an introduction to researching writing an essay 2012-06

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An Introduction to Researching and Writing an

Essay for Undergraduate Students in Advertising,Communications, Journalism, Marketing, Media

and u!lic Relations in the "aculty of Arts and

#esign at the University of Can!erra$

A. Dickerson and C. Hope

Faculty of Arts & Design

University of Canberra, 200

Co!piled and edited by

"tep#en $a%ton 202

Contents

. Analysing t#e essay 'uestion

2. (asic )esearc# "kills

*. +#at is an ssay-

. (asic For!at for ssays. +riting "tyle for ssays

/. +#at is a paragrap#-

. +riting t#e 1ntroduction

. +riting t#e Conclusion

3. )eferencing

0. 4lagiaris!

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%$ Analysing the Essay &uestion

5#e first stage in %riting any essay is analysing t#e 'uestion carefully. 1n ot#er %ords, you need to

%ork out e6actly %#at it is you are being asked to do.

A large nu!ber of essays fail or ot#er%ise get very bad !arks, not because t#e %riters are

unintelligent or t#e essays are badly %ritten, but si!ply because the essay does not answer the setquestion. 5#us it is crucially i!portant to analyse t#e 'uestion.

Any essay 'uestion %ill contain at least t%o ele!ents. Firstly, it %ill contain infor!ation about t#e

contentt#at it concerns 7e.g., %#et#er it is a 'uestion about "aussure8s !odel of se!iotics, or

9c$u#an8s t#eory of !edia, t#e role of ideology in fil!, etc., etc.:. "econdly, t#e 'uestion %ill

al!ost al%ays contain one or !ore verbs t#at tell you %#at to do%it# t#at content ;i.e., %#et#er

you are to analyseit, or explainit, or discussit and so on.

in t#e 'uestionDiscuss ideological

themes in the film Pearl Harour!, it %ould be i!portant to define @ideology8.

As a general bit of advice= do notbase your definitions on ordinary dictionary entries. "pecialist

dictionaries 7e.g., of 4#ilosop#y, of "ocial 5#eory, of Co!!unication: can be appropriate. (ut if

t#e definition of a ter! is a !aor part of an essay 7i.e. !ore t#an one paragrap#: you %ould be

e6pected to s#o% so!e a%areness of #o% different !aor t#eorists #ave used t#e %ord and t#e !ain

advantages and disadvantages of eac# proposed definition.

)$ Analysis

5#is is usually signalled by suc# verbs as explain, analyse" compare, criticise" contrast, review,

discuss or critically discuss. +#at counts as @analysis8 depends very !uc# on t#e area of

kno%ledge, but in general it could be said t#at it is describing %it# particular purposes in !ind ;per#aps to s#o% si!ilarities or differences or to reveal underlying patterns or sources or causes and

so fort#. Analysis often overlaps %it# evaluation.

*$ Evaluation

9any areas of researc# are controversial ;different t#eorists disagree about %#at t#e facts are,

%#at t#e correct approac#es to t#e subect !atter are, and so on. 1n !any essays you %ill be asked

to evaluate suc# a controversy ;to %eig# up t#e argu!ents on eac# side and reac# your o%n

position. 5#is is one of t#e !ost difficult tasks you %ill be set at university.

5#e task of evaluation !ay be signalled by verbs suc# as assessand critically discuss. Anot#er

co!!on %ay of setting t#is task is for t#e essay 'uestion to consist of a 'uotation 7giving one side

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of t#e dispute: follo%ed by so!et#ing like @Discuss8 or @Do you agree-8 7e.g. @Popular culture is

degraded and worthless!# Discuss#:.

+#en asked to evaluate, t#ere is one very co!!on !istake t#at students !ake. 5#ey %rite an

essay t#at consists of a su!!ary of t#e argu!ents in favour of one side, follo%ed by a su!!ary of

t#e argu!ents in favour of t#e ot#er side. 5#is is not an evaluation= it is !erely description. 1f your

task involves evaluation, t#en your essay %ill need to committo a position on t#e issue ;for t#e

!arker %ants to kno%youropinion. 5#is does not!ean adding at t#e end of your essay t#ee'uivalent of @And 1 t#ink side A is correct8. For your opinion is only valuable if it is a reasoned

opinion ;t#at is, based on argu!ent, logic and evidence.

5o evaluate properly, you need to do t#e follo%ing. After co!pleting your researc#, decide %#ere

you stand on t#e issue 7in ot#er %ords, ask yourself whichargu!ents strike you as stronger or !ore

convincing, and why:. Bou t#en need to build a case for your point of vie%. 5#is case %ill consist

of t%o t#ings=

7a: argu!ent and evidence in its favour> and

7b: a consideration of argu!ents and evidence t#at appear to go against your case;s#o%ing

%#at 7you t#ink: is wrong%it# t#ose argu!ents 7e.g. t#at t#ey are based on false assu!ption4, t#at t#e evidence is %eak for reason , etc.:.

5#e first ti!e you are asked to take a stand in t#is %ay, you !ay find it very t#reatening 7as t#ere

are no obvious @rig#t ans%ers8 or @aut#orities8 to rely upon ;because t#e @aut#orities8 disagree %it#

one anot#er:. Ho%ever, it is a crucially i!portant part of beco!ing an independent, critical t#inker.

+$ Inter'retation

1n essays in literary criticis!, or se!iotics, or fil! studies, you %ill often be asked to interpretso!e

cultural te6t 7a book, a fil!, a picture, and so on: ;t#at is, to discuss what it means. A centrally

i!portant part of any suc# essay %ill be careful and detailed attention to whatyou are interpreting.

For e6a!ple, if you are interpreting a %ritten te6t, your essay %ill usually be e6pected to containrelevant 'uotations fro! t#at te6t %#ic# are t#en discussed in so!e detail.

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($ asic Research Skills

$earning #o% to researc# assign!ents 7eit#er essays or reports: is a funda!ental skill ;you are

very unlikely to succeed at university %it#out it. )esearc#ing and reading %idely does at least t%o

t#ings= 7: it %ill give you a broader and !ore critical understanding of an area of kno%ledge> and

72: it %ill provide you %it# !odels you can use to i!prove your o%n %riting.

5oo !any students rely on poor'uality %ebbased sources for t#eir researc#. "peaking generally,

suc# @Eooglebased8 researc# !akes a very poor i!pression on !arkers, and %ill reduce your

grades. +#ilst carefully c#osen %ebbased sources can be useful for researc#ing so!e topics, in

!any areas t#ere is no substitute for #ig#'uality, sc#olarly books and ournal articles. 5#is section

t#us concentrates on basic %ays of accessing t#ese.

a good te6tbook %ill also include @suggestions for furt#er reading8

on a topic. 5#ese all provide leads t#at s#ould be follo%ed up.

Develop a set of key%ords fro! t#e above to guide your searc# in t#e follo%ing stages.

($ "inding sources .%st stage/

1n general, it is best to begin by searc#ing for books rat#er t#an ournal articles. As your

understanding of t#e area i!proves, you %ill be in a better position to find useful and

relevant ournal articles.

Fro! t#e UC $ibrary #o!e page select G"ubect Euides. 5#ese contain links to books and

databases specific to your discipline.

"earc# t#e library database using relevant key%ords and subect ter!s. 5#e @Advanced

"earc#8 option %ill allo% !ore precise searc#es> t#e %ildcard c#aracter 7t#e asterisk= I: can

also be useful 7e.g., t#e searc#ter! @co!!unicatI8 %ill find @co!!unicating8,

@co!!unicator8, @co!!unication8, etc.:.


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)$ Reading selectively

2. "ki! read c#apters or sections e.g., ust read t#e first sentence of eac# paragrap# 7t#e @topicsentence8: to find t#e !ost relevant paragrap#s. 5#en read t#ose in detail>

*. )eading abstracts of articles to deter!ine if t#ey %ill be useful to read in full later.

*$ 0ote1taking 2hile reading

1t is essential to take effective notes %#ile you are reading. 9any students takes notes t#at

are far too detailed 7or p#otocopy everything:. Bou s#ould only note do%n t#ings t#at are

directly relevant to your topic and argu!ent.

Al%ays re!e!ber to !ake it clear in your notes %#at t#e source of t#e infor!ation is. 1t is

very frustrating to find a useful fact, statistic, or 'uotation in one8s notes, but not kno% fro!

%#ere it ca!e. +#ile reading, keep an eye out for useful direct 'uotations. )e!e!ber to be very clear in

your notes %#ic# parts are 'uotations and %#ic# are your o%n su!!aries and parap#rases.

1f t#is is not clear, t#en you are in danger of plagiarising by accident.

+$ "inding sources .(nd stage/

5#e basic %ay of e6tending your researc# is to look at t#e @sc#olarly apparatus8 of t#e books

you #ave already got. $hat is" loo% at the sources &oo%s and articles' that they cite in their

foot(end)notes" and in their iliographies# 9any of t#ese %ill probably be relevant to your

o%n researc#.

Bou can also e6tend your searc#ing into t#e library8s databases of ournal articles. )ecentournal articles %ill be !ore uptodate t#an books, and tend to be #ig#ly specific in topic.

5#eir disadvantage is t#at !any of t#e! are %ritten by and for specialists in t#e area, and

can t#us be very tec#nical and difficult.

1f you are not fa!iliar %it# t#e databases, t#en access t#e! via t#e K"ubect EuidesK link on

t#e UC $ibrary #o!e page. 5#ese list relevant databases and ot#er resources by subect.

1f you cannot find sources in t#e UC library, don8t forget about t#e ational $ibrary.

Alt#oug# you cannot borro% sources fro! t#is library, you can read and p#otocopy t#e!

t#ere. 5#ere is also t#e AU library, %#ic# is useful for getting ournal articles in older

volu!es of ournals 7t#at are not in t#e UC library:. 9ost of t#ese are #eld in t#e base!ent

of t#e Hancock library at t#e AU, and can be p#otocopied t#ere.

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)$ What is an Essay3A university essay is a very structured piece of %riting. 5#at is, t#ere are !any rules or

@conventions8 t#at govern #o% it s#ould be done. 1f you %ant to do %ell at university study, you

need to be fa!iliar %it# t#ese rules. For!al essays are very different fro! creative %riting pieces,

ournal entries, pieces of ournalis!, and so fort#. (eing able to %rite %ell in t#ese ot#er genres is

no guarantee of being able to %rite good essays.

%$ 4he structure of the essay

An essay s#ould consist of t#ree parts= t#e introduction, t#e ody, and t#e conclusion. 5oget#er, t#e

introduction and t#e conclusion act as a fra!e for t#e essay ;t#e real %ork is done by t#e body. 1 n

a little !ore detail=

7: 5#e introductionis t#e first paragrap#. 1t infor!s t#e reader %#at t#e topic of t#e essay is,

and provides a @!ap8 of t#e essay8s argu!ent>

72: 5#e conclusionis t#e final paragrap#. 1t dra%s toget#er and su!!arises t#e essay8s

argu!ent> and

72: 5#e odyof t#e essay consists of all t#e paragrap#s bet%een t#e introduction and t#e

conclusion. 5#e body is %#ere t#e argu!ent of t#e essay is actually laid out.

($ 4he argument of the essay

5#e basic purpose of an essay is to respond to a 'uestion, by providing an ans%er and supporting

t#at ans%er %it# evidence. 5#e %ay in %#ic# you ans%er t#e essay 'uestion is called t#e argument

of your essay. 5#e 'uality of your essay8s argu!ent is t#e !ain t#ing t#at deter!ines t#e grade you

%ill receive.

5o say t#at an essay #as an argu!ent, !eans t#at it consists of a logicallyordered se'uence of

points 7i.e. it #as aplan:, %#ic# all go toget#er to ans%er t#e set topic 7i.e., it is all relevant:, and%#ic# are carefully e6plained and supported by evidence 7i.e. it is all *ustified:.

Bou s#ould ask yourself at least t%o 'uestions about everythingt#at you %rite in an essay=

. #oes this hel' to ans2er the 5uestion3 1f not, it isn8t relevant, and s#ould be deleted>

and

2. #o I have sufficient evidence to su''ort this claim3 1f not, t#en you s#ould eit#er

find so!e !ore evidence for t#e clai!, or delete it.

)$ lanning the essay

1t is al!ost i!possible to %rite a good essay straig#t off t#e top of one8s #ead= good essays need a

lot of %ork at t#eplanningstage. "o!e students prefer to plan efore%riting t#e first draft> ot#ers

prefer to %rite a very !essy first draft 7so as to get t#eir ideas out on paper:, and thenplan.

+#atever approac# you prefer, by t#e end of t#e planning stage you s#ould kno% t#e follo%ing.

Firstly,for each paragraph, you s#ould kno% %#at its purpose is 7i.e., %#at point it is going to

!ake:. "econdly,for each paragraph, you s#ould #ave so!e collection of 7researc#based:

evidencefor your point ;relevant e6a!ples, facts, statistics, t#eories, 'uotations, etc. 5#e ob of

drafting is t#en to %rite paragrap#s t#at !ake t#eir points, using t#e evidence t#at you #ave

collected.

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*$ Suggested stages in 2riting an essay

.


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*$ asic "ormat for Essays

"o!e courses %ill vary in t#eir for!atting re'uire!ents for essays 7e.g. so!e %ill #ave special

cover s#eets, and so fort#: and you s#ould al%ays follo% t#e instructions in your course outline

carefully. 1f you are unsure on a particular point, consult your tutor or lecturer.

Ho%ever, in general, t#e follo%ing is t#e basic for!at you s#ould follo% for for!al essays.

. Do not use sub#eadings.

2. Do not use dotpoints.

*. At t#e end of your essay, include a list of references #eaded )eferences of all and only t#e

%orks t#at you #ave referred to or cited in t#e essay, in alp#abetical order by aut#or surna!e.

. 1ndicate t#e beginning of eac# paragrap# clearly, by indenting 7press 5ab: t#e first line of eac#

paragrap# and?or by leaving an e6tra blank line bet%een eac# paragrap#.

. (e very sparing %it# your use of e!p#asis 7italics, bold, underline:. 1t is very irritatingto read

sentencest#at containa lotof emphasis. Use only one for! of e!p#asis.Don't

overemphasise.

/. Use a legible font of reasonable siLe 7e.g., 2 point 5i!es or Arial:. Do not be te!pted to use

fancy fonts.

. 4rinting s#ould only be in black ink on %#ite A paper.

. 4rint on one side of t#e paper only.

3. Bour essays !ust be doublespaced. 5#is !eans= a blank line is left bet%een eac# line of print.

1n 9" +ord, go to+ormat, t#enParagraph, t#enLine ,pacing, and select @Double8.

0. $eave a generous !argin 7e.g. 2. c! !argins all round:.. u!ber your pages consecutively. 71n 9" +ord, go toInsert, t#enPage -umers.:

2. "taple your essay in t#e top left#and corner.

*. Bour essay !ust #ave a covers#eet. Usually, t#is s#ould include your na!e, student nu!ber,

contact p#one nu!ber and?or e!ail address, tutorial details, and c#osen essay topic.

. Do not use pictures 7e.g., 9" Clip Art: on your cover page or in t#e body of t#e essay ;unless

t#ese pictures are part of your argu!ent, and are referred to in t#e essay. 1n ot#er %ords, no

gratuitouspictures s#ould be used.

. "ticking to t#e %ordli!it is part of t#e task. or!ally, a variation of M0N is acceptable.

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+$ Writing Style for Essays

5#ere is no fi6ed style in %#ic# essays !ust be %ritten. 1n part, %#at counts as acceptable style %ill

depend upon t#e discipline in %#ic# you are %riting 7e.g., sociology of co!!unication tends to be

%ritten in a very different %ay fro! literary analysis:. ac# person8s o%n @voice8 and personality

%ill be reflected in t#eir %riting style. Ho%ever, across al!ost all disciplines, t#ere are certain

basic e6pectations about acade!ic style 7of course, t#ere %ill al%ays be so!e e6ceptions:. "o!e

notes and advice on t#ese e6pectations are given belo%.

%$ "ormality of 6anguage

5#e language used in essays s#ould beformal. 5#is !eans t#at t#e follo%ing s#ould be avoided=

slang ter!s and collo'uial p#rases 7ashoc%erof a !istake> a clever lo%e> s#e reallyshot

her mouth off, 9c$u#an really rings my ell7-O:, etc.:> and

contractions 7e.g., can!t, didn!t, won!t,she!d" it.s;use cannot, did not, will not,she had, it

is" it was" it hasinstead:.

($ Restrained 4one

5#e tone of your essay s#ould be restrained. 5#is !eans t#at t#e follo%ing s#ould be avoided=

t#e s%eeping conde!nation of ideas, t#eories, or aut#ors 7e.g., "aussure8s t#eory is

completely idiotic:.

t#e polar opposite of t#e above ;gus#ing approval of so!eone or so!et#ing 7e.g.,

"aussure8s t#eory is wonderful and exciting:.

clai!s t#at so!et#ing is lindingly ovious7etc.:. "ay instead so!et#ing like @1t is clear

t#at ..8, or @1t can be seen t#at J8.

t#e use of e6cla!ations 7e.g.,How ghastly it must have een/:. and 7b: you #ave enoug# evidence to support. 5#is !eans you s#ould be veryguardedint#e clai!s you !ake. Do not say t#ings like= @All !en are brutal and violent8 7all-:, @5#ere are a

!illion %ays of solving t#is proble!8 7a million-:, @veryone kno%s t#at t#is is true8 7everyone-:,

@5#is proble! #as al%ays fascinated #u!an beings8 7always-:. 1n ot#er %ords, avoid stereotypes

and generalisations.

5#ere are t%o basic %ays of guarding state!ents= 7: you can wea%ent#e e6tent of your clai! 7e.g.

!oving fro! @all8 to @!ost8 to @so!e8 to @a fe%8 is progressively %eakening your clai!:> 72: you can

addproailityp#rases to it 7e.g., @it is likely t#at8, @it is possible t#at8, @it see!s t#at8:. Clai! t#e

!ini!u! t#at you need for your argu!ent.

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*$ Clarity

5#e central virtue of your style s#ould be its clarity. Do not feel you !ust %rite convoluted

sentences packed %it# long and difficult %ords in an atte!pt to @i!press8 t#e !arker. 9arkers %ill

be i!pressed if you say t#ings as si!ply, clearly and directly as t#e subect !atter allo%s. Peep

your sentences s#ort. +#ile you !ay be e6pected to use certain argon ter!s in an essay 7to

de!onstrate your o%n understanding:, you s#ould use argon only %#en absolutely necessary to

%rite about a point, and %#en it #elps to !ake t#ings clear and precise.

+$ 7ee' it im'ersonal

1n al!ost all cases, a for!al essay s#ould be fairly impersonal. )e!e!ber t#at t#e ob of t#e essay

is to !ake an argumentbased on evidence;you are not %riting a ournal entry or your

autobiograp#y. "o avoid t#e follo%ing=

Do not base any of your clai!s on fa!ily anecdotes or events fro! your o%n life 7@5#is is

true, because !y brot#er does it all t#e ti!e J8, or @5#is used to #appen to !e all t#e ti!e

J8:.

Do not tell t#e reader #o% youfeelabout t#ings. For e6a!ple, do not say @1 find "aussure8st#eory really interesting8 7even if you do:. $et your argu!ent do t#e talking for you.

8$ Sign1'osting

1t is often i!portant to !ake clear to the readerust %#at is going on in your essay.


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8$ What is a aragra'h3

ssays are !ade up of paragrap#s. A paragrap# is !ade up of sentences. At !ini!u! a sentence

contains a verb and an i!plied subect. A paragrap# is a se'uence of sentences 7not ust one

sentence: t#at toget#er argue a unified point. An essay is t#en a se'uence of paragrap#s going

toget#er to !ake up a unified argu!ent.

5#e first sentence of an essay paragrap# is called its topic sentence. 5#is is supposed to tell t#e

reader %#at point t#e paragrap# %ill !ake. 5#e follo%ing sentences in t#e paragrap# t#en develop

t#is point 7e.g., e6plain so!et#ing, provide evidence, etc.:. 1t !ay be #elpful to t#ink of a

paragrap# as itself being so!et#ing like a !iniature essay ;%it# an introduction 7t#e topic

sentence: and t#e logical develop!ent of a point. +it# t#e e6ception t#at it does not usually need

anyt#ing corresponding to a conclusion ;unless t#e paragrap# #as been very long and co!ple6.

Bou s#ould note t#at t#e start and finis# of eac# paragrap# !ust be clearly visually indicated to t#e

reader. "tandard %ays of doing t#is are= 7: indenting t#e first line of t#e paragrap# 7by pressing t#e

5ab key:> or 72: leaving an e6tra line blank bet%een eac# paragrap# 7i.e. #it t#e )eturn key t%ice

after eac# paragrap#:.

%$ -ood 'aragra'hs

Eiven %#at %as said above, a good paragrap# needs t#e follo%ing t#ings=

7: 0ne clear point#

5#e paragrap# s#ould #ave a single clear ob to do 7define a ter!> e6plain a t#eory> support

a clai!, etc.:, as part of t#e overall argu!ent of your essay. 5#e ob of eac# paragrap#

s#ould #ave been decided at t#e planning stage of t#e essay.

72: 1 clear statement of its point in the topic sentence#

5#e topic sentence s#ould tell t#e reader %#at t#e point of t#e paragrap# is. 75#is does not

!ean t#at you s#ould start %it# @5#is paragrap# %ill J8> ust state its !ain point.:

7*: 2ffective development of its point#

1n ot#er %ords, after announcing t#e ob it is going to do 7in its topic sentence:, t#e

paragrap# t#en needs to dot#at ob. 5#at !eans, it needs to e6plain, define, give evidence,

and so fort#.

7: 1 smooth transition into the following point#

1n a %ell%ritten essay t#ere s#ould not be any a%k%ard @u!ps8 fro! one paragrap# to t#e

ne6t ;t#ey s#ould flo% s!oot#ly. 1f you #ave got a good essay structure t#is s#ould not be

a proble!, because t#e points %ill be logically ordered. 1f you find it #ard to link points

toget#er, it !ay suggest t#at your essay argu!ent needs re%orking.

($ ad 'aragra'hs

A bad paragrap# #as one or !ore proble!s t#at correspond to t#e four points listed in t#e previous

section, as follo%s=

7: Lac%s a clear point#

5#is usually !eans t#at t#e %riter does not kno% %#at t#e ob of t#e paragrap# is ;and t#at

is because t#e essay #as not been properly planned. 5#is !eans t#at t#e paragrap# ra!bles,

!i6es up various different points, goes no%#ere and so on.

72: Lac%s a topic sentence#

5#is is %#ere t#e first sentence fails to tell t#e reader %#at t#e paragrap# is about and %#at it

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%ill do.

7*: Inadequately develops its point#

A paragrap# t#at is only one or t%o sentences long !ay be appropriate for ournalis!, but in

an essay it al!ost al%ays !eans t#at you #ave not developed a point sufficiently. For

e6a!ple, it !eans t#at you #ave not e6plained your point enoug#> provided enoug#

evidence> done enoug# analysis, and so on.

7: Has a clumsy transition to the following point#

5#is could !ean t#at your essay plan 7flo% of points: is not logically ordered. 5ransitions

can be i!plicit 7%#ere t#ey ust flo% out of t#e substance of %#at you are saying:. Bou can

also !ake t#e! e6plicit by providing a link in t#e final sentence of t#e paragrap#, or in t#e

topic sentence of t#e follo%ing paragrap# 7see e6a!ples belo%:.

)$ An e:am'le

Here is a s#ort e6tract fro! Q. Curran and Q. "eaton, Power without responsiility3 $he press and

roadcasting in 4ritain, 7$ondon, 3:, p. 3, follo%ed by so!e notes.

During t#e i!!ediate post%ar period a substantial section of t#e press re!ained subect tot#e direct personal control of aggressively interventionist proprietors. 5#ese %ere t#e second

Riscount )ot#er!ere, (eaverbrook, Ca!rose, Pe!sely, and, after 3, David Astor. 5#e

$abour !ove!ent papers, t#e Daily Herald and 5eynold!s -ews, %ere also tet#ered to t#e

editorial line laid do%n by t#eir political !asters.

Ho%ever, t#is #ierarc#ical pattern of control gave %ay to a greater delegation of editorial

aut#ority in t#e regional press and in a gro%ing section of t#e national press. 5#e person %#o

typified t#is c#ange %as $ord 5#o!son, %#o ac'uired t#e Pe!sley e!pire in 33 and $he

$imesin 3/. +it#in t#e fra!e%ork of an agreed budget, #is editors enoyed a #ig# degree of

autono!y. 4ublicly #e declared, @1 do not believe t#at a ne%spaper can be run properly unless

its editoral colu!ns are run freely and independently by a #ig#ly skilled and dedicated

ournalist8. His (ritis# editors #ave broadly corroborated t#is state!ent. Harold vans, for

instance, could recollect only one occasion in #is fourteen years as editor of t#e ,unday $imes%#en #e received political guidance fro! $ord 5#o!son.

"i!ilar c#anges occurred else%#ere in Fleet "treet during t#e 3/0s. 5#e Daily Herald%as

freed fro! follo%ing t#e $abour 4arty line> "ir 9a6 Aitken proved to be less dictatorial t#an #is

fat#er, $ord (eaverbrook> t#e proprietoreditor regi!e at t#e 0serverca!e to an end> J 7etc.:

otes=

Firstly, note t#at if %e list t#e topic sentencesof t#ese t#ree paragrap#s, %e produce %#at is

effectively a su!!ary of t#e overall argu!ent of t#e e6tract=

. During t#e i!!ediate post%ar period a substantial section of t#e press re!ained subect to

t#e direct personal control of aggressively interventionist proprietors.2. Ho%ever, t#is #ierarc#ical pattern of control gave %ay to a greater delegation of editorial

aut#ority in t#e regional press and in a gro%ing section of t#e national press.

*. "i!ilar c#anges occurred else%#ere in Fleet "treet during t#e 3/0s.

"econdly, note #o% eac# paragrap#, after announcing t#e point in t#e topic sentence, proceeds to

give evidencein its support. Finally, note #o% t#e topic sentences 72: and 7*: contain links to t#e

prior paragrap# to create s!oot# transitions 7@Ho%ever, this#ierarc#ical pattern of control J8 and

@,imilarc#anges occurred else%#ere J8:.

4age 2 of 3


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9$ Writing the Introduction to an Essay

%$ What is the 'ur'ose of the Introduction3

5#e introductionis t#e opening paragrap# of an essay. 1t #as t%o obs to do. 1t !ust=

7: introduce t#e topicof t#e essay to t#e reader>72: provide an essay map. 5#at is, it s#ould provide a su!!ary guide to t#e argu!ent of your

essay 7i.e. %#at you are going to say and #o% you are going to say it:.

Bour introduction 7and t#e conclusion: ust fra!es t#e essay, and s#ould not do any of t#e real %ork

of e6plaining, ustifying or arguing ;%#ic# is all done by t#e odyof t#e essay.

As a general suggestion, do not %rite your introduction first. 1t is !uc# easier to %rite an

introduction %#en you #ave already planned your essay, and %ritten a first draft of t#e body. 5#is

%ay, you kno% %#at points you are going to !ake and in %#at order. 5#e ob of %riting an

introduction is t#en relatively straig#tfor%ard= speaking very roug#ly, you essentially repeat your

!ain points in t#e order in %#ic# you !ake t#e!.

($ Writing Style

5#ere are t%o basic styles for %riting introductions=

7: 5#e introduction %it# e6plicit signposting.

5#is is %#en you tell t#e reader e6plicitly %#at you are going to do in t#e essay. 5#is is done via

suc# p#rases as t#e follo%ing= G5#is essay %ill discuss , GHaving argued t#at , t#e essay %ill

t#en discuss B, G5#is essay %ill, firstly, argue t#at . "econdly, it %ill discuss B.

72: 5#e introduction %it# i!plicit signposting.

1n t#is style of %riting introductions, you do not use t#e sorts of p#rases given above. 1nstead, t#e

basic idea is to let t#e orderof t#e sentences in t#e introduction !atc# t#e order of t#e points !ade

in t#e essay 7rat#er t#an, e.g., saying @firstly8, @secondly8, etc.:.

"ubects %ill differ over %#ic# of t#ese styles 7if any: t#ey prefer in an essay. 1n general, #istory or

literature 7t#e @Hu!anities8: %ill tend to prefer t#e implicitstyle, %#ilst t#e !ore sciencerelated

disciplines %ill tend to prefer t#e explicitstyle.

)$ E:am'le of Writing an Introduction

"uppose your essay 'uestion is t#is= ,emiotics is intellectually an%rupt!# Discuss# Bou #ave

decided to argue t#at se!iotics is, indeed, intellectually bankrupt, and #ave planned an essay %it#

t#ree paragrap#s in t#e body. 5#e topic sentences of t#ese paragrap#s are as follo%s=

stparagrap#= "e!iotics ste!s fro! t#e %ork of t#e linguist Ferdinand de "aussure, %#o argued

t#at language %as ust one of !any #u!an sign syste!s.

2ndparagrap#= For se!iotics, all #u!an co!!unication %orks via encoding and decoding according

to general la%s.

*rdparagrap#= 5#is @code8 !odel #as, #o%ever, been s#o%n to be a co!plete failure in e6plaining

#u!an co!!unication.

Eiven t#is essay plan, #ere is an e6a!ple of a possible introduction %ritten in t#e explicit sign)

4age * of 3


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postingstyle=

"e!iotics is a !et#odology %idely used in cultural and !edia studies. 5#is essay %ill

argue t#at, despite t#is institutionalsuccess, se!iotics is intellectually bankrupt. Ria a

brief sketc# of t#e early #istory of se!iotics 7in t#e %ork of "aussure:, it %ill be argued

t#at all se!iotics depends on t#e @code8 !odel of co!!unication. 1t %ill t#en be s#o%n

t#at t#is @code8 !odel cannot account for t#e fle6ibility of #u!an co!!unication ;and

t#at, t#erefore, se!iotics rests on an invalid assu!ption.

"o!e notes on t#is=

7: 5#is begins %it# a single sentence t#at tells t#e reader %#at t#e general topic is. 1t does not

%aste %ords, but i!!ediately cuts, in t#e second sentence, to su!!ingup t#e overall

argu!ent of t#e essay. 5#e re!aining t%o sentences t#en give an @essay !ap8.

72: ote t#e use of e6plicit signposting= @5#is essay %ill argue J it %ill be argued J 1t %ill

t#en be s#o%n J8.

5#is introduction could also be re%ritten in t#e implicitstyle, per#aps as follo%s=

"e!iotics is a !et#odology %idely used in cultural and !edia studies. Ho%ever, despite

t#is institutionalsuccess, se!iotics is intellectuallybankrupt. (ased as it is on t#e ideasof "aussure, all se!iotics retains #is co!!it!ent to t#e @code8 !odel of co!!unication.

(ut as recent %ork #as s#o%n, suc# a !odel cannot account for t#e fle6ibility of #u!an

co!!unication. "e!iotics t#us rests on an invalid assu!ption.

5#e !ain difference #ere is t#at all t#e e6plicit signposting p#rases #ave been re!oved. (ut t#e

order of t#e sentences still reflects t#e order t#at points %ill be !ade in t#e body of t#e essay.

*$ Common "aults in Introductions

$he introduction egins with pointless remar%s#

5#is !eans= re!arks t#at are far too general and ? or off t#e topic. 1n ot#er %ords, t#ey do notaddress t#especificessay topic. "o!e genuine e6a!ples fro! student essays include= G5#e %orld

is a !anycoloured tapestry> G4eople co!!unicate everyday, so it8s a very i!portant t#ing.

$he introduction is far too wordy#

For !ost essays, t#e introduction s#ould be kept to one reasonably s#ort paragrap#. "ave your

%ords for t#e body of t#e essay. 7


15/19

;$ Writing the Conclusion to an Essay

%$ What is the 'ur'ose of the Conclusion3

5#e conclusion is t#e final paragrap# of your essay. Along %it# t#e introduction, it provides a fra!e

for your essay. For t#is reason, it does not do any of t#e %ork of e6plaining, ustifying or arguing

your case. 5#at s#ould all #ave been done by t#e body of t#e essay.


16/19

but t#e clai! t#at @)ussian oil production peaked in 3338

does need referencing.

1n general, %#enever you !ake a factual clai!, use a t#eory, parap#rase an argu!ent, or use

so!eone else8s definition of so!e tec#nical ter!, t#en you %ill need to provide references.

*$ What should you reference3


17/19

7alt#oug# t#is %ill of course depend upon t#e topic:. Certainly, lecture notes and @c#eat s#eets8

found on t#e %eb can be useful for #elping you understand a topic and can provide a good

introduction to t#e literature ;but t#ey are not a substitute for reading sc#olarly books and ournal

articles. 1n general, relying !ainly on %ebbased sources %ill !ake a poor i!pression on your

!arker.

+$ =o2 to reference .technical details/5#ere are !any different %ays of referencing, and t#e appropriate !et#od %ill usually depend upon

t#e subect area. 5#e Unit


18/19

%>$ lagiarism

%$ What is 'lagiarism3

4lagiaris! is t#e use of ot#er people8s %ords and ideas %it#outproperackno%ledg!ent.It is

possile to plagiarise even if you ac%nowledge the source;%#en you present a direct 'uotation as

if it %ere a parap#rase 7see t#e t#ird type of plagiaris!, listed in t#e ne6t section:. 1n ot#er %ords,you plagiarise %#en you present anot#er person8s %ords or t#oug#ts as if t#ey %ere your o%n.

4lagiaris! is considered a very serious offence at university, and severe penalties are i!posed upon

anyone found guilty of suc# conduct. 5#is can range fro! #aving to resub!it an assign!ent, to

getting a Lero for it, to failing t#e entire course, to being e6cluded per!anently fro! t#e University

7for serious, persistent offenders:.

4lagiaris! can occur deliberately or inadvertently. Deliberate plagiaris! 7i.e., c#eating: is

obviously t#e !ost serious offence, but inadvertent plagiaris! can also attract severe penalties.

1nadvertent plagiaris! usually occurs fro! a failure to understand #o% to reference sources. 1t is

your responsibility to ensure t#at you kno% #o% to use basic referencing conventions.

"o!e basic reasons %#y plagiaris! is taken so seriously at university are=

7: your degree and grades are supposed to be a !easure of your ownskills, ti!e, and so fort#.

"o by using ot#er people8s ideas %it#out ackno%ledg!ent you are c#eating and gaining an

unfair advantage over ot#er students>

72: if you gain a degree t#roug# plagiaris!, it !eans t#at t#at degree does not !easure your

o%n learning, but si!ply your capacity to cut and paste t#ings off t#e internet 7etc.:. 5#is in

turn degrades t#e value of all of t#e university8s degrees 7e.g., in t#e eyes of e!ployers,

etc.:> and

7*: acade!ics spend t#eir ti!e producing ideas and %ords. Hence, by using t#eir %ork %it#outackno%ledge!ent you are stealing fro! t#e!. Bou are also co!!itting an act of fraud.

($ 4y'es of 'lagiarism

7: 4latant plagiarism#

For e6a!ple, you do%nload an entire essay fro! t#e +eb, and c#ange t#e aut#or8s na!e to your

o%n.


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An acceptable parap#rase 7or @indirect 'uote8: i!plies sustantialdifferences in %ording. Bou need

to re%rite t#e passage> it is not enoug# si!ply to c#ange a fe% %ords #ere and t#ere. 5#ere are no

#ard and fast rules for t#is, but #ere is an illustrative e6a!ple=

7A:

an introduction to researching writing an essay 2012-06

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