available to develop and deliverlearning, rather than to purchase newtechnology. If you are unfamiliar with any ofthe available technology, learn the functionsand features.

Justification

required

Will management require you to present a busi-ness case justifying the move to online learning?

Chapter 4 115

About the Subject Matter

• Are computers an integral part of the subject matter?

• Can the team designing the learning program play a role in developing the aspect of the subject matter that is performedwith the computer?

• What opportunities are there to integrate learning resources intothe computer?

Access to Computers

• Does every learner have their own PC? If not, which groups oflearners have their own PCs? Which groups don’t?

• If not, does every learner have access to a PC? If not, whichgroups do not have access to PCs?

• Does your organization have a learning center or similar facil-ity where learners can take online courses? If not, which groupsdo not have access to PCs?

Environmental Issues that Promote or Hinder Learning

• In what physical location will learning occur?

• Will learners have access to their telephones, the Internet, andother sources of interruption? If yes, are learners likely to allowthemselves to be interrupted?

• How much privacy will learners have?

— Much. They’ll learn in private rooms with doors.

— Some. They’ll be in private cubicles, but will likely beaffected by noise from cubicles that are nearby.

— Little.

Worksheet 1: Planning Considerations for Online Learning


• How much physical space is available in the learning area forother materials, such as workbooks?

— Much. Desk areas near the learning station are large andempty.

— Some. Desk areas near the learning station have some space,but some of it is used for work information and supplies.

— Little. Desk space is at a premium in this area.

Previous Experience with Computers in General

Can learners do the following:

• Turn on the PC?

• Start programs using Windows or a Mac?

• Type input on a keyboard?

• Use a mouse?

• Use specialized application programs, such as a hotel reserva-tions system?

• Use general application programs, such as a word processor ora spreadsheet?

Previous Experience with Online Learning in Particular

• Do learners in this organization have previous experience withonline learning?

• On average, how many online programs have learners participated in?


(continued)

Chapter 4 117

• What is the general feeling toward online learning?

— Fine

— Intimidated by technology.

— Comfortable with technology, but believe that classroomlearning is the most legitimate form of learning.

Constraints

Can you assess the budget for this project?

• Yes. What is the approximate budget for this project (either afirm dollar amount or a range)?

• No. Determine the relative budget for this project:

— McDonald’s

— TGI Friday’s

— Morton’s of Chicago

Capabilities of Existing Staff for Producing and Managing

Online Learning

For the chart on the next page, assess each staff member accordingto the following criteria:

1 = has heard of the term

2 = can describe key concepts

3 = has tried or has used this skill

4 = regularly uses this skill

5 = expert that others in and out of the company seek out


(continued)

118

An

Overv

iew

of O

nlin

e L

earn

ing

Staff person Instructor Course Designer/ Programmer Manager Sponsor

Developer

Classroom

course

design

Classroom

course

instruction

Video

design and

scripting

Audio design

and scripting

Computer-

based training

design

Computer-

based training

development

Workbook

instruction

Worksheet 2: Staff Resources for the Online Learning Program

Worksheet 3: Technology Infrastructure

Identify the minimum configuration of computers to each of

these areas.

Chapter 4 119

Minimum

configuration of

typical

workstation

In a

manufacturing

area

In an office In a

technical

group

Minimum mainmemory

Minimum disk storage

Minimum operatingsystem

Office applicationsthat are installed(such as MS Office)

Other applicationsthat are installed asstandard

Web browsers(types, levels supported)

Sound card

DVD or CD drive

Printer access • Attached to the PC • On a LAN within the facility • Within the building • No available printer

Design Issues

The Creative Opportunities in Online Learning

Designing an online learning program is an exciting challenge. Ifyou’re looking for creativity, online learning offers it. Here’s how:

• Online learning programs that replace classroom courses can bemore flexible and offer more opportunities for enrichment andreview.


Additional Questions about the Technology Infrastructure

• How frequently are PCs replaced?

• If the I/S group plans to replace PCs in the next year, what is the configuration of the new PCs?

• Does the I/S group have any long-term projects that mightaffect any program to implement online learning?

Standardized Development Tools or Standards for Online

Learning, If Any, in These Areas

Does your organization already have standards for the following?If so, what are they?

• Learning Management System (LMS)

• Computer-based training authoring tools

• Word processing tools

• HTML development tools

• Graphics software

• Video and audio production tools

Worksheet 3: Technology Infrastructure (continued)

• Online learning programs based on workplace applications pro-vide a more comforting level of support for work activities than ispossible with traditional software applications.

Whatever brings you to online learning, you have more design issuesto consider than the type of materials you previously developed. Byaddressing these issues, you can design a single program that meets a broad range of learning needs.

If you’re looking to expand your teaching and communication reper-toire, online learning offers unique opportunities, too. You canexplore a number of different teaching techniques. If they’re already apart of your teaching repertoire, you can adapt them to the computer.These techniques include gaming-simulation, discovery learning,experiential learning, personalized remediation—even software appli-cation design.

Finally, if you’re looking for complexity, online learning offers many design challenges. Online programs offer flexibility to learners,so course designers must consider each possible path that a learnermight take and design it appropriately. Doing so complicates design.Similarly, you can design one learning program, and re-use it in avariety of contexts.

Design Issues

Online learning offers flexibility so that you can design programs that are:

Chapter 4 121

Tailored to

individual

learning and

working styles

You can provide alternative presentations ofmaterial based on a user’s preferences. Forinstance, some users prefer to learn first, andthen try. Others prefer the opposite.

By giving users a choice, you address the needsof each.

(continued)


Experiential Through simulations of real-world experiences,you can design learning situations that let userstry out various approaches and see the implica-tions of their actions.

In her book Designing Games and Simulations,Cathy Stein Greenblat defines a simulation as“an operating model of central features or ele-ments of a real or proposed system, process, orenvironment.” When learners interact with thesimulated environment, they experience the con-sequences of their choices.

Participatory Many online learning programs look like elec-tronic page turners. Others let users fully partici-pate in the learning experience.

Synchronous courses (courses in which partici-pants are all online and communicating with oneanother at the same time, like a chat room) caninclude question-and-answer sessions withexperts and online discussions.

Asynchronous courses (ones in which partici-pants are not necessarily online at the sametime) can include interactive case studies andsimulations. Participants receive informationabout a problem one piece at a time and makedecisions about how to proceed.

Patient Through effective design of exercises andquizzes, you can pinpoint the most likely prob-lem that learners have in mastering the material,and provide them with alternative explanationsand exercises until they master it. Such “attentionuntil mastery” is not possible in a classroom.

Purchasing Off-the-Shelf Courses

Before you begin a project to develop an online course, make surethat you really need to do so. The number of courses available off-the-shelf in most subject areas grows each day. The options includePC application training (such as training on MS Word and MS Excel),business management, grammar, and Web design. You might be ableto use an off-the-shelf course as-is or with some minor changes, andsave development costs.

Many off-the-shelf courses are available through the Web. Usersenroll in these courses or organizations purchase a subscription (which lets a designated number of learners take courses over a particular period of time). Other off-the-shelf courses are availableas DVDs and CDs. You purchase and use them like you would purchase and use any DVD or CD.

But if you determine that you need to design and develop a newcourse, then do so. The next several sections prepare you for this.

Adapting the Repertoire of Teaching and Communication

Techniques

In a classroom, if a student gives an “I’m confused” look or startsnodding off, you can quickly adjust your teaching. You can check forunderstanding or insert a “wake-me-up” activity.

In most online learning situations, you will not have such an “adjustby sight” system. Instead, you will need to adjust your repertoire ofteaching techniques to anticipate potential points of confusion andprovide students with clarifying information. You will also need touse different techniques to engage students.

Many online instructors find that they can create engaging, effectivelessons if they use specific techniques and incorporate as broad arange of media as possible within the budget, schedule, and technol-ogy limitations available.

Chapter 4 123

Here is an alphabetical list of teaching and communication techniquesthat the designers of many online learning programs use.


Case Study A description of an actual or fictional situation.Learners describe how they would respond.Case studies have been used effectively to:

• Introduce new concepts. Learners firstrespond to a case study to become familiarwith the characteristics of a situation, and thenwork through the case to learn which issuesthey should address.

• Review concepts. Learners might test whetherthey can actually apply the material taught ina class by responding to a case.

Coaching An online tool that assists users with cognitive(intellectual) tasks. Examples of coachinginclude the use of:

• Online assistants that prompt customersupport representatives who are requestinginformation from customers to take advantageof potential marketing opportunities

• Online assistants that tell customer service rep-resentatives at credit card companies whether ornot they can extend a customer’s credit limit

• Online tools that help workers choose apersonalized curriculum of training courses

A coach provides partial or full assistance with adecision. It includes prompts with scripts to beread when appropriate.

(continued)

Chapter 4 125

(continued)

Guided Tours Provide a brief overview of a subject area in10–15 screens (or a self-running animation thattakes no more than 3 minutes). Rather thantransferring skills, effective guided tours whetlearners’ appetites for in-depth material, such asonline courses and references.

Figure 4-1 shows an example of a guided tour.

Online

References

Encyclopedic listings of all major topics on a particular subject. A telephone directory is areference. So is the Physician’s Desk Reference,and so are the programming references providedwith software.

Copyright 2002 by Ojala, Inc. Used with permission.

Figure 4-1. Example screen from a guided tour of

Ojala.com. Prepared by Cesira Daukantas.


Online

References

(continued)

References promote self-directed learning.Learners look up specific pieces of information.The subject might be broad, such as all the com-mands used for copying information, or all themedications used to treat influenza.

The subject might be tightly defined, such as theuse of global characters with the DOS commanddiskcopy, or the side effects of a certain influenzavaccine on patients with pacemakers.

Users generally do not read references in their entirety. Learners expect the following in references:

• Comprehensive coverage of a subject, withevery major topic listed and thoroughdescriptions within each. For example, if aprogramming language has 118 commands,users expect listings for each. If doctors haveaccess to 1,089 drugs, they expect the refer-ence to describe all 1,089 of them.

• Alphabetic listing. Users expect the referenceto begin with A and continue to Z.

• Everything about the topic. If, for example, aparticular command has seven options, usersexpect the reference to describe all seven.Similarly, if a drug has six side effects, usersexpect the reference to describe all six.

• Examples and illustrations to explain concepts.

Figure 4-2 shows an example of an onlinereference: a page from the online Handbook ofResearch for Educational Communications andTechnology.

(continued)

Chapter 4 127

(continued)

Online

References

(concluded)

Simulation An experience that replicates the centralcharacteristics of complex situations (that’s thesimulation) and that lets users experience the con-sequences of decisions made in that situation (thegaming aspect). Examples of simulations include:

• Aircraft and nuclear simulators, which re-create disaster situations that can be used totrain pilots and operators.

• Training courses on software that let users trytasks as if they were really using the software,but users only use simulated versions of thesoftware so that their actions will not affectthe valuable data used to run the organization.

• Training courses in interpersonal relations(such as sales and management) that givestudents an opportunity to try out new skills.

Copyright 2002 by Association for Educational Communications

and Technology. Used with permission.

Figure 4-2. Sample from the online Handbook of Research

for Educational Communications and Technology.


Tips Quick electronic advice about something that isnot required for basic use, but whose knowledgecould increase the productivity of learners.

Tips are usually displayed when learners start aprogram. They usually cover a single point and focus on secondary information, rather thanthe most essential information. Online coursedevelopers use tips to supplement basicknowledge and skills.

For example, when users first start the program,Quicken displays tips for more effectively usingthe software, as well as general tips for manag-ing finances. Similarly, Day-Timer Organizer displays tips on various aspects of time management. Most of the tips are general, buttips occasionally include suggestions on how touse the online Day-Timer to implement these suggestions.

Tutorial A “traditional” lesson with lecture-likesequences, followed by opportunities forpractice and are intended to develop a skill that learners can immediately use.

Some tutorials are required, such as a tutorialabout a new company policy or to fulfill a legalrequirement (the reason for most safety training).

In some instances, learners consult a tutorial tolearn how to perform a task in a more-instruc-tive way than is explained in a proceduresmanual or through online help. Examplesinclude users consulting commercial booksabout software such as Windows for Dummies

(continued)

Chapter 4 129

(continued)

Tutorial

(concluded)

to learn how to back up systems, and tutorials provided with spreadsheets that teach users howto use formulas.

In other instances, users take tutorials to learnabout an entire subject, such as career manage-ment or how to prepare tax returns.

Web-based

seminar

A Web-based seminar (sometimes called a Webinar) taught using synchronous learningtechnologies. A Web-based seminar addresses awell-defined topic (such as synchronousteaching techniques) and is intended for anadvanced audience. It typically lasts about 90 minutes, with questions.

Figure 4-3 shows an example of a screen from a Web-based seminar about a softwareapplication. Notice that participants can see theapplication in the center of the screen. Atranscript of a concurrent chat with participantsappears in the left-hand margin.

Screen copyright 2002 by Elluminate, Inc. Used with permission.

Figure 4-3. Example of a screen from a Web-based

seminar using the virtual classroom software vClass.


Webzine or

E-Newsletter

An online “magazine” that contains a collectionof articles and provides ongoing communicationwith a target group. For example, a productWebzine provides ongoing contact with the customers who have already purchased a prod-uct and provides tips and tricks for using thatproduct, as well as sample programming code(or scripts) and case studies of applications.

Figure 4-4 shows an example of Online

Learning e-News, a weekly newsletter aboutdesign and development that explores technicalissues in online learning. The newsletter ismailed weekly to subscribers.

(continued)

Copyright 2002 by VNU Business Media. Used with permis-

sion.

Figure 4-4. Example of Online Learning E-News, an

online newsletter.

Other Issues

Two other issues that designers of online learning programs address are the length of online learning programs and how to re-use learning materials.

Small Packages. MTV influenced the attention span for material ontelevision, and the Web culture is influencing the attention span formaterial online. People can surf the Web for hours, but they gener-ally do not spend a significant amount of time at any single Website. Instead, they read a brief topic and move onto the next.

Similarly, one of the challenges of learning online is how to packagethe material in units that are sufficiently small so that they can holdlearners’ attention for the entire length of the learning unit. Althoughthe attention span for any set of material will vary by learner, bytopic, and by learner motivation to learn the topic, generally learners prefer shorter topics (less than 10 minutes).

By keeping learning units brief, learners can better use the materialfor reference at a later time (if that’s an issue). Also, learners havedifficulty searching long units to find information of interest.

The Gifts That Keep on Giving. Re-use refers to the practice of taking content developed for one purpose and using it for another purpose. In some cases, you can use the information “as is,” with no

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Wizards Online “agents” that automatically perform atask for users, only prompting users when theymust make a decision. The wizard literally stepsusers through the decisions one at a time, andtells users when they have finished the task. Awizard lets users perform a task without under-standing that task.

For example, Microsoft Word uses wizards tohelp users quickly prepare common forms ofbusiness correspondence and presentations.

changes. In others, you must make changes. Using a set of informa-tion as course material in one instance and as reference material inanother is an example of re-use.

Three factors limit the re-use of learning content:

1. The first is your imagination. The possibilities are limited only by your ability to picture the new application. For example,organizations have re-used information in these ways:

• Using learning material as user’s guides or references.

• Using materials designed for one course in another course.

• Adapting materials designed for one audience for use withanother audience. For example, an organization mightdevelop a telephone etiquette course for the customer servicerepresentatives of a flower shop, and then create a similarcourse for the customer service representatives for an airlinereservations unit.

• Adapting materials designed in one medium for another. For example, how often has a best-selling book been recordedas a book on tape?

2. The second is the law. You can only re-use information if youown the copyright or have received permission from the person ororganization who owns it. In principle, this seems clear enough.In practice, this becomes a problem because nearly all softwareprograms let users cut and paste material from one place toanother—even copyrighted material. Our ability to use the material exceeds our effort in securing the rights.

One area that presents special difficulties for designers of onlinelearning programs is clip art. Although clip art—as well as clipphotos, sound clips, video clips, and animation clips—isintended to be cut from one program and used in another, manypublishers intend for the clip art to be used only in personaldocuments or documents that are distributed among a smallgroup of people.


Because learning materials have a large distribution, you mustoften obtain special rights to use clip art. When in doubt, contactthe publisher of the clip art.

3. The last is technology. The original materials must be technicallycompatible with the technology used to publish the new materials.For example, if the original materials are produced in a propri-etary authoring system, you might not be able to easily adapt thematerials for a Web site.

The next section explores how real organizations have responded todesign challenges in e-learning.

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A Case Study in Needs Analysis

Background: In Joseph’s company, no employees are allowed ontothe production line until they have completed the technical trainingportion of the new-employee orientation course. The course isoffered only once a month in a classroom. With a major hiring spurtgoing on, the company cannot afford to limit training to once amonth, but it does not have the instructors available to offer it morefrequently. The company wants to convert the course to one that canbe taken online, but it has no experience with online learning.

Issues Assessed in the Analysis:

• Access to computers

• Workplace distractions

• Previous experience with online learning that people might havefrom previous jobs

• Budget and schedule

• Quality

• Technology infrastructure


Information Learned: Online learning is definitely feasible, froma technical viewpoint. Seventy percent of the workers have com-puters at their desktop. Many work in a “bull-pen” atmosphere,however, and are distracted by ambient sounds. Ambient soundsfrom the computer would a let distract others.

The other 30 percent of the workers do not have access to comput-ers in their workplace. Some sort of room for online learning willneed to be created to accommodate them, but management under-stands that this is a necessary expense.

The company has no experience with online learning, but somemembers of the training staff have worked with it in previous jobs.Also, management has funds available to hire people with exten-sive experience developing online learning.

The company expectation is that the course will teach the samematerial as the classroom course, but do so in less time and be available at any time. More than anything, availability is the areawith the highest level of expectation, because the classroom coursehas such limited availability.

The company has a firm deadline; it intends to complete the projectwithin eight months, but its relative budget is in the TGI Friday’srange.

The company is in the process of upgrading its intranet, andwithin the next 12 months, it will be replacing all PCs to meet anew minimum configuration. The new configuration is based onthe Pentium VI processor, and includes PCs with DVD drives andsound cards.

Conclusions: The project must include construction costs for learn-ing stations that will be used by learners who do not have access toPCs at their desks.

To assure management that learning has occurred, testing will beimportant, as will record keeping to provide documentation that learners completed the course.

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A Case Study of an Online Community of Practice

Purpose: To provide pediatricians around the world with an oppor-tunity to get advice on treating patients at any time of the day. Alsoprovide pediatricians with an opportunity to learn about currentissues in pediatric care.

Challenges: No technical staff; the founders of the service werepediatricians who did not have significant technical experiencewith PCs.

In parts of the world, access to PCs is limited and the equipment isolder and has limited capabilities.

Brief Description of the Design: The International Pediatric Chat,created by pediatrician Julius Edlavitch, became a site on the WorldWide Web in the late 1990s. This online “community of practice” is anexample of knowledge management. The site has three components:

• Ongoing real-time chats. Because the Webmasters could notassume that users have access to specialized software or the ability to easily download plug-ins, they created a feature called“Instant Chat” that lets users join the chat without purchasing ordownloading software.

• Scheduled educational sessions. The Webmasters scheduleweekly learning sessions online. Working with several universi-ties, the Webmasters arrange for each to provide lecturersaccording to a schedule. In advance of the lecture, lecturers postguiding questions on the Web site. One of the Webmasters indi-cated that by presenting the guiding questions as multiple-choicequestions, the interactive discussion has more focus and morepeople tend to participate.

• Community building material. Because the pediatricians whoparticipate in the chat do not have access to one another in per-son, the Webmasters provided an area where pediatricians canpost their biographies and their photographs, as well as contactinformation so participants can get to know one another and


contact each other outside of the chats. When traveling, some ofthe pediatricians contact colleagues from the Web site and meetthem in person, facilitating further exchange.

Want more information? Check the Web site at www.pedschat.org.

A Case Study of a Simulation Learning Experience

Purpose: To teach equal-opportunity lending policies and proce-dures. The law requires banks to take special measures to makesure that members of certain minority groups have equal access toloans. (In the past, some people have been denied loans because oftheir ethnic or racial backgrounds.) The policies themselves aresomewhat dry, but the implementation of those policies is ripe withchallenges for the typical loan officer.

Challenges:

• Reduce the amount of time needed to teach the course.

• Provide consistent training for over 1,000 loan officers in the bank.

• Make sure that participants not only understand the policies andlaws, but appropriately implement them in practice.

The project has a large budget, and the designers can use interac-tive video and similar media.

Design: Rather than create an electronic page turner, the designerscreated a simulation of a typical bank loan officer’s work environ-ment, and used experiential learning to uncover the learning points.The course is an electronic-gaming simulation in which the learner“works” as a loan officer whose goal is to see six clients during thecourse and earn a set commission.

Depending on how they apply equal opportunity lending proce-dures, learners might extend a loan to an unworthy applicant or failto give a loan to a worthy candidate.

Developing the Components

A basic online learning program provides the graphics and text of acourse, exercises and testing, and record keeping such as recordingtest scores and bookmarks (an indicator of the place where a learnerinterrupted an online learning program so that the learner can resumestudies at the bookmarked point).

A more complex program includes animations, simulations, audiosequences, video sequences, and links to material on a corporate

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To determine worthiness, the learner “interviews” the applicants.Both appear as characters in an interactive video sequence. Some ofthe questions are appropriate, but some are not. If the learner asks aninappropriate question, a lawyer later appears to provide feedback.

Similarly, if the learner fails to ask questions that should be asked,he or she receives feedback on that.

A Case Study of Advanced Professional Training

Purpose: To provide professionals with an opportunity to developtheir skills in handling emerging concepts and technologies, suchas usability testing, calculating return on investment, and tech-niques for synchronous learning.

Challenges: Many professionals do not have travel budgets andhave only limited work time to attend a seminar.

Design: Using the concept of Webinars, bring the sessions to thelearners. Many professional societies are scheduling ongoing pro-fessional training sessions that use synchronous learning technolo-gies. They invite an expert to address a topic for 90 minutes andprovide participants with an opportunity to enroll at a reasonablecost. Some organizations offer these programs monthly; othersoffer them weekly.

intranet or the World Wide Web. These programs also exchange infor-mation with corporate education records.

Skills Needed

Rarely does a single person have all the skills needed to produce a basic program, much less a complex one. Most online learningprojects involve a team of people who possess some or all of thefollowing skills. (The exact skills needed will depend on the pro-gram in production.)


Role Responsibilities

Project

manager

Acts like a general contractor for the project—determining which skills are needed, hiringteam members, tracking and reporting progress,making sure that team members adhere todesigns and guidelines, and making sure that the project is completed on time and withinbudget.

Instructional

designer

Acts as the architect of the project. Defines theproblem and develops a blueprint for a solution (an online learning program or a seriesof related programs) that is sufficiently com-plete so that others can develop the program.

Writer or

information

developer

Writes the text of the online program. Whenneeded, expands upon the design provided bythe instructional designer.

Graphic

designer

Prepares the visual designs for the course(including its look and feel) and specific graphics within the course. Also assists withpreparing animated sequences.

(continued)

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Programmer Prepares the interactive sequences of the coursethat cannot be prepared with the authoring tool.For example, with most authoring tools, peoplewho are not programmers can write and program multiple-choice questions, but cannotprepare a simulation of complex software.

Human

factors or

usability

engineer

Reviews the designs of online programs to identify possible barriers to use by the intendedaudience, and coordinates tests of the usability(ease with which typical learners can take thecourse).

Editor Reviews the entire online learning program forconsistency and adherence to guidelines, and provides any directions needed in final prepara-tion of the course.

Tester Reviews the entire program to make sure that itoperates properly and does not cause problemswhen running with other programs. For exam-ple, the tester makes sure that each link identi-fied in the course actually works.

Video

production

team

Produces video sequences. The team includesthe director, actors, lighting specialist, and otherequipment specialists.

Audio

production

team

Produces audio sequences. The team includesthe sound engineer and narrator (also called“voice talent”).

Subject matter

experts

(SMEs)

Assist with choosing content for an online learning program, and review the content foraccuracy.

Executive

sponsor

Initiates the request for the online learning program and has ultimate financial liability forits success.

Individuals in any of these roles need to develop specific skills ineach of the three areas of online learning: the contexts of learning, thetechnology of learning, and project issues. To determine more specifi-cally the skills you need to develop them, see the section DevelopingYour Skills.

Developing Your Skills

One of the challenges of online learning is figuring out what you needto know about it. There are three main components to online learning:

• Learning goals (such as performance support and training)

• Technology (such as authoring systems)

• Project details (such as online course design and course adminis-tration)

This section explores the level of skill you might need in each ofthese areas. It covers these task steps:

1. Identify your job role.

2. Classify the possible levels of skill in each of the three mainareas.

3. Determine the level of skill that you need.


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Step 1: Identify your job role.

Although few jobs in online learning are identical to one another,they tend to fall into these general categories:

Manager The manager typically assumes one or all ofthese responsibilities:

• Oversees the development of online learning materials within schedule and budget.

• Develops an overall strategy for online learning.

• Purchases services and products for onlinelearning.

• Makes sure that workers actually benefit fromonline learning.

Course

developer

(programmer)

The course developer assumes these technical responsibilities of online learning:

• Chooses appropriate technologies for onlinelearning.

• Integrates online learning into the existingtechnology infrastructure of an organization.

• Produces online learning programs that runwithout errors.

Instructional

(course)

designer

This individual designs and writes the learningmaterials to meet the learning objectives, anduses the available authoring resources.

Instructor The instructor teaches and develops courses that make use of interactive conferencing technologies and video.


Step 2: Classify the possible levels of skill in each of the

three main areas.

Level Description

A Can recognize the name of the skill or product andexplain what it means or does. For example, when con-fronted with the term authoring system, a person with aLevel A skill can explain that it is software used todevelop courses.

B Can define the key features of the concept and explainwhen to use it. For example, a person at Level B of askill can explain the key features of authoring systems(such as answer analysis and branching) and explain thatauthoring systems should be used when the course devel-opers have limited programming experience.

C Has used or applied the concept. For example, a personat Level C of a skill has used one or more authoring sys-tems to create a course.

D Is a power user of the concept, often assisting others. Forexample, a person at Level D of a skill has installed andcustomized an authoring system and has perhaps taughtanother person to use it.

E Can address challenges with the concept that are not doc-umented. In other words, a person at Level E of skillwith authoring systems might be able to solve a problemthat is not discussed in the troubleshooting guide.

Step 4: Use this information to choose learning

experiences.

Using these guidelines, you can choose readings, sessions atconferences, and organizations that help you develop or maintainskills at an appropriate level.

For example, suppose you are a course developer. Our charts rec-ommend that you have Level D or Level E skills in developingtechnical issues. But suppose your organization is considering desk-top videoconferencing, and you have only Level B of skill; youhave not actually used this technology. You might choose trainingthat helps you develop Level C and perhaps Level D skills.

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Step 3: Determine the level of skill that you need.

What follows are generic recommendations for skill level, based onyour role in the development of online learning. Only you know theactual level of skill needed to succeed in your particular job.

Manager Course

Designer

Course

Developer

Instructor

Learning goals B or C D or E B or C D or E

Development

technology B C or D D or E C

Delivery

technologyB B or C C or D C or D

Teaching

techniquesC D or E C D or E

Course

managementC or D B or C C C

Maintenance C or D C or D C C

Marketing D C or D B C

Step 4: (continued)

Similarly, suppose you are a course designer and need to developLevel D or Level E skills in learning goals. You have designed onlyclassroom training courses and are not familiar with development ofonline learning programs that support other types of learning goals.You might consider participating in developmental sessions thatincrease your knowledge of the learning goals of performancesupport, knowledge management, and online collaboration.

Managing the Process

Managing an online learning project is much like conducting a sym-phony. It involves a diverse set of skills and a large group of peoplewhose work must be deftly coordinated if the result is to be in perfectharmony. Some of the most important issues involved in coordinatingsuch a large project include the following:


Scheduling

enough time

You must estimate the time needed to developan online learning program separately for eachproject, but these are broad estimating guide-lines that can help you make sure that yourestimates are in an appropriate range.

• Synchronous: 40–80 hours of developmentfor a finished hour of instruction.

Note: A finished hour of instruction refers tofinal, approved content. Note: The hoursreflect the time invested by all team profession-als, not just the course designer or developer.

• Asynchronous: 225–450 hours of develop-ment for a finished hour (depends onmedia used: the more multimedia, themore development hours).

• If this is a first project, add as much as 50percent to these estimates as learning time.

(continued)

Producing the Learning Program

Producing the learning program involves preparing its diverse compo-nents for duplication and distribution. The exact activities vary,depending on the types of components in the learning program andthe way in which they’ll be distributed to learners. Here is a sampleof activities:

1. Final copyediting of text. Copyediting involves identifying andcorrecting misspellings and variations from the agreed-upon edi-torial style. Variations usually affect the designation of headings,the labels on tables and figures, and consistency in terminology.Because copyediting should be done only on approved text, nomajor rewrites should be done during copyediting.

2. Conversion of word processing files to another format. Peopleusually prepare scripts for online learning programs in a commonword processor, such as Microsoft Word or Lotus WordPro, andthen convert them to the HTML, ToolBook, or another authoringtool during the production phase.

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Scheduling

people when you

need them

An online learning project involves manyskills, but they will not all be needed at thesame time. For example, a video productionteam is not needed on a full-time basis untilafter the writer completes the script; thewriter is not needed full-time during produc-tion. One important part of developing anonline learning project is making sure that theright skills are available when they’re needed.

Communicating Different people will be working on a projectat different times (and, perhaps, in differentplaces). The challenge is to communicate thestatus of a project and decisions made aboutits guidelines so that people have the infor-mation they need to do their jobs when theyneed that information.

3. Preparation of graphics. During production, graphic artists pre-pare the icons, illustrations, and other graphics described in thedesign and development phases.

4. Photography. Photos that have been indicated but have not beentaken or selected from stock photos would be chosen, scannedinto the system, retouched, and inserted into the appropriate placein the learning program (if used in your program).

5. Videography. Directors will prepare for, shoot, and edit videosequences, and then prepare them in a digital format that can beintegrated into the learning program (if used in your program).

6. Audio recording. Sound engineers record and edit the sound, and then prepare it in a digital format that can be integrated intothe learning program (if used in your program).

7. Programming. Sometimes, groups save complex programmingsequences (such as simulations and complex questions) for theproduction phase.

8. Integration. All of the components are brought together into asingle program. For example, if the online learning programincludes video, graphics, and text, a single program containingthe text and graphics that links to the video would be preparedduring the production phase.

9. Preparation of golden code. “Golden code” is the final versionof the learning program that has been tested. (See the next sectionfor more information about testing.) If the software is intended tobe duplicated on CDs or DVDs, the golden code is copied onto amaster disk.

10. Duplication. If the learning program is going to be distributed onCDs or DVDs, then the programming is copied from the masterdisk onto the disks (a process called pressing a CD). Labels andcovers are also produced at this time.

If the learning program is going to be published on the Internet, itis loaded onto the servers at this time.


Testing the Components

Learners must generally be able to use and understand the onlinelearning programs without outside assistance. The developmentprocess thus must include several tests to ensure the quality of thefinished product. Four types of tests should be included:

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Usability tests These tests assess the ability of learners to findand understand material without assistance, aswell as their speed in doing so.

Assurance

(functional)

tests

These tests assess whether the programmingworks as intended. For example, during anassurance test, testers would check each of thelinks and menu options to make sure that thematerial that appears is the material describedby the icon or link. They try each response tomultiple choice questions to make sure that theappropriate response appears, and see how thematerial looks on different hardware and, ifappropriate, under different browsers.

Component

tests

These tests assess whether the online learningprogram inadvertently causes operational prob-lems with other programs that run at the sametime. Such tests are only necessary if the onlinelearning program is part of a larger program.For example, if the online learning program is awizard that runs in a hotel reservation program,the component test would determine whetherrunning the wizard will cause a problem to anyother part of the reservation program.

Load tests These tests assess the number of people who can use the learning program at the sametime, without problems occurring. Load testsare only performed with courses that run on the Internet.

Organizations usually look for people outside the regular developmentteam to conduct tests. Because these people have not played a centralrole in the day-to-day activities of designing or developing the onlinelearning program, they are less likely to overlook key issues.

Maintaining and Supporting the Online

Learning Program

Managing the distribution, use, and maintenance of an online learningprogram is different than managing classroom courses. The generalissues are the same, but the specific issues differ. These issues pertain to

• Distributing and marketing the learning program.

• Supporting the learning program.

• Maintaining the learning program.

• Evaluating the learning program.

Distributing and Marketing the Learning Program

Organizations that host classroom courses must publish coursecatalogs, schedule classrooms, and provide enrollment services.Organizations that sponsor online learning programs must alsoprovide these or comparable services. Specifically, consider these issues:

Promoting the Availability of Courses

Online learning programs require no travel plans and have a limitedimpact on schedules, so they are somewhat invisible. Promotingcourses is more than simply announcing the availability of new ones—it must be an ongoing promotion effort. Organizations produceregularly published catalogs, occasional notices, and displays to promote their courses.


Record Keeping

Participants in online learning are entitled to credit for their learning,just like participants in classroom courses, and the technology is bestat tracking online courses.

Most learning-management systems let you track student progress ina course and indicate completion. At the least, learning managementsystems track individual student progress, record scores of quizzesand tests within an online learning program, and track course comple-tions. At the most, learning management systems transfer this infor-mation to other record management software, such as PeopleSoft, sothat permanent educational records reflect progress in online learning.

Crediting learners who participate in informal programs, such asonline knowledge management and performance support, is nearlyimpossible. The most common ways of tracking participation in theseefforts is through employee appraisals. For example, one major con-sulting firm evaluates its employees on whether or not they have con-tributed to the company’s knowledge base.

Supporting the Learning Program

Many online learning programs are intended to be run by users with-out assistance, but they will need assistance on occasion. Assistanceusually falls into one of these categories:

• Technical assistance, which refers to the smooth running of thecourse. Sometimes the software does not operate as intended,sometimes links or related software do not work, and sometimeslearners do not properly follow instructions for using the onlinelearning program. Technical assistance helps learners with theseissues. Most organizations have a help desk that provides technical assistance.

• Content assistance, which refers to questions and issues withthe content. For example, learners might not understand passages or might seek out enrichment. E-coaching addresses

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this issue. An e-coach is a tutor for an asynchronous online learn-ing program who is available by e-mail, online chat, or telephone.

• Recognition, which refers to a manager’s awareness that alearner has completed a program and his or her informing the learner of this completion of the program. Online learning is anonymous, so many learners will not complete courses thatshould be completed so in addition to maintaining records aboutparticipation and completion, keep learners’ managementinformed about their employees’ progress with online coursesand ask managers to mention this in person to employees. Thispersonal recognition motivates learners.

Maintaining the Learning Program

Many people enthusiastically report the launch of online learningprograms, but few enthusiastically report that they have maintainedthem. Maintaining online learning programs is an ongoing task; as the technical content changes, so the learning content must change.

Making the change can be simple or complex, depending on itsnature. Most text changes are relatively simple. Changes that affectgraphics and programming (such as the addition of new topics) aremore time-consuming. Changes that affect video and audio sequencesrequire you to re-tape the original and are relatively time-consumingand expensive.

The management techniques described in the following sections sug-gest how to manage this revision process.

Schedule Maintenance

Online publishing seems instant (especially for courses distributed onthe World Wide Web and other networks), so some people will feel thatchanges can be made whenever they are needed, even daily. Thisbecomes unmanageable, especially when the course development teamhas moved onto other projects.


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If they plan for maintenance, course development teams can providetimely service without the maintenance tasks becoming unmanage-able or interfering with other work.

Classify the Scope of Change

The extent of the work effort can be assessed if you classify thescope. Maintenance work generally falls into one of these categories:

• Minor revisions. Pieces of technical information are changed butthe online learning program structure remains intact. Minorchanges are almost exclusively in the text or graphics.

• Major revisions. New sections can be added and changes can bemade to technical information elsewhere in the course. The gen-eral structure of the online learning program remains the same,with the exception of the new sections.

• Overhaul. The entire structure of the online learning program ischanged. The look and feel of the program might also bechanged.

Distributing the changes also poses challenges. If the course is distributed over a network such as the World Wide Web, distribu-tion is relatively instant. If the course is distributed on disks, these must be updated, duplicated, and sent to each participatinggroup.

If the extent or impact of the changes warrants it, an announcementshould be made that the course has been updated.

Design for Easy Maintenance

If you take certain measures when you first develop a course, you canmore easily find and update material and make sure that new materialmatches the look and feel of existing content.

• Develop templates for common types of information, such as

procedures and reference entries. In this way, entering new sec-tions becomes a fill-in-the-blank exercise, and minimizing incon-sistencies in style and format among similar types of material.

• Use an easy-to-decode method of naming files. The namingsystem should be documented so that people do not need to relyon instinct to decode it.

For example, if files were named Gloria 1 and Saul 2, otherswould have difficulty figuring out where to find the informationon Web technology that will need to be updated. If they are namedIV-A-1, other people might be able to determine that the file con-tains the material in section IV, topic A, subtopic 1. They canmatch that against the content to determine which file to update.

• Document unusual programming. Many complex learning programs require specialized programming, but without documen-tation, even bright programmers have difficulty understandingwhat the programmer was trying to accomplish and how he or she did it. Documenting the programming (usually written ascomments inside the program) helps others decode the mystery.

Evaluating the Learning Program

The Kirkpatrick model of evaluation is used as a framework for evaluating other types of courses, and it can serve as a framework forevaluating formal online courses. For those of you who are unfamiliarwith it, a summary of the Kirkpatrick model follows in this section.

Tracking some of the measures is more difficult than in the class-room; tracking others is easier. The following chart explains howtechnology can be used to help collect and compile evaluations ofonline learning programs according to the Kirkpatrick model.


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Evaluation

LevelIssues in Tracking this Measure Online

Level I:

Reaction

In a classroom, instructors usually request thatstudents complete an evaluation form beforeleaving the room. Getting that information fromstudents in a self-study online program is moredifficult. Forms can be included in Web-basedprograms and learners can be asked to completethe form before they leave the course. For programs distributed on CD-ROM and diskette,students must make a special effort to completethe survey. They must either print it out andmail it, or cut and paste it into an e-mail message.

Also, rather than tracking “donuts and coffee”issues (that is, issues about the classroom experience), the survey should address bits andbytes issues—issues about the online learningexperience. These questions might address

• The ease of finding information online.

• The clarity of information.

• The speed at which learners believe theylearned.

• Perceived learning (that is, how well learnersfelt they knew the material before taking thecourse and afterward).

Level II:

Learning

The learning management components of mostauthoring tools let you include tests withincourses, and record and report their scores. One exception is the software for managingonline teleconferences. Although many of these

(continued)

But not all online learning is formal. In those cases, the conditions do not exist to measure according to this methodology. No formalmethodology is available for evaluating informal learning, but the following data provide some insight into its effectiveness:

• Learner-satisfaction surveys

• Number of visits to sites with learning materials

• Number of completed units or courses

• Feedback from learners


Level II:

Learning

(concluded)

programs allow instructors to include test ques-tions, the results are often reported in aggregate(that is, something like 66 percent of studentsresponded A, while 34 percent responded B), asopposed to individual record keeping.

Level III:

Transfer of

behavior

Push technology—software that sends timelyinformation to users—simplifies some of theeffort in administering Level III evaluations. Iflearners have e-mail capability, the system canautomatically send them follow-up surveys, tests,and other materials at a pre-determined time.

Other types of technologies also assist in collecting transfer data. If most of the skills tobe tracked are performed with a computer, youcan monitor the way that learners perform tasksonline to assess how they are performing thesetasks and whether they are applying the skillstaught in the online learning program.

Level IV:

Impact

Because issues with the methodology for con-ducting this type of evaluation, the use of tech-nology to assist with Level IV evaluations arebeyond the scope of this book.

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Evaluation

Level

Name Issues Assessed at this Level

I Reaction Assesses participants’ initial reactions

to a course. This, in turn, offers insights

into participants’ satisfaction with a

course, a perception of value. Trainers

usually assess this through a survey,

often called a “smile sheet.” Occasionally,

trainers use focus groups and similar

methods to receive more-specific com-

ments (called qualitative feedback) on

the courses. According to TRAINING

Magazine’s annual industry survey, almost

100 percent of all trainers perform “Level

I” evaluations.

II Learning Assesses the amount of information that

participants learned. Trainers usually assess

this with a criterion-referenced test. The

criteria are objectives for the course: state-

ments developed before a course is devel-

oped and that explicitly state the skills that

participants should be able to perform after

taking a course. Because the objectives are

the requirements for the course, a Level II

evaluation assesses conformance to require-

ments or quality.

(continued)

The Kirkpatrick Model: A Summary

Donald Kirkpatrick first proposed this four-pronged approach toevaluating training programs in his 1959 doctoral dissertation.

Since then, it has become so widely used that trainers can typicallytalk about it in shorthand. For example, when one trainer says toanother, “What are you doing about Level IV?” the other knowsthat the first trainer wants to understand how the second evaluatesthe impact of training. Here is a summary of the model:


III Transfer Assesses the amount of material thatparticipants actually use in everydaywork, six weeks to six months (perhapslonger) after taking the course. Thisassessment is based on the objectives of the course and assessed through tests,observations, surveys, and interviewswith co-workers and supervisors. Like the Level II evaluation, Level IIIassesses the requirements of the courseand can be viewed as a follow-upassessment of quality.

IV Impact Assesses the financial impact of thetraining course on the bottom line of theorganization six months to two yearsafter the course (the actual time varies,depending on the context of the course).

For many reasons, Level IV is the mostdifficult level to measure. First, mosttraining courses do not have explicitlywritten business objectives, such as“This course should reduce supportexpenses by 20 percent.” Second, themethodology for assessing businessimpact is not yet refined. Some assessthis measurement by tracking businessmeasurements, others assess by observa-tions, some by surveys, and still others assess by qualitative measures.Last, after six months or more, evalua-tors have difficulty solely attributingchanged business results to trainingwhen changes in personnel, systems,and other factors might also have contributed to business performance.

Purchasing Software and Services

The technology is complex, and it often requires skills not availablein-house; this is why most organizations purchase products and services to assist with some or all of their online learning programs.The following section addresses what you should consider when purchasing products and services for online learning.

Types of Services Purchased

Specifically, organizations seek outside assistance with the following:

• Products

— Software for developing courses. Most of these products can bepurchased off-the-shelf, but might require some customizationso that the courses look and work exactly as you would like todesign them.

— Off-the-shelf courses. So that limited resources can bedirected at developing proprietary material, you might buygeneral courses off-the-shelf.

— Learning management software. Most experts agree that this is usually the most-complex software purchase for online learning because it must be able to meet your needs,exchange information with your human resource informationsystem (and other systems, if needed), and work with all youronline courses.

• Services

— Developing an online learning strategy. If you do not feelcomfortable doing this, you might hire a consultant to walkyou through the education process and assist you with developing a strategy for moving material online.

Chapter 4 157

— Implementing learning management. As mentioned earlier,learning management systems are probably the most complexpurchase made for online learning, so you might hire outsideprofessionals to help install, customize, and support these systems.

— Designing and developing courses. Online courses requiredifferent instructional design skills that might be available in-house, so you might need to hire experienced professionals to assist you with the first few.

— Hosting courses. As mentioned in the discussion of technol-ogy (Chapter 3), you might not want courses to be availableto people through your systems. In such instances, you “rentspace” from another organization.

Issues to Consider When Purchasing

When purchasing products and services for online learning, considerthe following:

• Before making any purchase, take the time to learn what onlinelearning is. Take a sample course (just one or two), and acquaintyourself with the terminology. The more knowledgeable you are,the better your purchases will match your needs.

• Include your Information Systems (I/S) department in any software-related purchase. They can provide you with unbiasedtechnical advice and make you aware of corporate technologyissues that might affect your purchase.

• When purchasing development software, make sure that it pro-duces files in standard formats. By using standard formats, thematerial can be easily exchanged with other systems, and ifneeded, you can update the files with other software.

• When writing requests for proposals (RFPs) for learning manage-ment software, make sure that the services you request are those you


really need. Many organizations that are new to online learning usetemplates provided by outside sources when writing their RFPs. Theresult is unnecessary cost for you, and confusion for your vendors.

• When purchasing professional services, hire them in much thesame way that you would hire an employee. Check out their references. Ask to see a portfolio. Most of all, make sure that thecontractor or organization can work well with the rest of yourstaff.

To Learn More About Online Program Development

To learn more about what is involved in developing and deliveringonline learning, visit the Web site of the online version of this book at www.vnulearning.com/wp/4-links.htm.

Chapter 4 159

Appendix:

Sample Plans for

Online Courses

To give you an idea of what is involved in designing a course foronline delivery, check out the design plans for modules of two asyn-chronous online courses in this appendix. One course provides trainingto comply with regulations that protect hearing. The other courseteaches sales representatives how to qualify prospects for a new copier.

These examples are provided for illustrative purposes only. The tech-nical content might or might not be accurate.

Note: The design materials are copyrighted by Saul Carliner. Theyare being used with permission.

Example 1: Instructional Design for an Online

Module in a Compliance Training Course

One common place to launch an online e-learning program is todeliver compliance training.

Online learning offers many benefits for this type of training. Thetraining is often required by law, particularly for large numbers ofemployees. Online learning lets organizations train these employeeswithout tying up resources in the training department. Furthermore,laws often require that employees receive refresher training annuallyor bi-annually, even though the content has not significantly changedor changed at all this could drain training department resources ifonline learning were not available. Finally, organizations are required

to keep strict records of who took compliance training and when, andhow they performed. Learning management software lets organiza-tions keep these records with a minimum of effort.

The sample module described in the following plans introducesresponsibilities for hearing protection in the workplace.

Because the training is intended to fulfill legal responsibilities, themodule follows a traditional design.

Objectives

Main objective: Describe the purpose of a hearing protection pro-gram in the workplace.

Supporting objectives: To achieve the main objective, participantsshould be able to

• State the purpose of regulations regarding hearing protection.

• Identify the types of organizations required to comply withhearing protection regulations.

• Name the three groups of workers in an organization who haveresponsibilities for ensuring compliance.

• Describe the general plan for ensuring compliance.

• Describe the efforts taken to ensure compliance.

Criterion-Referenced Test

Because online testing works best with objective questions, manycourses rely on this type of question for testing learning. This exam-ple shows one test question for each objective (note that a completeinstructional design might include several questions). The learningmanagement system could randomly generate one of the questions foreach objective to ensure that different learners take different tests.


Objective: State the purpose of regulations regarding hearingprotection.

1. Which of the following statements best describes the purpose ofregulations for hearing protection in the workplace?

a. Because the law requires it.

b. Because workers could lose some or all of their hearing as aresult of prolonged exposure to noises in the workplace above80 decibels.

c. Because companies are liable for damages caused by hearinglosses that result from employees’ exposure to dangerouslyloud noise levels in the workplace.

Responses:

b. Correct.

a. Not correct. The law does require hearing protection programs in certain instances. The question already assumes this.

c. Not correct. Organizations are liable for hearing losses, but they are primarily responsible for those arising from prolonged exposure—the type of exposure that the regula-tions attempt to address.

Note: The objective uses the term state. Because of the chal-lenges in analyzing essay responses, the objective was tested witha multiple-choice question. Some instructional designers wouldchange the wording of the objective to match the criterion in thequestion.

2. Of the following, which types of organizations are required tocomply with hearing protection regulations? Choose one.

a. All workplaces located at airports and construction sites,because of the loud noise.

Appendix 163

b. Any workplace that exposes workers to sound exceeding 60 decibels in the course of their job.

c. A and b.

Note: Responses are not provided in these design plans forquestions 2–5, but normally would be provided.

3. From the following list, choose the groups of workers in anorganization who have responsibilities for ensuring compliancewith hearing protection laws (choose all that apply):

a. Senior management.

b. Supervisors in departments covered by the regulations.

c. Employees in departments covered by the regulations.

d. Human resources.

e. Corporate health and safety departments.

4. Describe the general plan for ensuring compliance by moving thefollowing items into proper sequence, starting at step one.

• Conduct annual hearing test.

• Conduct pre-work hearing test.

• Conduct employee training.

• Develop a plan for compliance.

• Conduct management training.

• Report results to workers.

• Report results to Environmental Protection Agency.


5. From the following list, note all of the things the company doesto comply with regulations to protect hearing in the workplace:

a. Providing training to managers and workers on hearing protection.

b. Requiring that all workers wear hearing protection in noisyareas.

c. Fining managers whose employees do not use hearing protection.

d. Conducting annual hearing examinations.

e. Reporting results of hearing examinations to the EPA.

Appendix 165

Screen 1-23


Title

Objective: Title screen

Text: Overview of Measuresto Protect Hearing in theWorkplace

Also include the followingadministrative information:

• One-paragraph description(with the heading “Aboutthis Lesson”)

Visual: Picture of a man and aloud machine.

(continued)


• Intended audience (withthe heading “Who ShouldTake this Lesson”)

• Objectives (with the heading “What YouShould Learn”)

• Estimated length of the lesson (with the heading“Length”)



• Use “opening screen” template.

• Keep content to one frame.

• At the top, use the navigation bar to visually indicate that this isthe first screen. One possibility is to use 10 circles, making eachcircle “hot” (so that learners can quickly move among screens ina lesson if they know which screen they want), and highlightingthe circle indicating that this is the first screen.


• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (second circlegoes to screen 2, third circle goes to screen 3, etc.), “hot” tofacilitate linking, except for the first (this screen).

• Use the standard links for Glossary (to glossary), Help (to helpfile), Exit (takes learner to exit screen), Menu (takes learner tomenu of lessons in this course), < (back one screen), and >(forward one screen).

• Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.


• Prepare the text so that it looks like a letter.• Get senior vice-president’s portrait in a JPG format. • Increment the progress bar of circles at the top of the screen by 1.


• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, third circle goes to screen 3, etc.), “hot” to facilitatelinking, except for the second (this screen).


Appendix 167

Screen 2-23


Title

Objective: Motivationalscreen

Text: Letter explaining theimportance of preservinghearing; mention that thecompany is committed to thisprogram. Draft bullet pointsfor the Senior VP, but let herwrite the actual text of the let-ter so it reflects her voice.

Visuals:

• Letter from the seniorvice-president of opera-tions stating the impor-tance of hearing protection

• At the top of the letter, aphotograph of the seniorvice-president

• At the end of the letter, thesignature of the seniorvice-president



• Photographs of workers in uniform on an airfield and in atrucking center. Check with site communications before takingnew photographs.



Screen 3-23


Title

Objective: Identify the types oforganizations required to com-ply with hearing protectionregulations.

Text: State that any organizationthat exposes workers to 60 deci-bels or more of noise as part oftheir work must be included(only those departments wherethis actually happens). In ourcompany, this includes thedepartment at the airport and inthe trucking center.

Visual: Pictures of our work-ers in uniform on the airfieldand in a trucking center.



• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitatelinking, except for the third (this screen).



Appendix 169

Screen 4-23


Title

Objective: Name the three groups of workers in an organizationwho have responsibilities for ensuring compliance.

Text: Explain how each of the following groups plays a role inprotecting hearing in the workplace.

• Management: Identifying noisy work areas, providing train-ing for employees, ensuring compliance with regulations.

• Health and safety: Making sure that noisy areas are meas-ured and regularly checked, providing effective equipment,providing audio tests once a year to make sure that hearinghas not been affected by exposure.

• Workers: Wearing hearing protection. Notifying manage-ment when risks occur.

Visual: Circles, each with an image inside of it (one of manage-ment, one of workers, one of health and safety staff)



• Prepare shaded line drawing of the three different groups—management, workers, and health and safety—each working withhearing protection equipment in an appropriate way (managementgiving to workers, health and safety conducting hearing tests,workers wearing the equipment).



• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitatelinking, except for the fourth (this screen).



Screen 5-23


Title

Objective: Describe the generalplan for ensuring compliance.

Text: Present this as an illustrated flowchart, with thefollowing text in the boxes:

• Identify noisy areas.

• Develop a plan for compliance.

Visual: Present as an illus-trated flowchart (that is, eachstep in the process is repre-sented with a visual imageand an arrow to the next step,rather than as shaded boxes).

(continued)


• Prepare a visual flowchart. Rather than merely providing shadedboxes with text inside of them in this flowchart, make each step avisual in its own right. As a suggestion and an example, the firststep might have a picture of someone in an area with an airplane.



• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facili-tate linking, except for the fifth (this screen).


Appendix 171

• Conduct pre-work hearing test.

• Conduct management training.

• Conduct employee trainingabout hearing issues.

• After 12 months, conduct theannual hearing test.

• Report results of hearing teststo workers.

• Resolve any problems identified.

• Begin the process again.



Screen 6-23


Title

Objective: Describe the efforts taken to ensure compliance.

Text: Show a series of icons that users can click on to read more.When users click on the icons, descriptive text appears. Also pro-vide instructions on the screen that tells learners to click on eachicon to see what this item has to do with ensuring compliance.

• Icon—audiometer. When users click it and the pop-upappears, define the term and explain that this is what’s usedto conduct the pre-work and annual hearing tests.

• Icon—calendar. When users click it and the pop-up appears,explain that the tests must be conducted annually to makesure that hearing is not affected.

• Icon—instructor. When users click it and the pop-up appears,explain that training is intended to alert workers to potentialrisks. Advise on ways to avoid them.

• Icon—file folder. When users click it and the pop-up appears,explain that before any work begins, a plan must be devel-oped that includes check-in points to make sure that workersare being properly protected.

• Icon—instructor with manager’s button. When users click itand the pop-up appears, explain that management is behindthe effort and is looking out to protect workers.

• Icon—test report. When users click it and the pop-up appears,explain that workers will receive the results of their tests, andif they indicate that some hearing has been lost, issues will bediscussed to prevent further loss.

(continued)


• Prepare the following icons:

— Audiometer.

— Calendar.

— Instructor.

— File folder.

— Instructor with manager’s button.

— Test report.

— EPA logo.


Appendix 173

• Icon—EPA logo. When users click it and the pop-up appears,explain that the EPA occasionally checks the company tomake sure that it complies with regulations.

Visuals: Prepare the following icons, and make them hot so userscan click on them:

• Audiometer.

• Calendar.

• Instructor.

• File folder.

• Instructor with manager’s button.

• Test report.

• EPA logo.



• Make each of the icons hot, and link to a pop-up:

— Audiometer icon—link to pop-up 6-23-a.

— Calendar icon—link to pop-up 6-23-b.

— Instructor icon—link to pop-up 6-23-c.

— File folder icon—link to pop-up 6-23-d.

— Instructor with manager’s button icon—link to pop-up 6-23-e.

— Test report icon—link to pop-up 6-23-f.

— EPA logo icon—link to pop-up 6-23-g.

• At the bottom of each pop-up, provide instruction to “close window,” and link that instruction to the javascript command toclose a window.

• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facili-tate linking, except for the sixth (this screen).




• Photograph of the employee in JPG format.

• Shading under the text, perhaps a different font for the quote.



• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facili-tate linking, except for the seventh (this screen).


Appendix 175

Screen 7-23


Title

Objective: To describe theefforts taken to ensure compliance.

Text: Show transcript of aninterview with an employeewho talks about involvementin the hearing protection pro-gram.

Visual: Portrait of theemployee who’s quoted onthe screen.

A background behind the textto indicate that it is a quote.



• Photograph of the health and safety specialist quoted, in JPG format.




• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facili-tate linking, except for the eighth (this screen).



Screen 8-23


Title

Objective: To describe theefforts taken to ensurecompliance.

Text: Show transcript of aninterview with a health andsafety specialist who talksabout the importance of par-ticipating in the hearing pro-tection program (and who iswearing hearing protection).

Visual: Portrait of the healthand safety specialist who’squoted on the screen.




• Photograph of the manager quoted in JPG format.




• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facili-tate linking, except for the ninth (this screen).


Appendix 177

Screen 9-23


Title

Objective: Describe the effortstaken to ensure compliance.

Text: Show transcript of aninterview with a manager whotalks about the importance ofthe hearing protection programand his or her commitment tomaking sure that employees’hearing is protected.

Visual: Portrait of the man-ager who’s quoted on thescreen.




• Use template for Summary screen.



• Provide a link to the quiz in the LMS in the center of the screen,immediately below the last line of the summary.

• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facili-tate linking, except for the tenth (this screen).



Screen 10-23


Title

Objective: Summary.

Text: A descriptive summary(that is, naming the key pointsthat learners should remember).

Also, a link to the quiz (whichis in the LMS, not producedas part of this lesson).

No visuals.


Example 2: Instructional Design for an Online

Module in a Product Training Course for a

Sales Force

Another common use of online e-learning is in product training for sales forces. Online learning offers many benefits for this type of training. Some of the most commonly cited benefits include

• Consistency. Everyone on the sales force hears the same messageabout the product, not with variations introduced by different presenters.

• Efficiency. The training is available to all sales representativeson the same day, so they do not need to wait until their sched-ules coincide with an available presentation, thus speeding“time to knowledge” (that is, the time needed to learn the subject).

• More efficiency. Because the materials are self-paced and can betaken at the sales representatives’ convenience, they minimizetime out of the field (time in the field is time that sales represen-tatives can generate revenue).

• Effectiveness. Testing, which is handled online and tracked bylearning management software, lets management know whetherlearners took the course and, if they did, how well they masteredthe material.

The sample module described in the following plans introduces the models of a new copier and suggests how to match the models withthe needs of customers. Notice that it is more interactive than theother sample lesson. Notice that the production and programminginstructions become more elaborate, explaining not only whatappears when users click on parts of the screen, but where the material is stored.

Appendix 179

Also notice that the screens in the module described below use asimilar design to those described in the other sample. This means thatthe same basic design can be used for different course content and isprobably produced for use in the same organization.

Objectives

Main objective: Given characteristics about a particular customer,match that customer with the model of the YZ Copier that best meetsthe customer’s needs.

Supporting objectives: In support of the main objective, learnersshould be able to do the following:

• Name the different models of the YZ Copier.

• Given a model of the YZ Copier, match it with its functions andfeatures.

• Describe the differences among models.

• Given a model of the YZ Copier, state the primary type of customer to whom it is targeted.

Criterion-Referenced Test

1. Over the next three screens, you will be shown three of theseven models of the YZ Copier. Correctly type the name of themodel.

a. Correct answer to Screen 1: Model LS.

b. Correct answer to Screen 2: Model OSX.

c. Correct answer to Screen 3: Model Y.


2. This model of the YZ Copier has the following functions and features: size enlargement and reduction, darkness and brightnesscontrols, automatic collating of up to 10 copies, and 10 MB ofmemory.

a. Model LS.

b. Model GS.

c. Model CS.

3. Choose the statement that best describes the primary differencesamong models.

a. Some are intended for personal use, some are intended forbusiness use.

b. Some are intended for businesses with limited copying needs,some are intended for businesses with extensive copyingneeds.

c. Some are intended for businesses with limited copying needs,some are intended for businesses with moderate copyingneeds.

d. Some are intended for personal use or small businesses, someare intended for corporations.

4. Given a model of the YZ Copier, state the primary type ofcustomer to whom it is targeted.

The Model OSX offers the following features: size enlargementand reduction, darkness and brightness controls, automatic collat-ing of up to 30 copies, four paper sizes, and 30 MB of memory.

Appendix 181

Which of the following customers would be best suited to it?

a. A small shipping business, whose primary copying need is tomake copies of receipts and to prepare monthly audit reportsfor the accountant.

b. A home-based research business, whose copying need is to make copies of large reports for sale to corporatecustomers.

c. A department of a community college, whose primarycopying need is to make copies of handouts to distribute tostudents.

d. The product development department of a medium-sizedmanufacturer, whose primary copying needs are makingcopies of blueprints and other product plans to distribute tothe design and manufacturing staff.


Screen 4-1


Title

Objective: Title screen.

Text: Matching Models withCustomer Needs

Also include the followingadministrative information:

• One-paragraph description(with the heading “Aboutthis Lesson”).

Visual: Photo of the seven models of the YZ Copier, witha sales representative and customer standing over one ofthose models, apparently choosing it over the others.

(continued)


• Use “opening screen” template.

• Keep content to one frame.

• At the top, use the navigation bar to visually indicate that this is the first screen. One possibility is having 10 circles, making eachcircle “hot” (so that learners can quickly move among screens ina lesson if they know which screen they want), and highlightingthe circle indicating that this is the first screen.


• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (second circle goes to screen 2, third circle goes to screen 3, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the first (this screen).



Appendix 183

• Intended audience (withthe heading “Who ShouldTake this Lesson”).

• Objectives (with the heading “What YouShould Learn”).

Estimated length of the lesson (with the heading“Length”).



Photographs of the seven models of the YZ Copier. They are available from Marketing; you should not need to re-take them.


• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, third circle goes to screen 3, etc.), “hot” to facilitate linking, except for the second (this screen).



Screen 4-2


Title

Objective: Name the different models of the YZ Copier.

Text: After an introductory paragraph (no more than 50 words)stating that the YZ Copier has seven models, each intended tomeet the needs of a different consumer with special copyingneeds and budgets, show pictures of the seven models of the YZCopier, with their names and a one-sentence description (max15 words) underneath as a caption.

Visual: Photographs of the seven models of the YZ Copier. Getfrom Marketing.



Photographs of two models of the copier in use in real customeraccounts, with backgrounds of very different office environments. Get from Marketing.


• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facili-tate linking, except for the third (this screen).


Appendix 185

Screen 4-3


Title

Objective: Given a model of the YZ Copier, match it with itsfunctions and features.

Text: Explain that the company markets several models of theYZ Copier, each intended to meet the copying needs of a different type of consumer. To make sure that consumers pur-chase the copier that best meets their needs in the lifetime of theproduct (3–5 years), it is essential that marketing reps becomefamiliar with the functions and features of each model, andappropriately match them with the needs of the customer.

Visual: Photos of two models of the copier in use in real customer accounts.

The backgrounds should be of very different office environments.



Screen 4-4


Title

Objective: Given a model ofthe YZ Copier, match it withits functions and features.

Text: Instruct learners to clickon a model to receive moreinformation.

On the left-hand side, have pictures of the seven modelsof the YZ Copier (along witha caption that has their modelnumber only).

When users click on an image,the following informationshould appear on the right-hand side:

• Repeat the one-sentencedescription of the model.

• Name the kinds ofintended uses.

• State the price range.

• State the copying speed inpages per minute.

• Indicate with a checkmarkwhether it has the followingfeatures (except as noted):

Visuals:

• Images of the seven models(smaller versions of thephotographs on screen 4-2).

• Create charts about eachmodel, as described in theProduction Instructionsbelow.

(continued)


• Photographs of the seven models of the YZ Copier. They areavailable from Marketing; you should not need to re-take them.

• Create a chart that can be used to present material about the models. It might look something like this:

Appendix 187

— Maximum number ofcopies per image (in pages).

— Memory size (in RAM).

— Collating.

— Stapling.

— Copying of double-sidedoriginals.

— Double-sided copying.

— Brightness control.

— Page size control.


Model Name

About the Model Repeat the one-sentence description.

Name the types of

intended uses

List.

State the price range $ XXX–$ X,XXX.

State the copying

speed in pages per

minute

XX pages per minute.

(continued)


• Make all the photos on the left side “hot.” Their captions shouldalso be “hot.”

• Link as follows:

— Photo and caption of the LS Model – link to file LS-Info-4-4.

— Photo and caption of the NS Model – link to file NS-Info-4-4.


Indicate with acheckmark whetherit has the followingfeatures (except asnoted):

(Production note—do not include thisrow).

Maximum num-

ber of copies per

image (in pages)

Memory size

(in RAM)

Collating

Stapling

Copying of

double-sided

originals

Double-sided

copying

Brightness control

Page size control

— Photo and caption of the YS Model – link to file YS-Info-4-4.

— Photo and caption of the CS Model – link to file CS-Info-4-4.

— Photo and caption of the QS Model – link to file QS-Info-4-4.

— Photo and caption of the FS Model – link to file FS-Info-4-4.

— Photo and caption of the GS Model – link to file GS-Info-4-4.

• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitatelinking, except for the fourth (this screen).


Appendix 189

Screen 4-5


Title

Objective: Describe the differences among models.

Text: Explain that the firstthree models are intended forlight copying needs, the nexttwo are intended for mediumcopying needs, and the lasttwo are intended for heavycopying needs. Define light,medium, and heavy in terms ofnumber of copies per day.

Visual: Photos of three models in use in office environments—one thatrequires light copying, one formedium copying, and one forheavy copying.



Photographs of three models in use in office environments—one thatrequires light copying (LS Model), one for medium copying (CSModel), and one for heavy copying (GS Model). Get photos fromMarketing.


• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facilitatelinking, except for the fifth (this screen).



Screen 4-6


Title

Objective: Given a model ofthe YZ Copier, state the primary type of customer towhom it is targeted.

Text: Display an introductoryparagraph saying that the marketing representative’s jobis to match a model with anorganization’s copying needs(not just for now, but for thenext 3–5 years, the anticipatedlife of the copier).

Visuals:

• Images of the seven models (smaller versionsof the photographs onscreen 4-2).

• In the description of themodel that appears in theright-hand column, alsoinclude a photograph ofthe model in an appropri-ate office environment.

(continued)

Appendix 191

On the left-hand side, displaythe same photos of the differ-ent models used on Screen 4-4. Make them and theircaptions “hot.” When usersclick on an image, informationabout the appropriate cus-tomer match appears on theright-hand side.

Specifically, make the following:

• LS Model: Ideal for customers who make occasional copies of asmall number of sheets,primarily for documenta-tion (such as for receipts).

• NS Model: Ideal for customers who make occasional copies of asmall number of sheets, aswell as an occasionalreport.

• YS Model: Ideal for customers who make occasional copies ofreports that do not needheavy collating.

• CS Model: Ideal for customers who have a variety of copying needs,but who do not makemany copies.

• Create charts about eachmodel, as described in theProduction Instructionsbelow.

(continued)


• Photographs of the seven models of the YZ Copier. They areavailable from Marketing; you should not need to re-take them.

• Create a chart that can be used to present material about the models. It might look something like this:


• QS Model: Ideal for customers who have a variety of copying needs,and occasionally need topresent material tocustomers.

• FS Model: Ideal for cus-tomers who make numerouscopies of medium- andlarger-sized reports.

• GS Model: Ideal for cus-tomers who make numerouscopies of medium- andlarger-sized reports, andwho often need to presentmaterial to customers.


Model Name

Intended

customer

Describe the intended customer in a coupleof sentences.

Photograph of the model in an office setting.

Summary of

copying needs

List.


• Make all the photos on the left side “hot.” Their captions shouldalso be “hot.”

• Link as follows:

— Photo and caption of the LS Model – link to file LS-Info-4-6.

— Photo and caption of the NS Model – link to file NS-Info-4-6.

— Photo and caption of the YS Model – link to file YS-Info-4-6.

— Photo and caption of the CS Model – link to file CS-Info-4-6.

— Photo and caption of the QS Model – link to file QS-Info-4-6.

— Photo and caption of the FS Model – link to file FS-Info-4-6.

— Photo and caption of the GS Model – link to file GS-Info-4-6.

• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facili-tate linking, except for the sixth (this screen).


Appendix 193


Visual: Photograph of intended customer. No office background todistract learner. Get from Marketing.


Screen 4-7


Title

Objective: Given a model ofthe YZ Copier, state the pri-mary type of customer towhom it is targeted.

Text: Present learners with adescription of a customer whohas light copying needs, andwhose needs are not likely tochange in the next few years.

Instruct user to choose themost appropriate among thefour models listed (click ontheir answer).

LSQSYSGS

(Feedback appears at the bottom of the screen).

Visual: Photograph ofintended customer. No officebackground to distract learner.


Appendix 195


• When users click on an option, the following response should bedisplayed at the bottom of the screen:

If learners

choose this

model:

Display this response

at the bottom of the

screen:

Then go to

LS

Correct. The LS Modelis ideal for customerswho make occasionalcopies of a small num-ber of sheets, primarilyfor documentation(such as for receipts).

Screen 4-8

QS

Not correct. The correctmodel is the LS Model.The QS Model that youchose is ideal forcustomers who have avariety of copyingneeds and occasionallyneed to present materialto customers. Thiscustomer does not havesuch heavy copyingneeds.

Screen 4-8

YS

Not correct. The correctmodel is the LS Model.The YS Model that youchose is ideal for cus-tomers who make occa-sional copies of reportsthat do not need

Screen 4-8

(continued)


• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facili-tate linking, except for the seventh (this screen).


YS(concluded)

heavy collating. Thiscustomer does nothave such heavy copy-ing needs.

GS

Not correct. The cor-rect model is the LSModel. The GS Modelthat you chose is idealfor customers whomake numerous copiesof medium- andlarger-sized reports,and who often need topresent material tocustomers. This cus-tomer does not havesuch heavy copyingneeds.

Screen 4-8



Appendix 197

Screen 4-8


Title


Text: Present learners with adescription of a customer whohas light-to-heavy needs,whose needs are not likely tochange in the next few years,and who does not need to pre-pare materials for customers.


CSQSFSGS





• When users click on an option, display the following response atthe bottom of the screen:


If learners

choose this

model:

Display this response

at the bottom of the

screen:

Then go to

CS

Not correct. The correctmodel is the FS model.The CS Model that youchose is ideal for cus-tomers who have a vari-ety of copying needs,but do not make manycopies. This customer’scopying needs are notheavy enough to requirethe FS model and are notprojected to grow.

Screen 4-9

QS

Not correct. The correctmodel is the FS model.The QS Model that youchose is ideal for cus-tomers who have a vari-ety of copying needs andoccasionally need topresent material to cus-tomers. This customer’scopying needs are notheavy enough to requirethe FS model and are notprojected to grow.

Screen 4-9

(continued)

• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facili-tate linking, except for the eighth (this screen).


Appendix 199

FS

Correct. The FS Model isideal for customers whomake numerous copies ofmedium- and larger-sizedreports.

Screen 4-9

GS

Not correct. The correctmodel is the FS model.Although the GS Modelthat you chose is similar,it’s ideal for customers whomake numerous copies andwho often need to presentmaterial to customers. Thiscustomer does not.

Screen 4-9




Screen 4-9


Title


Text: Present learners with adescription of a customer whohas medium copying needsand presents material to cus-tomers, and whose needs arelikely to grow in the next fewyears.


CSQSFSGS




Appendix 201


• When users click on an option, display the following response atthe bottom of the screen:

If learners

choose this

model:

Display this response at the

bottom of the screen:

Then go to

CS

Not correct. The correctmodel is the GS model. TheCS Model that you chose isideal for customers who havea variety of copying needs,but do not make many copies.This customer’s copyingneeds are not heavy enoughto require the FS model andare not projected to grow.

Screen 4-10

QS

Not correct. The correctmodel is the GS model.Although the QS Model thatyou chose is ideal for cus-tomers who have a variety ofcopying needs and occasion-ally need to present materialto customers, this customer’scopying needs are going togrow in the next few years.The FS model can handle theadditional capacity.

Screen 4-10

FS

Not correct. The correct modelis the GS model. Although theFS Model that you chose canhandle the volume of copying

Screen 4-10

(continued)

• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facili-tate linking, except for the ninth (this screen).



FS(concluded)

that is anticipated as the cus-tomer grows, the GS model isthe only one that can preparein the large-capacity rangeand can prepare reports for presentation to clients.

GS

Correct. Although its capacityis a bit larger than what thecustomer needs right now, ithas the capacity to grow withthe customer. The GS Modelis ideal for customers whomake numerous copies ofmedium- and larger-sizedreports and who need to pre-pare reports for presentationto clients.

Screen 4-10


• Use template for Summary screen.



• Provide a link to the quiz in the LMS in the center of the screen,immediately below the last line of the summary.

• Make all the circles at the top of the screen hot (first circle goesto screen 1, second circle goes to screen 2, etc.), “hot” to facili-tate linking, except for the tenth (this screen).


Appendix 203

Screen 4-10


Title

Objective: Summary.

Text: A descriptive summary(that is, naming the key pointsthat learners should remember).

Also, a link to the quiz (whichis in the LMS, not producedas part of this lesson).

No visuals.


Glossary of Terms Used

in Online Learning

A

animation. A sequence of graphics that appears to users as if theimages move. See also animation programs.

animation programs. Software that lets users create sequences ofmoving graphics. Animation programs let users alter the originalimage (for example, you might change colors) and rotate and movethe image so that it creates the sense of movement.

assurance test. Assesses whether the programming in an onlinelearning program works as intended.

asynchronous. In online learning, an event in which people are notlogged on at the same time. For example, the instructor might publisha lecture on a Web site; learners would read it when their schedulespermit. Contrast with synchronous.

audio editing program. Software that lets users record and editaudio images, drop in sound effects from other sources, and transferthe program to disk.

audio production team. The people who produce audio sequences. Theteam includes the sound engineer and narrator (also called voice talent).

authoring language. See authoring tool.

authoring systems. Software that is specially designed to let peoplecreate online learning modules that include all of the key learning ele-ments: text presentations, graphics, questions, as well as links toappropriate learning material based on learner responses, and trackstudent performance. Sometimes called authoring tools.

authoring tools. Software applications that are specially designed tocreate online modules that bring together all the components, programin exercises and test questions, link learners to appropriate materialbased on their responses, and track performance of learners.Sometimes called authoring systems, though tools lack the trackingfunctions.

B

bandwidth. The physical capacity of the transmission equipment in anetwork. Bandwidth refers to the amount of information that can betransmitted at a time, usually in bits per second.

blended learning. A program for education or training in whichsome parts are available online and the others are presented in aclassroom. The program is said to blend online and classroomlearning.

bookmarks. An indicator of the place at which a learner was beforeinterrupting a course. The learner can resume studies at that pointwhen he or she returns to the online learning program.

C

character interface. A type of interface in which users can interactwith the system only through text instructions, such as typing com-mands and menu options. Common on mainframe and mid-rangecomputers, and also used in DOS and UNIX. See also user interface.Contrast with graphical user interface.

chat. A discussion that occurs online when all the participants aresimultaneously signed on. A form of synchronous online communica-tion. See also synchronous.

client computer. The computer in a learner’s office, the one that a typical learner uses for online learning. Contrast with server

computers.


collaborative learning online. Technologies that link together peoplein several locations so that they can interact with one another.

compact disk (CD). A plastic device that can contain video, audio,text, and graphics images. Information is recorded in an analog for-mat on a CD. A CD can hold up to 30 minutes of a video program. A CD for a computer is just like an audio CD.

component test. Assesses whether the online learning program inad-vertently causes operational problems with other programs that run atthe same time.

computer-based collaborative learning. See collaborative learning

online.

computer-based instruction. See computer-based training.

computer-based training. Courses presented on a computer. Usuallynot connected to a network when the course is in use. Also calledcomputer-based instruction.

configuration. The setup of an individual computer, consisting of thehardware and software.

D

digital virtual disk (DVD). A plastic device that can contain video, audio, text, and graphics images. Information is recorded in adigital format on a DVD. A single DVD can hold up to a 2-hourmovie. DVD is the technology intended to replace compact disks (CD).

discussion list. An online conversation in which one person sends aquestion or comment to a list of people who have signed up for dis-cussions on that topic (hence the name discussion list). Respondentsview the messages at their convenience and send replies to everyone

Glossary 207

on the discussion list. A form of asynchronous online communication.See also asynchronous.

diskette. A plastic device on which users can record informationstored on one computer, and copy it onto another.

distance learning. Any type of educational situation in which theinstructor and students are separated by time or location (or both).

E

e-coach. A tutor for an asynchronous online learning program who isavailable by e-mail, online chat, or telephone.

editor. The person who reviews the entire online learning program forconsistency and adherence to guidelines, and to provide any direc-tions needed in final preparation of the course.

electronic performance support systems (EPSSs). Software applications that provide performance support. See also performance

support.

executive sponsor. The person who initiates the request for theonline learning program and has ultimate financial liability for itssuccess.

extranet. A World Wide Web–like network that is only available topeople chosen by the organization, inside or outside (hence the termextra-). Usually preferred suppliers and customers have access to theextranet.

F

file extensions. The three letters that follow the period in a computerfile name, such as course.doc and picture1.jpg.

formal learning. A type of education or training program in whichcourse designers and developers identify the intended outcomes long


before the course begins and learners are only considered to havecompleted the learning program when they demonstrate successfulmastery of these outcomes. Contrast with informal learning.

G

graphic designer. The person who prepares the visual designs for thecourse (including its look and feel) and specific graphics within thecourse. Also helps to prepare animated sequences.

graphical user interface (GUI, pronounced goo-ey). An interfacethat incorporates a variety of media, especially text and graphics.Graphical user interfaces often have icons that represent actions thesystem can perform, and make extensive use of visuals. Windows andthe Mac Operating System (OS) are examples of programs that have agraphical user interface. See also user interface. Contrast with character interface.

graphics program. Software that lets users prepare illustrations andgraphical effects. Specifically, graphics programs let users drawimages or use images created elsewhere (such as graphics that wereprinted elsewhere and entered into the computer through a scanner)and then lets users add colors, rotate the images to see them from dif-ferent perspectives, and add visual effects.

groupware. Software that promotes synchronous and asynchronousonline collaboration by letting users send e-mail, share work files,conduct online chats, and so on.

H

hosting. A service in which one organization stores courses on theirserver computers for another organization and provides related main-tenance and technical support.

human factors engineer. The person who reviews the designs ofonline programs to identify possible barriers to use by the intended

Glossary 209

audience, and coordinates tests of the usability (ease with which typical learners can take the course).

hybrid system. Software for online learning that exhibits qualities ofauthoring tools as well as learning management systems. In the sensethat instructors can use hybrid systems to prepare material for presen-tation online, they are like authoring tools. The primary difference isthat instructors can use material prepared in Microsoft Office andmake it available online. They do not need to convert it to a Webformat. In the sense that they keep records about enrollment andgrades, hybrid systems are similar to learning management systems.

I

informal learning. A type of education or training program in whichlearners define what they want to learn and learning is consideredsuccessful when learners feel that they are able to master theirintended objectives (whether or not the course designers believe thatthe learners have or have not demonstrated mastery). Contrast withformal learning.

information developer. See writer.

instructional designer. The person who acts as the architect of anonline learning project. Defines the problem and develops a blueprint fora solution—an online learning program or series of related programs—that is sufficiently complete to allow others to develop the program.

Internet broadcasting tools. Software that lets users transmit alive presentation over the Internet, such as a class or a meeting.Also called virtual classroom.

Interoperability. The ability to exchange data with other systems. Anissue to consider for learning management systems, learning contentmanagement systems, and authoring systems.

intranet. A World Wide Web–like network that is only available topeople working internally to an organization.


K

Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluation. A series of four evaluationsfor individual training courses that was developed by DonaldKirkpatrick and assesses (1) student reaction to a learning program,(2) the amount of learning that occurred, (3) transfer of learning out-side of the classroom, and (4) impact of the training on the organiza-tion that sponsored it.

knowledge management. Work environments that capture, store, andorganize the knowledge and experiences of individual workers andgroups, and make that knowledge and experience available to othersin the organization.

L

learning content management systems (LCMSs). Software for creating, storing, retrieving, changing, and re-using material intendedfor use in an online learning program. An LCMS also stores test questions and can be used to track activities in developing material.Finally, an LCMS can format the same content for presentation onlineand in print, and with a number of word processors.

learning management systems (LMSs). Software that acts as anelectronic registrar. Learning management systems can track individ-ual student progress, record scores of quizzes and tests within anonline learning program, and track course completions. They can alsodo more complex things, such as transfer this information to otherrecord management software (such as PeopleSoft) so that permanenteducational records reflect progress in online learning.

learning object. A section of a course that can be stored and usedagain in another communication or learning product.

learning objectives. Statements indicating the visible and cognitiveskills learners should master by the end of a course. Learningobjectives have three parts: an observable, measurable behavior; theconditions under which the behavior should be performed (such as

Glossary 211

with the assistance of a manual); and the extent to which learnersmust master the behavior (such as “9 out of 10 tries”). Also calledbehavioral objectives.

M

media production tools. Software that lets users produce segments inspecific media, such as a video clip or an audio clip. The clips areintended to be shown at a different time than the time they are produced. Because the media are varied, the nature of the work performed by the software varies.

N

network. Computers connected in several locations through wires,and telephone, cable, or satellite connections.

O

online learning. Educational material that is presented on a computer.

P

performance support. Work environments that are designed arounda software application and in which workers (performers) receiveassistance with tasks or in completing work from a computer.Results—not competence—is the goal in these contexts.

photo refinishing program. Software that lets users prepare photo-graphs for use in other programs. Specifically, photo refinishing pro-grams let users capture photos or use photos that were scanned intothe system, and re-touch the images (for example, removing blem-ishes from human faces), alter the images (for example, crop a photodifferently), change colors, and add effects (such as half-tones,needed for printing).


productivity tools. Software that people use in everyday work that would be used to prepare drafts and other pieces of learningmaterials. This software includes word processors, presentationprograms, database programs, and calendar programs.

programmer. The person who prepares the interactive sequences ofthe course that cannot be prepared in the authoring tool. For example,with most authoring tools, people who are not programmers can writeand program multiple-choice questions, but cannot prepare simula-tions of complex software.

programming and authoring languages. Software that lets usersdevelop interactive content exactly as they planned it by preparing aseries of instructions in a specific language that tells the computerhow to perform a particular task.

project manager. The person who acts like the general contractor foran online learning project—determining which skills are needed, hir-ing team members, tracking and reporting progress, making sure thatteam members adhere to designs and guidelines, and making sure thatthe project is completed on time and within budget.

publishing program. Software that lets users prepare pages forprinting.

R

remediation. The process of reviewing and reinforcing content thatlearners did not successfully master on the first try. Remediation isusually initiated when learners incorrectly answer questions on a testor within a practice session.

S

server computers. Central computers that most users within theorganization have access to. Organizations typically store widely

Glossary 213

used data and programs on servers, such as price lists, employeedirectories, and training courses. Contrast with client computer.

simulation. “An operating model of central features or elements of areal or proposed system, process or environment” (Greenblat, C.S.,Designing Games and Simulations: An Illustrated Handbook, pub-lished by Sage in 1988).

storyboard. Used as a planning tool for multimedia, a storyboard is avisual representation of a finished screen or of a shot in a finishedvideo. A storyboard typically includes a drawing of the visual image,as well as the text of any narration or words that appear on the screen,and production instructions, such as “Fade to the next scene” or “Linkthis screen to screen 141.”

subject matter expert (SME). The person who assists with selectingcontent for an online learning program and reviews it for accuracy.

synchronous. In online learning, an event in which all of the partici-pants are online at the same time and communicating with oneanother. For example, an instructor might schedule a guest lecturer totake questions at a particular time; all interested people wouldconnect with the lecture when the guest is online. Contrast withasynchronous.

T

technology-based instruction. Training through media other than theclassroom: includes computers, but also includes television, audio-tape, videotape, and print. Encompasses all forms of online learning.

tester. The person who reviews the entire online learning program tomake sure that it operates properly and does not cause problems whenrunning with other programs. For example, the tester makes sure thateach link identified in the course actually works.


time to performance. The time needed for a new worker to performlike a more experienced one.

training. A formal and structured learning event specifically intendedto enhance knowledge and skills immediately.

U

Universal Resource Locator (URL). The indication of an address onthe World Wide Web. Usually stated as www.URL.EXTENSION,such as www.trainingsupersite.com.

usability engineer. See human factors engineer.

usability test. Assesses the ability of learners to find and understandmaterial without assistance and their speed in doing so.

user interface. The elements of the computer screen that usersinteract with. It includes a variety of elements, such as visual appear-ance, icons, navigational elements, requests for information, and text.See also character interface and graphical user interface.

V

video editing program. Software that lets users perform many of thefunctions of video editing systems on a computer. Video editing pro-grams let users edit separate video clips into a single program, retouchvideo images, add video transitions such as wipes and fades, add titlesand credits, and transfer the images back onto videotape or onto diskfor use in an online learning program.

video production team. The people who produce video sequences.The team includes the director, actors, lighting specialist, and otherequipment specialists.

virtual classroom. A synchronous online session, primarily intendedto simulate a classroom.

Glossary 215

virtual classroom software. Software that lets users transmit a livepresentation over the Internet, such as a class or meeting. Also calledInternet broadcasting tools.

W

Web-based training. Courses available on an intranet, an extranet, orthe Internet and that are linked to resources outside the course.

word processor. Software used to type and format documents, suchas letters, reports, and books.

writer. The person who composes the text of the course. Whenneeded, the writer also expands upon the design provided by theinstructional designer.


an overview of online learning, second edition

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