an operational framework for media and...

AN OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORKFOR MEDIA AND PEACEBUILDING

I N S T I T U T E f o r M E D I A, P O L I C Y a n d C I V I L S O C I E T Y

Ross Howard

for IMPACS – Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society, Vancouver, B.C.

AN OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORKFOR MEDIA AND PEACEBUILDING


Ross Howard

for IMPACS – Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society, Vancouver, B.C.

J A N U A R Y 2 0 0 2

National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data

Howard, Ross, 1946–An operational framework on media and

peacebuilding

1. Mass media and international relations.␣ 2. Mass mediaand war.␣ I. Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society.␣II. Title.

P96.I53H68 2002 070.4’49327172 C2002-910274-X

© 2002 IMPACS – Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society

Any reproduction, modification, publication, transmission, transfer, sale,distribution, display or exploitation of this information, in any form or byany means, or its storage in a retrieval system, whether in whole or inpart, without the express written permission of the individual copyrightholder is prohibited.

Published in Canada by IMPACS910–207 West Hastings StVancouver, BC V6B 1H6Tel (604) 682-1930Fax (604) 682-4353E-mail: [email protected] site: www.impacs.org

March, 2002

Design and production by Alaris Design

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................................................. iv

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 1

The Context .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 2

A Proviso .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2Background ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 2What is the Media? ........................................................................................................................................................................ 4What is Peacebuilding?.............................................................................................................................................................. 5Cost Consideration ........................................................................................................................................................................ 5A Caution .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5

Analyzing the Conflict Environment ........................................................................................... 6

looking at Media Interventions ................................................................................................................ 9

A Typology of Media Interventions .............................................................................................. 10

Key Considerations ..............................................................................................................................................................12

Lessons Learned .......................................................................................................................................................................... 20

For Donors .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 20For Implementers ......................................................................................................................................................................... 20General Lessons .............................................................................................................................................................................. 21

Appendix A: Media Initiatives ...................................................................................................................... 22

Appendix B: Initiatives .................................................................................................................................................. 25

Appendix C: Resources .................................................................................................................................................. 26

Contents

IV • AN OPERAT IONAL FRAMEWORK FOR MED IA AND PEACEBU ILD ING

Acknowledgements

The media and peacebuilding operationalframework project is the result of a longer-term policy project that began at IMPACSin 1998. Its origins are in a paper, authored byRobin Hay, and in the reports of three round-table dialogues that IMPACS hosted between1998 and 2001 with media and peacebuild-ing practitioners from around the world.

We would like to acknowledge the workof Ross Howard in pulling together the ideascontained in dozens of documents and theinsights of several key leaders in the field intoone document. We see this framework as awork-in-progress and would welcome anysuggestions or guidance for improving it.

We would like to extend our thanks tothe Canadian International DevelopmentAgency Peacebuilding Unit, and in particular,

to Susan Brown for her support in thedevelopment of this Operational Framework.We would also like to acknowledge thePeacebuilding and Human Security Divisionof the Department of Foreign Affairs andInternational Trade (Canada) for theirsupport in co-hosting our media andpeacebuilding roundtable discussions. Werecognize the work of the participants of ourMay 2000 roundtable who conceived anddeveloped the typology of media andpeacebuilding activities set out and elabor-ated upon in this framework. Thank you toour board of directors for reviewing earlierdrafts of this framework and to IMPACSstaff members Mirga Saltmiras, AndreaUzans, and Rosemary Poole for their supportin seeing this project to completion.

— Shauna SylvesterExecutive Director, IMPACS

Special thanks to Gordon Adam, MediaSupport, Peacebuilding Unit, CanadianInternational Development Agency; EronFraenkel, Search for Common GroundMacedonia; Mike McIvor, former SpecialAdvisor on the Media, Organization forSecurity and Cooperation in Europe,Kosovo; Institute for War and PeaceReporting, London; Hugh Cholmondelay,

Guyana; Keith Spicer, Media and PeaceInstitute; Phil Bob Helmich, Lisa Sochat,Shamil Idriss, Search for Common Ground;Mike Crawley and Wayne Sharpe, IMPACS;Ross Reid, Les Campbell, NationalDemocratic Institute; Chris Neal, The WorldBank; Stella Sabiiti, Centre for ConflictResolution; Fiona Lloyd; Loretta Hieber,Media Action International; and others.

— Ross Howard, CoordinatorIMPACS Media and PeacebuildingProject

1

Introduction

T he media is a double-edged sword. It can be a frightful weapon

of violence when it propagates messages of intolerance or

disinformation that manipulate public sentiment. Radio Mille

Collines in Rwanda is one of the most appalling contemporary examples.

Using a blend of popular entertainment and proselytizing by announcers, the

government-supported broadcasts demonized one group of people and built

resentment and fear among the other group. The messages implanted and

legitimized the belief that genocide was an appropriate self-defence initiative,

and hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered in that country.

But there is another aspect to the media. It can be an instrument of

conflict resolution, when the information it presents is reliable, respects

human rights, and represents diverse views. It’s the kind of media that

upholds accountability and exposes malfeasance. It’s the kind of media

that enables a society to make well-informed choices, which is the precursor

of democratic governance. It is a media that reduces conflict and fosters

human security.

This document identifies opportunities to strengthen the media as an

element of conflict reduction and peacebuilding. It is intended for donors,

2 • AN OPERAT IONAL FRAMEWORK FOR MED IA AND PEACEBU ILD ING

agencies and nongovernmental organiza-tions, media practitioners, governments andothers, and conflict managers or peace-keepers. The fact is that media has becomeso pervasive and influential that anyonecurrently working in the field of conflictreduction must consider both edges of thesword. A project that launches withoutexamining the media environment, such asan indigenous media that is fomentinghatred, is more liable to fail. Similarly, anyeffort to resolve or prevent deadly conflictthat ignores the media as an opportunity initself is incomplete. This document offers aguide or framework for understanding howmedia-related interventions can be used in a

variety of conflict conditions. The frameworkcan support planning, implementing orevaluating media initiatives to avoid risk andmisapplication of resources.

The framework provides some commonindicators or consequences for the media inenvironments of pre-, overt and post-conflict.It presents a typology of interventionspotentially appropriate to the media condi-tions that exist in those stages of conflict, orin others. It provides indicators for assessingthose interventions. And the frameworkdraws operational lessons from media-related programming and includes a matrixof exceptional examples of media peacebuild-ing initiatives. A resources list is included.

3

The Context

initiatives, must be timed appropriately, andmust demonstrate patience and longevity. Butequally, other initiatives such as emergencyrelief, democratic development, health andeducation can recognize that media initiativesfocused on conflict reduction inevitably bene-fit them too. The potential for synergy is high.

This framework is based upon a reviewof published sources, discussions withpractitioners in media and in peacebuilding,and interviews with, and contributions from,those working directly in the field. It shouldbe viewed as a work in progress – a learningtool that can be adapted as experiences andnew ideas are brought forward.

BACKGROUND

The significance of the media is obvious: itis often among the first elements of a societyto be disrupted in an overt conflict. Evenbeforehand, parties seek control of the mediain order to influence news and opinions intheir own interests. The resultant harm hasbeen repeatedly documented. The massmedia played a central role in pre-war Nazimolding of German popular opinion againstJewish people. More recently in the formerYugoslavia, Serbian media revived newsreelsof decades-old conflict and atrocities as partof a campaign of propaganda and hate mon-gering disguised as news, to motivate popularsentiment against Albanians and others.

Less well documented is the reverse ofmedia harm. A reliable, diverse and inde-pendent news media has an almost innatepotential for contributing to conflict

A PROVISO

The material presented here can aid thinkingabout, and understanding of, media-relatedopportunities for peacebuilding. However,even the most rigorous framework is not atemplate for media initiatives. Every case ofmedia intervention is different. No mediapractice, nor any intervention strategy, islimited to a particular stage of conflict. Theuniqueness of every situation and the needfor flexibility and innovation that respectslocal interests and skills cannot be over-emphasized. Without committed localinterests, peacebuilding interventions arelikely to fail.

And it must be recognized that the media’sinfluence alone is insufficient to produce thechanges necessary for a society’s reconcilia-tion, stability and security. Media initiativesmust work closely with other actors and

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resolution. It functions as a channel ofcommunication that counteracts misper-ceptions. It frames and analyzes the conflict,identifies the interests, defuses mistrust,provides safe emotional outlets, and more.As Robert Karl Manoff of New YorkUniversity’s Center for War, Peace and theNews Media points out, these are preciselysome of the elements that are involved in aconflict-resolution process.

Some agencies and nongovernmentalorganizations interested in peacebuildinghave devoted efforts to encouraging areliable, diverse and free news media wherepossible in conflict-stressed environments.The most prevalent interventions havefocused on basic training for journalists, theprovision of technology and establishingbasic legal protections for journalists.

Recently, new initiatives have focused onthe media as a means to communicateinformation specifically intended to fosterpublic sentiment favouring peaceful resolutionof conflict. The focus is on the effect of themedia in its widest possibilities rather thanthe mere presence of professional news mediaoutlets. The media thus becomes a facilitatorof positive social change rather than aprofessional, disinterested observer/reporter.Under no circumstances, however, is thepromotion of biased information or view-points masquerading as journalism a validapproach.

The examples of media and peacebuildingare growing but there is little documentationand analysis. And the field is highly dynamic.The potential for synergy between thecommunication skills of journalism and theproactive people-centred approach of conflictresolution is particularly exciting. The finaldimensions of media and peacebuilding willnot be mapped soon. This framework aimsto strengthen peacebuilders’ capacity to morequickly grasp the existing possibilities, and toencourage exploration of entirely new ones.

WHAT IS THE MED IA?

Media here refers to the several mediums orchannels used in an organized fashion tocommunicate to groups of people.Newspapers, radio and television are well-known examples. The Internet and WorldWide Web are more recent additions.However, for the purposes of peacebuilding,media encompasses more than just the newsand information business so typical of thosechannels. Entertainment programs frommusic to soap operas are part of the media.So are other channels including street theatre,posters, traditional story-telling, and evencomic books, to name only some.

The news media, or journalism, remainsin the forefront of peacebuilding initiativesbecause at its best, it is the safeguard ofdemocratic governance. At its best meansaccurate and balanced reporting which fairlyrepresents a diversity of views sufficient forthe public to make well-informed choices. Areliable and diverse media that can expressitself freely provides early warning ofpotential outbreaks of conflict. It serves as awatchdog over leaders and officials and holdsthem accountable. It monitors human rights.Its presence is essential to the functioning ofother civil society actors. In less optimalenvironments, the media can still fosterstability by providing essential informationabout humanitarian initiatives.

This framework explores in detail manyof the specific indicators by which mediafreedom, diversity and reliability can bemeasured, and offers strategies forresponding. However, the key conditionsessential for a functioning free media can beboiled down to these: a state’s commitmentto Article 19 (the right to freedom ofexpression) of the Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights; a constitutional and legalinfrastructure to protect free expression andprivacy rights; and, independent regulatorsof media rights and public responsibilities.

5

WHAT IS PEACEBUILD ING?

Peacebuilding means intensifying efforts toestablish lasting peace and to resolve conflictspeacefully in societies marked by conflict. Asthe Canadian Department of Foreign Affairsand the Canadian Peacebuilding Coordi-nating Committee have noted, in theirinsightful descriptions of peacebuilding, thefocus is on the political and socio-economiccontext of the conflict rather than themilitary or humanitarian aspects. Theoverarching goal of peacebuilding is toenhance the indigenous capacity of a societyto manage conflict without violence, as ameans to achieve human security. Always,however, external support for peacebuildingis an adjunct to local peacebuilding effortsand not a substitute for them.

COST CONS IDERAT IONS

Media-oriented peacebuilding interventionsare cost-effective, compared to the cost ofconflict. Current technology can put an entiredigital broadcasting studio in a suitcase. Onelaser-guided bomb can cost equal the amountof an entire year of sophisticated pro-gramming to encourage conflict resolutionin a war-torn society. However, mediainterventions require intensive advance

research, sensitization to local conditions andpartners, and patience, which entails timeand expense. And experience has shown thatmedia projects must strive for longevityleading to sustainability to have lasting effect.Among the channels of communication,radio has the widest reach. Television can beexpensive but has a powerful effect uponthose who can receive it. The cost of otherchannels, such as newspapers or streettheatre or posters, varies widely. Their impactmay be a reflection of their innovative naturerather than their cost.

A CAUT ION

The absence of a struggling media in acountry does not always mean there is animmediate opportunity for a media-relatedinitiative. Great caution and realism must beapplied to fully determine the controllingauthorities’ tolerance for an interventiondedicated to non-violent conflict resolution.Any state that suppresses a free media putsits commitment to justice, human rights andthe rule of law very much in doubt. Prolongeddiplomacy, confidence building and trade-offs may be necessary to gain and maintainapproval for any media-related peace-building initiative in such an environment.

The Con tex t • 5

6

Analyzing the Conflict Environment

Every conflict and peacebuilding situationis different and thus requires a specific

examination, especially today when mostconflicts are internal, not international. Mostconflict has complicated roots and there israrely a single determinant. Ethnicity,religion, economic or resource scarcity, forexample, may be at play. A decision to con-sider media-related initiatives needs to beinformed by a prior country and regionalconflict analysis. The analysis of conflict willinevitably produce indications of impactsupon media. For example, a pre-conflict cli-mate of intolerance, human rights abuses andbiased state authority may be reflected insevere stereotyping, including gender typingin reporting, and in a self-censoring media.

However, the media is more than a passiveindicator of conflict conditions, and theanalytical process should also seekopportunities for contributing to the media’spotential for positive influence in any conflictresolution process.

Table 1 offers a number of indicators thatreflect some consequences of internal conflictupon the local or indigenous media in pre-,overt and post-conflict environments. The

table reflects general experience, keeping inmind that all conflicts have uniquecharacteristics. Some conflicts do not fit anyone stage neatly. For example, long-term,low-intensity conflicts involving multipleactors can exhibit elements of all three stagesof conflict. Some warning signs overlap thesestages, as do the impacts on media. Otherconflicts, although internal by nature, haveinternational implications. These situationsinvite outside actors into the political arenafollowed by interested involvement byinternational media.

TABLE 1. Stages of conflict and media impacts

Warning Signs Examples of Impacts on Media

Increased media monopoly, censorship of journalism,suppression of external media sources.

Decline in economic and editorial independence due toadvertising drop, cost increases. Poor remuneration ofjournalists causing widespread bribery. Decline ofprofessional standards.

Polarization of media, identified with identity interests;reporting reflects exclusivity rather than inclusiveness.Stereotyping of others. Decline of diverse commentary.Harassment of non-conforming journalists.

Women displaced from media prominence and coverageand media staff positions.

Reduced access to information. Prejudiced regulation ofmedia. Bribery of journalists. Rise in crime reporting.Decline in investigative journalism. Equipment theft,damage, seizure.

Absence of rights abuse reporting.

Alternative, underground media take form.

Sensationalized coverage, focus on violence. Absence ofconsensus-seeking reports.

Decline in coverage and analysis of politics.Emergence of partisanship disguised as newsgathering.

State/monopolist imposition of compliant mediamanagers, journalists.

Facile manipulation of popular sentiments. Propagandadisguised as news emerges.

Take-over of media outlets, suppression of independentnews media.Journalists at personal risk in crossfire.

Suppression of human rights monitoring-reporting.Hate speech emerges.

Media rights abrogated. Journalists unprotected by laws.Suppression of media associations.

Independent reporting termed unpatriotic.

Displacement, shortage of experienced media workers,increase of inexperienced journalists. Lack of diversityof reporters, sources.

Loss of equipment, supplies, blocked travel, access tosources. Inability to report, distribute, broadcast.Inability of audience to receive media.

Absence of training, professionalization. Decline ofliteracy, decline in readership of print media.

Pre-conflictRising political tension, intensified central authority.

Economic instability.

Increasing economic or political disparity betweenidentity groups.

Gender stereotyping intensifies.

Weakening state and local authority.Increasing government corruption.

Decline in civil society, rights infringements.

Appearance of pro-peace/conflict prevention activists.

Failing peace dialogue, negotiations.

Abuse/distrust of electoral system.

State or monopoly control of media outlets.

Focused attack-journalism on opponents and moderates,signaling emergence of hate speech.

Overt conflictOpen conflict: military attacks, killings, atrocities.

Suspension of civil rights, associations.Widespread human rights abuse/atrocities.

Collapse of civil society.

Denial, disavowal of international covenants.

Forced mobilization/conscription.Forced migration, displacement.

Infrastructure destruction: material shortages, food,water, fuel, health care, electricity, batteries.

Destruction of education system.

Ana l y z i ng t he Con f l i c t Env i r onmen t • 7


TABLE 1. Stages of conflict and media impacts concluded

Warning Signs Examples of Impacts on Media

Centrally- enforced patriotism. Extreme stereotyping inreporting. Propaganda substituted for news. Media self-censorship; incomplete or biased news. Biased coverageof conflict. Disinformation used by combatants.

Facilities damaged, intimidation, staff shortages, unpaidstaff succumb to bribes.

Obsessive media focus on violence. War-mentalityanalysis.

Possible proliferation and diversity of media outlets.Underground opposition media emerges.

Rise in media-consuming audiences.

Recrimination against formerly “opposing” mediathrough criminal acts. Crime and political violencereported without distinction.

Introduction of socially pro-active media. Media focuson initiatives for potential reconciliation.

Resumption of political reporting. Increase in regional-local media and local-issue reporting.

Risk of reemergence of conflict-era partisanship, biasedreporting and media used to inflame/distort issues.

Return of media associations, focus on professionalism,conduct. Risk of rampant competitive media outletsbecoming political interests’ surrogates.

Establishment of independent broadcast regulations withreference to human rights. Press councils resume.

Foreign and local initiatives in training aimed atrestoring media professionalization.

Gradual resumption of human rights monitoring,investigative reporting.

Female journalists accorded prominence.Women’s new or traditional roles championed.

Extended reach of media outlets.

Resumption of journalistic economic literacy.

Overt conflict (continued)High media censorship.

Targeted media destruction.

Absence of peace dialogue or negotiations.

Post conflictVictory/defeat, or presence of peacekeepers.

Initial demobilization of combatants.

Reduction in violence.Possible rise in crime.

Resumed peace dialogue/negotiations.

Steps toward resumption/assumption of electoral system.

Transitional government.

Easing of censorship, relaxed control of media.

Legal framework for free media.

Resumption of educational system.

Expanding civil society.

Gender distinctions reduced.

Expanding technical infrastructure.

Resumption of trade economy.

9

Looking at Media Interventions

The traditional focus of media-relatedinitiatives has been on conventional

journalism that supports the emergenceof good governance and democraticdevelopment, particularly in post-conflictenvironments. The focus is logical, sincetraditional journalism’s calling is to presentfacts and viewpoints that enable citizens tomake sense of their world and exercisechoices in their best interests.

The newer category of media-relatedpeacebuilding goes beyond the traditionaldisengaged journalistic role. It is designed tohave an intended outcome: a reduction ofconflict among citizens. Rather than merelyinforming, material is selected for itspotential in transforming conflict, by shiftingattitudes of the parties involved in conflict,by providing essential information. Thisapproach also extends from traditionaljournalism media into avenues such aspopular music, soap operas and call-inshows, community radio and video projects,

and street theatre, wall posters, or concerts.It can be highly effective, particularly inconflict-ridden areas where audiences aredesperately receptive to informationpresented in an entertaining form.

Between these two categories lies a stageof media fusion. Journalists, mainly from theglobal northwest, have argued the ostensiblyimpartial role they play is incompatible withreporting which openly seeks conflictresolution or involves personal intervention.This position has discouraged synergisticrelationships among media practitioners andpeacebuilders. However, especially in manymodern conflict environments, it isincreasingly obvious that the professionalnorms of journalism do not trump funda-mental moral obligations.

It is also clear that all journalistsunconsciously reflect personal and culturalvalues in selecting their content (or framingtheir stories, as it is called). What is neededis recognition of the value of framing storiesfor the benefit of conflict resolution. Withthis recognition emerges a journalism that issensitized to conflict resolution techniques,and seeks to maximize understanding of theunderlying causes and possible solutions. Insome conflict environments, journalists seetheir role as more complex than simplycarriers of information, and they actively seekto facilitate the most important peacebuild-ing dialogues needed in their communities. J

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10

A Typology of Media Interventions

Just as specific impacts of conflict uponmedia are rarely unique to one stage of

conflict, media interventions also are notlimited to any one stage of conflict. Differentmedia interventions can overlap, operateside-by-side, or be combined depending uponcircumstances. Nonetheless, to establish acommon language for determining andcomparing intervention opportunities, somepatterns can be identified and described.

Five types of media intervention aredescribed here. Examples of specific peace-building initiatives falling within the fivecategories are given later in this framework(Table Two).

Type One. One common interventioninvolves initiatives to overcome journalismseverely constrained by its lack ofprofessionalism, diversity, freedom andtechnology. This rudimentary journalismtraining addresses unskilled, inaccurate,conflict-obsessed, or highly partisan media.Often this media is, or was, controlled bythe state or special interests and it reflectsnarrow views or propaganda. A legal

framework regulating and protecting themedia is likely lacking. The foremost toolfor peacebuilding here is training media inthe basics skills of journalism, such asimpartiality, accuracy and balance.Awareness of democratic practices, especiallyelection coverage, is essential. Technologytraining and equipment is also supplied; and,also included is the promotion of journalisticcodes and a basic legal infrastructure thatprotects journalists from intimidation.

Type Two. A second type of mediaintervention provides more responsiblejournalism development beyond basic skills.Tools include developing investigative,explanatory and specialist reporting, andwell-informed analytical reporting. Initiativesinclude promoting and providing models fora full media infrastructure that includesimpartial regulators, media performancerequirements, access to information, presscouncils, and promulgation of standards todefine libel and slander as elements of mediaaccountability. Developing diverse, competi-tive and sustainable media outlets, especiallythrough management training, is anothertool. The intention is to create a media thatserves society as a conflict resolution processand upholds democratic governance.

Type Three. An emerging genre of mediaintervention is located between traditionaljournalism and more pro-active uses ofmedia. Journalists are encouraged toconsciously examine their role to recognizeJa

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conflict resolution as part of that role. In thistransitional journalism development,journalists and media managers redefinewhom and what is newsworthy, to betterinform and encourage reconciliation.Sensitized media professionals may see theirrole as more than observers and carriers ofinformation and may seek to facilitate criticaldialogues within the community. Someprofessionals and theorists aptly call this typeof intervention peace journalism, reflectingthe dual nature of their work as journalistswith conflict resolution as one of theirrecognized values. Other sources ofjournalism media such as underground radiostations may be involved, often in hostileenvironments.

Type Four. Distinct from conventionaljournalism is pro-active media-basedintervention, usually designed for a highlyspecific audience and purpose. It is often theproduct of an outside intervenor such as apeacekeeping force or a nongovernmental

organization and is often deployed in aconflict or post-conflict environment. It canbe media intended to counter hatepropaganda, or programming to provideimmediately practical information such aselection and voting practices, refugeereunification, education or health advice.

Type Five. Intended outcome programmingis specifically intent upon transformingattitudes, promoting reconciliation andreducing conflict. It is not conventionaljournalism. It is usually conducted bynongovernmental organizations. The contentis determined by its appropriateness tofostering peace. The programming anddelivery mechanisms can be innovativeadaptations of a popular culture such asradio and television soap operas and dramas,street theatre, wall posters, and more. Theinitiative and programming may be closelyallied with other actors and projects. Mediaworkers may play a role themselves asconciliators in the field.

A Typo l ogy o f Med i a I n t e r ven t i o ns • 11

12

Key Considerations

S tages of conflict are often fluid withoverlapping characteristics and incon-

sistent types of media practices, whichchallenge easy prescription of the appropriatemedia-based peacebuilding initiative.Responding to the prevailing conflict stageand media environment will require carefulassessment of the conflict and any proposedintervention. Specific stages of conflict maybe open to, or require more than, one typeof media intervention.

Appendices A and B each offer somespecific questions to be asked in conductingthese assessments. Underlying thosequestions are some general considerationsthat must be kept in mind:

• Will the initiative affect individual orcollective abilities to identify andrespond to conflict resolutionopportunities?

• Will the project help or hinder relation-ships between the state and civil society?

• Will it include members of thecommunities affected by the conflict?

• How will the beneficial results be madesustainable?

The engagement of the people mostaffected, which in a media initiative includesboth media practitioners and audiences, mustbe established. Their input, often overlookedor minimized, is crucial. Intended outcomemedia can be particularly successful at

attracting audiences but sustained successrequires audience feedback and interactionthat, in turn, shapes the message.

The progress and outcome of mediainitiatives will likely require great adapt-ability, and an acceptance of incrementalrates of change. It may be difficult to applyconventional measurements of an initiative’ssuccess as it directly relates to reducing andpreventing violent conflict. In such a new andexpanding field, conventional measurabilityshould be kept in perspective and not stifleinnovation or unique, local approaches.

Table Two presents a typology describingmedia-related initiatives and indicators. Itdoes not exclude the overlapping ofindicators and strategies from one type toanother. It should not be applied restrictively.For example, a Type Five intended outcomemedia project can possibly be applied in anenvironment lacking several of the Type Fiveindictors such as audience rating capabilities,or even the basic conditions of Type Onerudimentary journalism.

John Sylvester

Extent of violations of privacy rights or libellaws if existent. Number of professionaljournalist associations.

Presence of codes of professionalism, numberof training institutions.

Presence of free speech and free medialegislation. Number of journalists imprisoned,harassed, intimidated, de-accredited, cen-sored. Extent of content piracy and plagiarism.Extent of access to government information.

Presence of independent reporting. Numberof independent media outlets, number ofprivately-owned outlets, number of alternativemedia outlets, number of media licencesgranted, refused. Percentage of indigenousversus foreign advertisers.

Quality and reliability of production anddistribution and reach of diverse media.Number of internet connections, serviceproviders, printing presses, transmitters.

Percentage of female and minority journalists,in management, in training courses.

Content analysis.

As in Type One stage plus number of specialistjournalists, commentators and analysts.Number of daily news reports on politics,military issues, legal proceedings, humanrights, gender. Content analysis: extent ofdemonizing, stereotyping, sensationalizing,violations of privacy rights.

Media and public support for independentmedia enshrinement and regulation withinlegislation, regulations.

Number of lawsuits for slander/libel.Disposition of complaints against media.

Diversity within individual outlets’ staff.Evidence of differing editorial viewpoint,commentary, audience feedback.

Number of financially autonomous outlets.

Media monitoring for credibility, balance.

TABLE 2. Interventions and Indicators

Media Initiative Strategy Indicators

Basic training in standard ABC skills ofnewsgathering: accuracy, balance andcontext.

Support for professional journalist associa-tions, conduct codes. Partnership supportfor indigenous training facilities. Seminars,forums for local journalists on professionalism.

Support for independent media protectionand regulation within legislation, regulations.

Encouragement of diverse, independentmedia outlets.

Provision of technical support and equip-ment, especially for essential facilities/newtechnology.

Appraisal of membership of the media.

Media monitoring.

As in Type One stage plus advancedjournalism training, in investigations,economic reporting, information access,election coverage, gender and ethnicneutrality.

Provide rationale, models for environment:legislation, courts, regulatory bodies.

Support for introduction of media account-ability – press councils, libel/slanderlegislation.

Support for autonomous/commercialoperations.

Support for wider distribution of local/regional news. Funding for relayed interna-tional broadcasters.

Type One

Type Two

Key Cons i de ra t i o ns • 13


TABLE 2. Interventions and Indicators concluded

Media Initiative Strategy Indicators

Content analysis of conflict reporting: focuson violence versus reconciliation.

Percentage of conflict reports, lurid crimereports, versus reports of humanitarianinformation, peaceful resolutions, positivemodels and interventions.

Audience ratings.Qualitative studies feedback.Responsiveness of media outlets to publicrequests for programming, information.

Audience ratings, reactions.Outcome assessment of issues or actionsfocused on.Surveys identifying individual and groupperception of others.

Percentage change in multi-faction or multi-ethnic community dialogues, organizations,activities, in target group or across society.Percentage changes in audience attitudes andin comprehension of message.

Extent of local partnership in decision-making and content programming. Ethnicand factional balance in staff and content.

Extent of collaboration with governmentinstitutions, agencies, civil society andnongovernmental organizations.

Number of outlets and channels conveyingconflict resolution messages.

Conflict resolution sensitizing and training.

Support for enhanced investigative reporting.

Seminars, forums for international media onindigenous situation.Seminars, forums for local media on mediacoverage and conflict.Fund/encourage international mediacoverage.

Creation of humanitarian needs-based mediaoutlets. Meet needs of affected populationssuch as: emergency relief, relocation facilities,health advisories, warnings about landmines.

Define relationship to peacekeeping force.

Establish temporary media productions anddistribution facilities.

Counter hate radio.

Recruit local staff, local suppliers to buildeconomic engagement. Seminars, forums forlocal journalists on professionalism.

Provide programming speaking directly toconflict issues, presenting new or alternativesources of information, issues and factorsbehind the conflict, shared effects of conflict,presentation of opposing views, discussion ofstereotypes, promotion of tolerance,reconciliation, democratization.

Integration of local partners into program-ming.

Development of local markets, local capacityfor programming.

Develop diversified channels of communica-tion appropriate to local environment.

Type Three

Type Four

Type Five

Table 3 presents examples of practicalmedia-oriented peacebuilding initiativesarranged by types of media initiative and bystages of conflict. Descriptions of eachproject are given below. These examples

partially reflect the considerable diversity ofinnovative approaches and individualprograms which were identified in the courseof preparing this framework. More areemerging every day.

TABLE 3. Examples of peacebuilding initiatives

Pre-conflict Hot conflict Post-conflict

Types Oneand Two:conventionaljournalismdevelopment

5. IMPACS Cambodiajournalists’ trainingproject.

6. IREX: East Europeanprofessional training andinfrastructure.

7. Balkans: lessons learned.

8. Reseau Liberte:rudimentary-to-responsible training.

9. OSCE Mission Kosovo:journalism regulationand training.

16. Alliance for Peace,Philippines: training.

17. Peace JournalismTraining, Indonesia:training, sensitization.

18. Radio Blue Sky, Kosovo:humanitarian news,ethnicities’ dialogue.

19. Internews Reporting forPeace, Indonesia:training, sensitization.

26. UNTAC Radio: UNCambodian democracyprogramming.

27. Internews: Rwanda trialscoverage for reconcilia-tion.

28. Media Peace Centre:South African peace-building media.

29. Childrens’ advocacy –Tajikistan (see #4).

13. Studio Ijambo, Burundi:conflict resolution, anti-hate media.

14. South Asian EditorsForum: reconciliationsensitization.

15. Role sensitization (see #4).

21. Media Action International:Balkans humanitarian andnews programming.

22. Search for CommonGround: Liberia reconcili-ation programming.

23. Reporters Sans Frontieres:Rwanda anti-hate radio.

24. War Child: Bosnianchildren’s reconciliation.

25. BBC World Service:Afghanistan humanitar-ian programming.

1. Philippine investigativejournalism.

2. IREX: East Europeanrudimentary training.

3. Open Society Institute:Central-East Europeantraining.

4. Internews: Tajikistantraining

10. Media Action Interna-tional: conflict sensitiza-tion.

11. Conflict and PeaceForum: roles analysis andsensitization.

12. CECORE: roles analysis,training.

20. Search for CommonGround: Macedonianchildren’s programming.

Type Three:transitional mediadevelopment

Types Fourand Five:transformationalprogramming



1. The Philippine Centre for InvestigativeJournalism (www.pcij.org) is anindependent, not-for-profit media agencywhich produces and provides, at cost, in-depth investigative reports to the local andnational media, and provides fellowshipsto reporters, which would otherwise not beavailable due to financial or politicalconstraints. Accuracy and balance areprimary concerns, to reduce opportunitiesfor suppression.

2,6. IREX’s Promedia Program(www.promedia.org) combines training,technical assistance, equipment grants andother aid to independent media in tenCentral and Eastern European states to helpthem improve their performance againststate-sponsored media and compared toWestern media. The focus is on businessperformance, media law, professionalstandards and institutional support.

3. Open Society Institute Network MediaProgram (www.osi.hu/nmp) is a not-for-profit consultant, resource, liaison andpartner for Soros-sponsored mediaprograms and other media initiatives inCentral and Eastern Europe. The primaryfocus is assisting the establishment ofenvironments for development of free,independent accountable media, includingmedia legislation, media freedommonitoring, and professionalism ofjournalists and managers.

4, 15, 29. Internews Central Asia(www.internews.org) works with localnongovernmental organizations in anenvironment of prolonged low-intensityconflict in the Ferghana Valley of Tajiki-stan to provide a media spectrum-wideprogram which includes basic journalismtraining, advocacy for a supportive mediainfrastructure, conflict-sensitizedjournalism, and intended outcome youth-oriented radio programming.

5. IMPACS Cambodia Journalists’ Train-ing Project (www.impacs.org) since 1998has strengthened democracy in Cambodiaby assisting in the development of moreindependent, open and accountable radiojournalism in the highly subjective andfractious media environment there. Thetraining program focuses on radio, whichis the only country-wide news medium buthas no tradition of trained practitioners.

7. A Bosnia-Herzogovina assistanceprogram launched in 1996 by internationalorganizations to rapidly create a diverseindependent media industry, to counterstate propaganda and to educate, enhancedemocracy and empower audiences. Itproduced an artificial donor-dependentindustry of poor journalistic skills that wasuncompetitive with popular ethnocentricgovernment outlets. Unrealistic timelines,a lack of localized “ownership” of theinitiatives, and unattractive programmingproduced modest or minimal contributionsto democratization.

8. Reseau Liberte ([email protected]) is a Canadian programwhich provides media training from basicreporting to investigative and documentarywork, through advancing levels ofsophistication for repeat trainees. It hasdelivered programs in Kosovo, Vietnamand African countries.

9. Department of Media Affairs, OSCEMission in Kosovo (www.osce.org/kosovo/media/index.htm). An internationalorganization assisting the creation ofconditions for free media in Kosovo andBosnia, it temporarily regulates and licenselocal media and with local advisors isdeveloping laws and standards for themedia. It also provides training, technicalassistance and inter-agency coordination.

10. Media Action International’s(www.mediaction.org) Journalists inConflict Program sensitizes and trainsjournalists working in conflict areas tohumanitarian values and peacebuildingand conflict resolution perspectives.

11. Conflict and Peace Journalism Forum(www.conflictandpeace.org) focuses on therole of the news media, both in conflictand in the active construction of peace,with an emphasis on sensitizing journaliststo a more accurate way of framing stories.

12. The Centre for Conflict Resolution(www.cecore.org) in Uganda holdsworkshops for media outlets and membersto examine their roles in peacebuilding andto develop conflict resolution skills,including sensitizing reporters to Africantraditional mechanisms of dealing withpeace and reconciliation. A media andpeacebuilding skills training manual isunder development.

13. Studio Ijambo (www.sfcg.org) wascreated by Search for Common Ground tospecifically counter a recurrence in Burundiof genocidal hate radio’s impact in Rwanda.The production studio uses teams of Hutuand Tutsi journalists to produce multiplelanguage programs fostering conciliationthrough public affairs and entertainmentprogramming for local stations’ use.

14. South Asian Editors’ Forum(www.peaceinitiatives.org) has since 1998strengthened communication and raisedconfidence among formerly hostile seniormedia managers of the highly influentialindigenous local-language press in India,Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and SriLanka, though meetings, journalistexchanges, and joint publications toreshape public opinion towards compatiblerelations.

15. The Alliance for Peace Communications([email protected]) was created by adiversity of Philippine interests in 1998-1999, including former insurgents, allconcerned with media preoccupation withpeace breakdowns despite an emergingclimate of peace. Regional seminars andexchanges involving journalists identifiedtheir information gaps, the excessiveconflict coverage, and the need for contextand reconciliation coverage.

16. The Peace Journalism Training projectin Indonesia ([email protected])helped local journalists address mediaresponsibility in the 1999-2001 postmedia-suppression and democratic transi-tion period, using techniques pioneered byConflict and Peace Journalism Forumssuch as dealing frankly with the sources oftension, correcting misconcep-tions andsensitizing reporters to conflict resolutionpractices.

17. Radio Blue Sky was established for theUnited Nations in Kosovo by FondationHirondelle (www.hirondelle.org) in 1999as an emergency source of informationprograms to specifically open dialogue anddemocratic debate in Albanian, Serb, andTurkish communities. In July 2000, itachieved localized sustainability as thesecond network of public servicebroadcaster RTK.

18. Reporting for Peace is operated byInternews (www.internews.org) in conflict-stressed regions of Indonesia to train localradio-print journalists to recognize theirability to encourage the peace process byincluding a focus on tolerance, defused con-flict and reconciliation in balanced reporting.

19. Nashe Maalo, by Search for CommonGround, (www.cpgonline.org) is a ground-breaking children’s television series aimed



at reducing potential conflict among thehighly segmented communities and ethno-centric media in multi-cultural Macedonia.The entertaining series overcomesstereotypes and alters perceptions byoffering children insights into othercultures and modeling positive strategiesfor conflict coping. The series, launched in1999 and aired across the country, has hadmeasurable positive effect.

20. Operation Spear was launchedby Media Action International(www.mediaction.org) to quickly producepreviously unavailable humanitarianinformation programs for refugees on stateradio in Albania, Kosovo and Macedonia,concurrent with NATO Alliance action inthe region. Freeplay (clockwork) radioswere distributed to refugee camps.

21. Talking Drum Studio Liberia(www.sfcg.org) produces programs forlocal radio and newspaper outlets withthe primary goal of reducing politicaland ethnic violence by stressing peace,reconciliation and democratization. Since1997, it has gained a 90% name and 75%content recognition among Liberians forits interesting news and entertainmentprogramming, such as radio dramasillustrating social and problems witha view to finding solutions, and child-produced programs aimed at formerchild combatants. A similar studio inSierra Leone was launched in 2001.

22. Radio Agatashya was first establishedby Swiss journalists from Reporters SansFrontieres (www.rsf.fr), later operated byFondation Hirondelle, to counter thegenocidal incitements of Radio MilleCollines in Rwanda in 1994. For severalmonths after the genocide, it broadcasthumanitarian information andprogramming into Rwanda from

neighbouring Zaire designed to counterprejudices created by the hate radio. Beforeits demise due to funding and local conflictdifficulties, it had become widelyappreciated by residents as a reassuringsource of unbiased information.

23. The international humanitarianorganization War Child (www.warchild.org),supported by the music industry andfocusing on children, established aPavarotti Music Centre, which uses musictherapy to establish communicationbetween former child combatants andenemies in Bosnia. The organization hasalso used modern technology to establishlinks and interactivity between Westernchildren and those in conflict-affectedcountries.

24. BBC World Service’s (www.bbc.co.uk)radio drama entitled “New Home, NewLife” has been beamed into Afghanistansince 1996. Crafted by Afghan writers,producers and actors, the productionsimpart information on humanitarian andreconciliation themes through storylinesdealing with issues such as clean births,safe motherhood, children in conflict, mineawareness, and conflict resolution. It isestimated over half the country listens tothe short-wave broadcasts.

25. UNTAC Radio was a United Nationsintervention to inform the people ofCambodia about the United NationsTransitional Authority and the introduc-tion of free elections. It expanded frommodest broadcasting of basic primers onthe democratic process in 1992 to country-wide educational, news, entertainment andpublic affairs radio programmingpromoting reconciliation. The highlypopular service went off the air, withouta successor, upon installation of ademocratic government in late 1993.

26. Internews (www.internews.org) hasprovided regular English-language printnews coverage of the United NationsInternational Criminal Tribunal forRwanda since 1997, and more recentlysimilar proceedings in the Balkans. Thecoverage is intended to keep human rightson the global agenda, and to fosterreconciliation among victims, byrecognizing their suffering anddemonstrating that justice will prevail.

27. The Media Peace Centre,(www.mediapeacecentre.org) established in1992 as the media arm of the multi-partybody administering South Africa’s PeaceAccord, produces media that facilitatesreconciliation, justice and peace-building.It has pioneered using journalists groundedin conflict resolution skills, and projectsusing media, including a national radiostation, video dialogues, and a 39-partthree-year television/radio series onAfrica’s challenges, to generate dialogueamong conflicting parties.


20

Lessons Learned

1 . FOR DONORS

• Donors must avoid temptation toparachute in a project of their design,rather than funding the process ofworking with indigenously owned andoperated media sources on asustainable basis.

• In emerging democracies, basicjournalism skills and diversity of outletsmay improve long before they are fullyindependent. International donors mustrecognize that local media operatorsmay labour under prolonged localconstraints and pressures to remainadvocates for one interest.

• Donors should recognize that equip-ment and skills development arejeopardized in the absence of initialunderwriting of basic requirementssuch as rent, electricity and staff wages.

• Prolonged, intractable conflict environ-ments require sustained, well-resourcedmedia intervention.

• Donor funding should be linked toresponsible editorial content. Donorsshould demand gender non-discriminatory hiring at all levels.

• Specific evaluations by conventionalanalysis can be difficult for mediaprojects. Attitudinal change may bethe best indicator, which is reflectedby qualitative indicators that requireextended measurement periods.

• Donors should direct projects toemphasize diversity, and to work withvarious media outlets, to ensure the

project is not perceived as too linked toan individual media outlet that reflectspowerful authorities’ interests.

2 . FOR IMPLEMENTERS

• Anticipated results should be definedwith the local people involved in aspecific project. They are the partnerswho must continue the work after theoriginal intervenors are gone. To do so,they must believe in the project.

• It is essential to remain flexible.Trainers must have or adapt to theskills experience of the target group sothey can pass on the appropriate skills.

• Except during hot conflict, inter-national advisors should not assumedirect management of media outlets.This is the job for locals.

• Be prepared for prolonged periods ofdeveloping good relations with a localpartner. Extensive prior consultation isvital.

• On-site training is much superior tounrelated training environments.

Kenneth C

onteh

• The willingness of media managers toabsorb and implement the benefits oftraining of their workers is essential.This absorption of media benefitsshould be verified through monitoringof the media following the training.

• Project coordination needs to includean exit strategy, preferably built on theself-sustainability of the project.

• Message development should be care-fully done: satire can be dangerous.

• Interventions should not focus onneeds, but rather focus on identifying,mobilizing, and strengtheningcommunity or local assets.

3 . GENERAL LESSONS

• The faster that journalism codes ofconduct and the state’s mechanisms ofmedia regulation and protection are inplace, the sooner all interests canexperience the rights and obligations ofthe media. Reforming the legal-legislative environment has potentialfor long-lasting institutional change.

• Media projects should be accompaniedby a monitoring system, to identifyproblems, refine goals and ensurecompliance with any media codes ofconduct. Monitoring results, particu-larly of elections and election coverage,should be publicly available.

• Nongovernmental organizationsshould, if appropriate, be able to showinvolvement in similar work in theirhome country, to avoid charges ofhypocrisy or condescension.

• The willingness of othernongovernmental organizations tocooperate is a significant advantage.Coordination and information-sharingand appropriate distribution of servicesand equipment, is essential.

• Language is an essential element. Teammembers should speak the languages usedby the conflicting members of society.

• There needs to be a sense of ownership

of programming by the audience itself,in Types Four and Five initiatives. Themedia project must seek to offer whatthe audience wants.

• It is crucial to make one’s project astransparent and accessible as possibleto avoid accusations of partisanship.

• Reliance on peacekeeping forces orother organizations such as the UnitedNations should be made on a case-by-case basis. There needs to be sufficientspace to maintain independence at alltimes.

• Even in post-conflict environments, themedia will not be perceived as a neutralinterest by all major interests. A broadcoalition of support is essential.

• Relations with local authorities need tobe carefully monitored: maintain arespectful if distant relationship inenvironments of hostile authorities. It isbetter to withdraw from a country andset up operations nearby than to bowto unfair or unprincipled demands oflocal authorities.

• Poorly paid media workers, vulnerableto bribes and biased reporting, are amajor deterrent to free media.Adequate remuneration and respect forindependent journalism are essential toany project’s sustainability.

• In certain situations, it is not possible tointervene, even if desired. Differenttypes of conflict require differentresponses. There is a need to differ-entiate between conflict and violence.

Lessons Lea rned • 21

22

Appendix A

Media Initiatives

QUEST IONS THAT W ILL HELP

DETERMINE THE CONTEXT

OF A MED IA PEACEBUILD ING

INTERVENT ION

1. What is the current situation: conflict,pre- or post-conflict? (A conflictsituation will require more Type Four orFive interventions; pre- and post-conflictinterventions will require more long-termdevelopment program designs fromTypes One to Three.)Explanation: A conflict situation, or theimmediate aftermath of a conflict, willusually not be conducive to long-termdevelopment projects. Immediateobjectives – like elections or humani-tarian assistance – usually have greaterpriority and oftentimes are more easilycomplemented by Types Four and Fivemedia inter-ventions. However, muchdepends on partner organizations.Regions hosting a larger internationalpresence can enjoy a number of differentprojects implemented simultaneously. Itis possible for a country to host TypesOne through Five media interventions atthe same time.

2. What are the policies of the internationalcommunity? Peacekeeping mission?Does the issue only fall within regionalgeopolitical interests? Are regionalpeacekeepers deployed (sanctioned ornot sanctioned by UN)? Has a full sitecountry and region conflict assessmentbeen done? Are they or are they not

accompanied by official civilian missions?What diplomatic corps resides in thecountry? Have the international mediamobilized public support for assistance?Explanation: It is imperative to deter-mine how many other, and which,organizations are active in the region andwhether or not your country maintainsdiplomatic representation in the region.The lack of one usually signals anincrease level of risk in implementing anypeacebuilding intervention. Activities ofother organizations will also clarify whatpartnerships can be developed, whatactivities are already being conducted,and the level of international interest inthe region. This will all lend a betterunderstanding of the resources availablefor interventions.

QUEST IONS TO ASK IN

DETERMIN ING THE TYPE

OF MED IA IN IT IAT IVE

3. What is the content of the media? (Youmay find that the government authoritiesallow only a single perception to bebroadcast; that the content of broadcastsor publication vary on locale/warlordswithin a single region; or that a varietyof opinions are made available to thepublic. You may also find that all newsis presented through a nationalized lens,or any other spin that incites furtherdivisions in that particular society.)How does the media define coverage?Explanation: Analysis of the content will

allow initiative developers to understandwhere the issues lie. Further analysis willreveal if content is a result of restrictivelegislation, the economic situation, lackof experience and education (wartimebrain-drain often results in untrainedprofessionals learning on-the-job), lackof willingness to support peace efforts,direct or indirect pressures from outsideauthorities, misperceptions aboutreporting; or, a combination of some orall of the above.

4. What is the role of the national media inthis particular situation? Does it affectcivil society by disseminating politicizedor biased information? Or, are journa-lists being detained under criminal charges,punished or sued by authorities for theirreporting?Explanation: Identification of the roleof media will help determine the levelof democratization and the level ofempowerment of civil society in thatparticular region. Extremely biaseddissemination of information cansometimes signal the existence of ahighly centralized government (orauthority) seeking to impose rule fromthe top rather than foster a participatorysociety at the grassroots level. Types Oneto Three interventions in these cases aredifficult and oftentimes Type Four andFive have been applied in these situations(classic examples were the cold warVoice of America and Radio Free Europeinterventions). The detention, punishmentof, or civil lawsuits against, journalistscan sometimes reflect a weakauthoritarian government.

5. Is the media able to access informationfrom both government and outside(including international) sources? Is freeaccess to information hindered by localauthorities? Are journalists restrained bysevere economic factors (in some caseseconomic constraints may also stemfrom politicized causes)?

Explanation: The (non) access toinformation and reasons for it can helpidentify what specific intervention needsto be organized. For example, Types Oneand Two interventions would benecessary in cases where economicconditions keep journalists fromaccessing training opportunities, keeppractitioners from accessing internet, etc.In some cases, Types Four and Fiveinterventions may be applicable (likeinterventionist entertainment or newsprogramming) where civil society doesnot receive objective news or wherenegative emotions are heightened bybroadcasts controlled by ruling authorities.

6. What type of support exists for a mediainitiative? (Is there local and/or inter-national support)? Are you familiar withthe goals and expectations of supporters?Is the local legislative frameworkconducive to free media development?Does the local economy support theexistence of free media? Will the govern-ment be a supporter or act as an obstacleto your initiatives?Explanation: Training, technical equip-ment and any capacity-building andpeace journalism programs require long-term commitment from local partners.In selecting partners for such projects,ensure your goals complement those ofyour partners/supporters throughresearch and discussion in order to avoiddifficulties later on. Local legislation isusually the most revealing about thestate of the media. Also, the absence ofa regulatory framework and body orrepressive legislation will provide thebackground and starting point for anymedia initiative. Lastly, local economicconditions will reflect the ability ofmedia to survive commercially (for thepurpose of developing a sustainableinitiative) and thus provide diversity ofopinion or remain independent of thestate in areas where the state does notwish to support public broadcasting.

Append i x A • 23


7. Among national project supporters,which ones would be the most likely toshare a strong interest in conflictresolution? What is the relationshipbetween media outlets in this particularregion?Explanation: Sometimes willingness tocooperate can be based on mutualprofessional interests, e.g. reportingcapacity/information sharing, or amutual interest in conflict resolution.The nature of the willingness will helpdetermine the type of initiative to design.

8. What type of media is the most widelyused in the region/country? Electronic(radio or television) or print (news-papers)? What is the estimated targetpopulation? What are the reasons for theprevalence preference of one media overthe other (economic, illiteracy, etc.)?Explanation: Any effective popularintervention will need to utilize themost widespread form of media.

9. What are possible effects of initiating amedia intervention? What are thepossible repercussions for not proceedingwith a media intervention?Explanation: Overlooking media as partof an overall peacebuilding initiative canbe damaging to those efforts.Dissemination of information to thepublic is a powerful negative tool whencontrolled by warlords and othersdisinterested in maintaining peace.Alternatively, civil society cannotfunction without public information anddialogue: reconciliation, refugee return,recovery, reconstruction anddemocratization are severely hamperedwithout the help of a healthy media. It is,however, imperative to assess the level ofthreat to the safety of individuals involvedand determine intervention accordingly.

10. What is the level of technicalinfrastructure in place to supportbroadcast and print media? Are thereprinting presses operable? Are thereavailable supplies of newsprint? Arethere transmitters? What is theavailability of other logistical andtechnical requirements?Explanation: Knowing the limits of tech-nical capacity and costs of equipmentwill be instrumental in determining whattype of programming is possible, e.g., theneed to import paper for printing or theexistence of few or weak transmitters forradio or television broadcasting.

11. What is the history of mediainterventions? Who has led these? Havethey been successful?Explanation: Before determining the typeof intervention to be made, it isimperative to learn the history ofprevious interventions and programs.Their outcomes will identify what worksand what does not (lessons learned) andwhat is the current context.

12. What was the impetus for this initiative?Is it sustainable? Is the initiative theproduct of local inspiration or donor-driven? How integrated are localpartners in the decision-making andoperation?Explanation: Initiatives which respond toexisting local media operations with theprovision of training or technology maybe more sensitive to and reflective of thelocal community. Entirely new start-upinitiatives or new media driven byinternational community funding orinterests need adequate local partners,reflecting locally-identified needs. Long-term sustainability, or a responsible exitstrategy if international funding ends,must be considered.

25

Appendix B

Initiatives

KEY QUEST IONS FOR ALL

PROJECT AND PROGRAM

FORMULAT ION IN IT IAT IVES

• What is your mandate?• What is the current situation?• What are possible strategies?• What is your vision?• What are your objectives (immediate,

medium-term and long-term)?• Having considered more, what is the

most optimal strategy?• What resources are available to you?• What partnerships will you develop, do

you already have?• What are your inputs into the initiative?• What are your planned activities?• How will you monitor and evaluate the

outputs (objectives?)• What is your timeline?• What are the possible risks?

26

Appendix C

Resources

Available on the web (See Table 3 for examplesof other initiatives). For a more detailed list ofmedia and peacebuilding resources, pleaseseethe IMPACS website atwww.impacs.org/media/links.html

Article 19: London-based international NGOwhich champions media freedoms, monitorsabuses, provides research, training andsupport. http://www.article19.org.

Carnegie Commission on Preventing DeadlyConflict. Final Report, chapters five andseven.See www.ccpdc.org/pubs/rept97/toc.htm.

Centre for War, Peace and the News Media:Research, journalism monitoring andanalysis and specific media capacity-buildingprojects. See www.nyu.edu/cwpnm.

Conciliation Resources: Research,publications, and resources on media andpeacebuilding; see African Media andConflict. See www.c-r.org.

The Communications Initiative:Communications Interventions forSustainable Development – best singlesource of information on all aspects of allmedia potential in development, modestlyincludes peacebuilding specifically:exceptional, massive demonstration of theconstantly updateable power of websites toassemble and categorize. Seewww.comminit.com.

Committee to Protect Journalists: A non-profit, non-partisan organization dedicatedto the global defense of press freedom. Seewww.cpj.org.

Creative Associates International Inc: ConflictPrevention, A Guide. Toolbox Section 24:Peace Media. See www.caii-dc.com.

Department for International Development,Government of the United Kingdom:Working With the Media in Conflicts andOther Emergencies, a concise guide toappropriate media interventions for DFIDstaff, partners and agencies. Includesresources list. DFID CHAD Dept.,London, Tel 020-7917-0697.

European Centre for Conflict Prevention:Research and projects. Seewww.euconflict.org.

European Journalism Centre: Information ontraining activities and tools or journalists.See www.ejc.nl.

Freedom Forum: Research, training andsupport for media freedom in emergingdemocracies.See www.freedomforum.org/international.

Fondation Hirondelle: Media and peace-building projects. See www.hirondelle.org.

Forum on Early Warning and Early Response– FEWER: Created following internationalstudy conducted on Rwandan genocide in1994 that concluded there was ampleevidence about the conflict and impendingviolence but a lack of coordination andefforts to prevent it. Research conductedon conflict, international focus. Seewww.fewer.org

IMPACS – Institute for Media, Policy andCivil Society: leading Canadian NGOexplorer of media’s potential in conflictreduction/civil society enhancement. Alsosee website directory of more than 100agencies, NGOs and funders focused onmedia as a peacebuilding instrument.See www.impacs.org.

Institute for War and Peace Reporting:Reports and research on mediamonitoring, media conditions and electioncoverage. See www.iwpr.net.

International Centre for Journalists: Providesjournalistic training, media managementand technical expertise. See www.icfj.org.

Internews: Provides a media spectrum-wideof initiatives including basic journalismtraining, advocacy for a supportive mediainfrastructure, conflict-sensitized journal-ism, and intended outcome programming.See www.internews.org.

IREX Promedia program: Journalism train-ing, legal infrastructure, media assistance.See www.irex.org.

Media Action International: Research, train-ing and publications on the role of mediain conflict situations.See www.mediaaction.org.

Operational Frameworks for Peacebuilding:A compendium of frameworks, strategiesand analytical tools for approachingpeacebuilding with focus on particularthemes such as gender equity, conflict-affected children, media, education, orsmall arms reduction.See: http://www.adci-cida.gc.ca/peace

OSCE Representative on Freedom of theMedia: Monitors media freedom in OSCEmember states and provides early warningof abuses; provides research and supporton media freedoms.See: www.osce.org/fom

The Panos Institute: Research, training andsupport for journalism.See www.oneworld.org/panos.

Soros Foundations Network: Media programprovides support and training for journal-ism development, especially in Eastern andSouthern Europe. See www.soros.org.

Reporting the World: Site by journalists forthose with an interest on media andpeacebuilding. Includes directory ofpractitioners and journalists, seminarreports on conflict issues and a detailedroundtable report on “An EthnicalFramework for Reporting of Conflicts.”See www.reportingtheworld.org.

Search for Common Ground: A leadingpractitioner of media and peacebuilding:innovative, exceptionally high quality,diverse capabilities; worldwide pioneers inimpact assessment. See www.sfcg.org.

US AID’s Center for Democracy andGovernance: Technical Publications Series:The Role of the Media in Democracy:A Strategic Approach for Media SectorSupport. Oriented to US missions abroad,for use in post-conflict environments.Highly detailed. See www.usaid.gov/democracy/pdfs/pnace630.pdf.

Append i x C • 27

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