AN INTRODUCTION TO AN INTRODUCTION TO

ETHICSETHICS

Sheetal ThomasSheetal Thomas

ETHICS : scope & definitionsETHICS : scope & definitions ΕθΟΣΕθΟΣ (ETHOS) = mos, mores (morals) = (ETHOS) = mos, mores (morals) = habits, habits,

customs customs Ethics does not concern knowledge or science Ethics does not concern knowledge or science

(gnoseology), nor does it concern aesthetic judgement, it (gnoseology), nor does it concern aesthetic judgement, it concerns action (the concerns action (the praxispraxis))

Hence, ethics can be defined as the set of principles, or Hence, ethics can be defined as the set of principles, or valuesvalues that govern our actions that govern our actions

These principles consist of a number of components: These principles consist of a number of components: education, religion, ideology, instinctseducation, religion, ideology, instincts

Based on all these components, ethics ultimately rests Based on all these components, ethics ultimately rests upon the arbitrary choice of what we subjectively upon the arbitrary choice of what we subjectively feelfeel is is right or wrongright or wrong

Defining EthicsDefining Ethics

EthicsEthics - - synonyms for “morally correct” or synonyms for “morally correct” or justified - set of justified moral principles of justified - set of justified moral principles of obligation, rights, and idealsobligation, rights, and ideals

EthicsEthics - particular beliefs or attitudes - particular beliefs or attitudes concerning moralityconcerning morality

EthicsEthics - - area of study or inquiry – an activity of area of study or inquiry – an activity of understanding moral values, resolving moral understanding moral values, resolving moral issues, and justifying moral judgmentsissues, and justifying moral judgments

What are moral values? What is What are moral values? What is morality?morality?

DictionaryDictionary – concerns right and wrong, good and – concerns right and wrong, good and bad, the rules that ought to be followed.bad, the rules that ought to be followed.

MoralityMorality – about reasons centered in respect for – about reasons centered in respect for other people as well as ourselves, reasons that other people as well as ourselves, reasons that involve their good as well as our own.involve their good as well as our own.

How are ethics and law related?How are ethics and law related?

Legal & Ethical

Illegal & Ethical

Illegal & Unethical

Legal & Unethical

Specific ethics and universal Specific ethics and universal ethicsethics

The blend of the above mentioned inputs (instincts, The blend of the above mentioned inputs (instincts, culture, ideology, religion, education, etc.) results in culture, ideology, religion, education, etc.) results in specific ethical codes (specific either of a single specific ethical codes (specific either of a single individual, or of a smaller or larger group of individuals)individual, or of a smaller or larger group of individuals)

In a global In a global humanhuman perspective, however, we perspective, however, we feelfeel that, to that, to coexist peacefully, universal ethical rules based on a coexist peacefully, universal ethical rules based on a core of shared values are neededcore of shared values are needed

Universal ethics can only result from a general Universal ethics can only result from a general consensus reached by all human cultures in an open consensus reached by all human cultures in an open dialogue based on equal dignity and mutual respect dialogue based on equal dignity and mutual respect (principles that, in fact, underlie the UN Universal (principles that, in fact, underlie the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights)Declaration of Human Rights)

Absolutism and RelativismAbsolutism and Relativism

Ethical ABSOLUTISM consists of imposing (i.e., by the Ethical ABSOLUTISM consists of imposing (i.e., by the rule of law) the specific ethical (cultural, religious, rule of law) the specific ethical (cultural, religious, ideological, “scientific”) values of a majority, or a minority, ideological, “scientific”) values of a majority, or a minority, to the whole community to the whole community

Ethical RELATIVISM consists of equally and indifferently Ethical RELATIVISM consists of equally and indifferently valuing and accepting any specific ethical codevaluing and accepting any specific ethical code

There is a third possibility: CONSENSUS ethics, There is a third possibility: CONSENSUS ethics, grounded on universally shared valuesgrounded on universally shared values

Ethics & BiologyEthics & Biology

Prerequisite to ethics, aesthetics and Prerequisite to ethics, aesthetics and knowledge is the presence of a neuro - knowledge is the presence of a neuro - hormonal system, i.e., of percepts (pain, hormonal system, i.e., of percepts (pain, pleasure, hence instincts), and concepts pleasure, hence instincts), and concepts (cognitive mind, memory) plus, in man, (cognitive mind, memory) plus, in man, autobiographic consciousnessautobiographic consciousness

Inborn and acquired Inborn and acquired components of ethicscomponents of ethics

Sociobiological hypothesis: the human mind, as Sociobiological hypothesis: the human mind, as part of the human body, is resulting from part of the human body, is resulting from biological evolution and natural selectionbiological evolution and natural selection

What appears to be true or false (knowledge), What appears to be true or false (knowledge), beautiful or ugly (aesthetics), right or wrong beautiful or ugly (aesthetics), right or wrong (ethics), depends primarily on instinctual (ethics), depends primarily on instinctual associations rewarded by natural selectionassociations rewarded by natural selection

Cultural (ideological, religious, “scientific”) inputs Cultural (ideological, religious, “scientific”) inputs further contribute to fine-tune the instinctual further contribute to fine-tune the instinctual backgroundbackground

SociobiologySociobiology Sociobiology (developed during the ’70s by EO Sociobiology (developed during the ’70s by EO

Wilson, D Barash, R Dawkins, et al.) explains, at Wilson, D Barash, R Dawkins, et al.) explains, at least in part, human social behaviour in strictly least in part, human social behaviour in strictly biological terms, i.e. as a result of natural biological terms, i.e. as a result of natural selection enhancing the fitness of both the selection enhancing the fitness of both the individual and the species endowed with individual and the species endowed with instinctual / behavioural background patterns instinctual / behavioural background patterns best adapted to their social environmentbest adapted to their social environment

Ethics are no more in religious texts; Ethics are no more in religious texts; they are a part of business lawthey are a part of business law

If you think business and ethics are aliens, you are If you think business and ethics are aliens, you are mistakenmistaken

Not only are ethics respected in business, they are a part Not only are ethics respected in business, they are a part of the lawof the law

As a part of Sarbanes Oxley law, directors have to sign As a part of Sarbanes Oxley law, directors have to sign an ethics declarationan ethics declaration This law enacted in pursuance of series of corporate scandals:This law enacted in pursuance of series of corporate scandals:

Enron, WorldCom, Tyco, etc.Enron, WorldCom, Tyco, etc.

In India also, this has been implemented: all directors In India also, this has been implemented: all directors annually sign Code of Corporate Ethicsannually sign Code of Corporate Ethics This is part of Corporate Governance CodeThis is part of Corporate Governance Code Clause 49 of the Listing AgreementClause 49 of the Listing Agreement

Are ethics and business Are ethics and business compatible?compatible?

In an extreme, altruistic sense, business and In an extreme, altruistic sense, business and ethics may seem incompatible:ethics may seem incompatible: Earning profits may also be a unethicalEarning profits may also be a unethical In Islamic finance, earning interest is unethicalIn Islamic finance, earning interest is unethical All possessions stem from insecurity; insecurity comes All possessions stem from insecurity; insecurity comes

from mistrust:from mistrust: Therefore, possession itself may be unethical in extreme Therefore, possession itself may be unethical in extreme

sense sense Lots of businesses may need violence of some Lots of businesses may need violence of some

degree:degree: E.g., Medical researchE.g., Medical research

Where do we draw the line between business and Where do we draw the line between business and morality:morality: If the approach is subjective, then ethics lose their If the approach is subjective, then ethics lose their

meaning as everyone defines ethics to suit one’s meaning as everyone defines ethics to suit one’s convenienceconvenience

Is there a universal, perennial definition of “ethics”?Is there a universal, perennial definition of “ethics”?

Morality and religionMorality and religion Morality and ethics have their roots in religionMorality and ethics have their roots in religion

Religion and business are mutually incompatibleReligion and business are mutually incompatible Religion deals with the inner self; business deals Religion deals with the inner self; business deals

with the outer worldwith the outer world Religion deals with contentment; business is a Religion deals with contentment; business is a

play of ambitionplay of ambition Religion says, adjust your within to suit your Religion says, adjust your within to suit your

without; business says, adjust your without to without; business says, adjust your without to suit your withinsuit your within

They are opposites, not merely incompatibleThey are opposites, not merely incompatible

When did ethics begin?When did ethics begin?

In most cultures, ethics are connected with In most cultures, ethics are connected with divine origins:divine origins:Babylonian civilization received laws of Babylonian civilization received laws of

Hammurabi from sun godHammurabi from sun godGod gave 10 commandments to MosesGod gave 10 commandments to Moses In Greek civilization, Plato says that god Zeus In Greek civilization, Plato says that god Zeus

gave morality to help mankindgave morality to help mankindManusmriti Samhita incorporates earliest Manusmriti Samhita incorporates earliest

code of social and legal ethics in Indiacode of social and legal ethics in India

Ethics and societyEthics and society In fact both religion and ethics serve a common In fact both religion and ethics serve a common

need: societyneed: society Societies are built on the plank of co-existence Societies are built on the plank of co-existence

and mutualityand mutuality All societies, whether those of humans or non-All societies, whether those of humans or non-

humans, need mutual support, forbearance and humans, need mutual support, forbearance and care:care: Observed in societies of wolves, baboons, dolphins, Observed in societies of wolves, baboons, dolphins,

etc.etc. Thus, two important pillars of all societies are:Thus, two important pillars of all societies are:

ReciprocityReciprocity kinshipkinship

Ethics – Indian viewEthics – Indian view Indian religion has always been associated with philosophyIndian religion has always been associated with philosophy The vedas (about 4000 years old) talked about 4 basic goals of The vedas (about 4000 years old) talked about 4 basic goals of

existence:existence: ProsperityProsperity Satisfaction of desiresSatisfaction of desires Moral duty Moral duty SalvationSalvation

Upnisads distinguished between law and ethics – ethics come from Upnisads distinguished between law and ethics – ethics come from inner desireinner desire

Charavac philosophy was basically materialistic and was a voice of Charavac philosophy was basically materialistic and was a voice of dissentdissent In a way, Charvak was reactionary; he was opposing the Brahmanical In a way, Charvak was reactionary; he was opposing the Brahmanical

dogmas in a sharp waydogmas in a sharp way Jain scriptures deal with “akriyavad” at lengthJain scriptures deal with “akriyavad” at length

Jain philosophy was based on the quintessential principle of non-Jain philosophy was based on the quintessential principle of non-violenceviolence

Buddha dwelt on compassion and brotherhood Buddha dwelt on compassion and brotherhood

Ethics – ancient Chinese viewEthics – ancient Chinese view

Two great ancient Chinese philosophers, Lao-Two great ancient Chinese philosophers, Lao-tzu, and Confucius, existed in 6tzu, and Confucius, existed in 6 thth century BC. century BC.

Lao-tzu, proponent of the rule of Tao, Lao-tzu, proponent of the rule of Tao, emphasized simplicity and humility; said rank, emphasized simplicity and humility; said rank, social status are meaningless.social status are meaningless.

Confucius’ dealt with ‘superior’ man – one who Confucius’ dealt with ‘superior’ man – one who aims at good, has ethical valuesaims at good, has ethical values One word he gave was reciprocity; do not do unto One word he gave was reciprocity; do not do unto

others what you do not want to be done to youothers what you do not want to be done to you

Ethics in ancient GreeceEthics in ancient Greece Early Greek philosophers: Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato and Early Greek philosophers: Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato and

Aristotle,, have all emphasized ethicsAristotle,, have all emphasized ethics Pythagoras was contemporary of Buddha and Lao Tzu, and it is Pythagoras was contemporary of Buddha and Lao Tzu, and it is

contended by many that he was influenced by Jain philosophycontended by many that he was influenced by Jain philosophy Socrates is regarded as one of the major contributors to Western Socrates is regarded as one of the major contributors to Western

ethics:ethics: Socrates did not prescribe ethics but propounded method of enquirySocrates did not prescribe ethics but propounded method of enquiry

Plato, a disciple of Socrates, took forward ethicsPlato, a disciple of Socrates, took forward ethics Ethics results from balance of 3 forces: intellect, emotion and desireEthics results from balance of 3 forces: intellect, emotion and desire

Plato for the first time dealt with long term good and short term Plato for the first time dealt with long term good and short term good:good: He said, ethics survive in the long runHe said, ethics survive in the long run

Aristotle propounded the theory known as “Golden Mean” – Aristotle propounded the theory known as “Golden Mean” – somewhat similar to Buddha’s middle pathsomewhat similar to Buddha’s middle path

Ethics in ChristianityEthics in Christianity Jesus was admitted a reformer of Hebrew ethics and did not Jesus was admitted a reformer of Hebrew ethics and did not

innovate a system of his own.innovate a system of his own. St Augustine is regarded as one of the first ones to codify St Augustine is regarded as one of the first ones to codify

Christian views on ethics:Christian views on ethics: He held spiritual bliss on the top of worldly pleasuresHe held spiritual bliss on the top of worldly pleasures Also rejected the idea that love of God is for fear of punishment Also rejected the idea that love of God is for fear of punishment

in afterlifein afterlife Long time after St Augustine, French philosopher Peter Long time after St Augustine, French philosopher Peter

Abelard (11-12Abelard (11-12thth century) dealt with ethics: century) dealt with ethics: Stressed on intentions or the inner consent to a crimeStressed on intentions or the inner consent to a crime

St Thomas Aquinas (13St Thomas Aquinas (13thth century) gave the idea of the century) gave the idea of the “natural law”“natural law” Ethics which are so basic that they require no legislatorEthics which are so basic that they require no legislator

In 17In 17thth century England, there came scholars who were century England, there came scholars who were called “intuitionalists” who believed in intuition called “intuitionalists” who believed in intuition

Coming to 17Coming to 17thth century England, the idea of enlightened self- century England, the idea of enlightened self-interest came in – that morality does not clash with self- interest came in – that morality does not clash with self- interestinterest

Normative ethics – 19Normative ethics – 19thth century century philosophyphilosophy

1919thth century thinkers did not dwell much on whether century thinkers did not dwell much on whether ethics are subjective or objectiveethics are subjective or objective

Meta-ethics, or normative ethics, deals with what is right Meta-ethics, or normative ethics, deals with what is right and what is wrongand what is wrong

In 19In 19thth century England, another philosophy emerged century England, another philosophy emerged called “utilitarianism” (Bentham)called “utilitarianism” (Bentham) Utilitarians relate everything to pleasure and painUtilitarians relate everything to pleasure and pain Everything that increases pleasure or reduces pain is goodEverything that increases pleasure or reduces pain is good

From here on, economics enters ethics:From here on, economics enters ethics: Economist JS Mill also contributed to the Bentham’s theorryEconomist JS Mill also contributed to the Bentham’s theorry Sidgwick also contributed to the sameSidgwick also contributed to the same

Present day ethics philosophyPresent day ethics philosophy By end of 19By end of 19thth century, Kant, Hegel and Marx had century, Kant, Hegel and Marx had

expressed several views on ethicsexpressed several views on ethics Nietzsche came with radical thoughts – god is Nietzsche came with radical thoughts – god is

deaddead Sartre came with similar ideas, denying idea of Sartre came with similar ideas, denying idea of

God and said whatever ensures existence is goodGod and said whatever ensures existence is good Currently, ethics is divided into 3 branches:Currently, ethics is divided into 3 branches:

Meta-ethics: deals with ethical propertiesMeta-ethics: deals with ethical properties Normative ethics: deals with what things are good or badNormative ethics: deals with what things are good or bad Applied ethics: application of ethics to practical problemsApplied ethics: application of ethics to practical problems

Is what is good or bad judged from its Is what is good or bad judged from its consequences:consequences: Teleology – actions are judged by their consequencesTeleology – actions are judged by their consequences Deontology – actions are judged by whether the accord Deontology – actions are judged by whether the accord

with the general rulewith the general rule

Are ethics limited to mankind?Are ethics limited to mankind?

Are ethics limited to men only or do they extend to Are ethics limited to men only or do they extend to animals too?animals too? Several philosophers have rejected the classical view Several philosophers have rejected the classical view

that men need ethics only to fellow human beings who that men need ethics only to fellow human beings who can reciprocatecan reciprocate

Intermediate versions of pure vegetarianism have been Intermediate versions of pure vegetarianism have been coming once in a whilecoming once in a while

Likewise, issues of responsibility to the Likewise, issues of responsibility to the environment have also been raised.environment have also been raised.

In other words, philosophy is not far from the In other words, philosophy is not far from the religious view of total non-violencereligious view of total non-violence

Ethics is long term policyEthics is long term policy All religion, all ethics and morals spring from the basic All religion, all ethics and morals spring from the basic

conflict between short term and long term:conflict between short term and long term: If we limit ourselves to the short term:If we limit ourselves to the short term:

Pleasures today, even at the cost of pains tomorrow, sound like a Pleasures today, even at the cost of pains tomorrow, sound like a good bargaingood bargain

If we take long term into account:If we take long term into account: Every such pleasure which is not lasting, is avoidableEvery such pleasure which is not lasting, is avoidable

Long term is how long:Long term is how long: Do we look at our lifetime?Do we look at our lifetime? Do we look at the lives of our children and posterity?Do we look at the lives of our children and posterity? Do we take the eternal view of perennial lifeDo we take the eternal view of perennial life

Religion in its absolute form tends towards the eternal Religion in its absolute form tends towards the eternal view:view: All practical adaptations of ethics are essentially truncated forms All practical adaptations of ethics are essentially truncated forms

of the total religious viewof the total religious view

Long termism in businessLong termism in business Issues of corporate ethics have taken the form of short-termism vs. Issues of corporate ethics have taken the form of short-termism vs.

long-termismlong-termism If businesses are focused on long term stability and growth, they are If businesses are focused on long term stability and growth, they are

ethical:ethical: Short term strategies, aimed at earning per share for the year in Short term strategies, aimed at earning per share for the year in

question, compromise on longer interestsquestion, compromise on longer interests Warren Buffet has often stressed on long term strategiesWarren Buffet has often stressed on long term strategies Investigations into Fannie Mae suggested that the entire senior Investigations into Fannie Mae suggested that the entire senior

management was intensively focused on earnings guidancemanagement was intensively focused on earnings guidance Capital market orientation of companies force them to be tempted Capital market orientation of companies force them to be tempted

by short term targets:by short term targets: Increasingly, the entire system of how companies are evaluated by Increasingly, the entire system of how companies are evaluated by

analysts, investors and stock markets leads to a short term approachanalysts, investors and stock markets leads to a short term approach McKinsey survey [March 2006] shows that companies are focused on McKinsey survey [March 2006] shows that companies are focused on

short term strategies due to market pressuresshort term strategies due to market pressures

Can it be ethical, if it is not legal?Can it be ethical, if it is not legal?

Is law the embodiment of ethics? Is law the embodiment of ethics? The essence of ethics is long-termismThe essence of ethics is long-termism Laws are contemporaryLaws are contemporary

Not all laws are based on foundations of ethicsNot all laws are based on foundations of ethics

Laws change every quarter; surely every yearLaws change every quarter; surely every year The way present-day laws are made, they are full of The way present-day laws are made, they are full of

errors and aberrationserrors and aberrations Hence, it is possible to draw lines of distinction Hence, it is possible to draw lines of distinction

between law and ethicsbetween law and ethics

Jain ethicsJain ethics

Charitra dharma, that is, ethics, is one of Charitra dharma, that is, ethics, is one of the two main foundations of Jainism, the the two main foundations of Jainism, the other being shrut or philosophyother being shrut or philosophy

Jainism is founded on the equality of all Jainism is founded on the equality of all living beingsliving beingsTo an extent, it puts all non-living beings also To an extent, it puts all non-living beings also

on a status of respecton a status of respectHence, Jainism represents the highest Hence, Jainism represents the highest

standard of ethics everstandard of ethics ever

Some fundamental questions about Some fundamental questions about ethicsethics

That everyone should be ethical is not in doubt:That everyone should be ethical is not in doubt: No one has ever taught unethical behaviorNo one has ever taught unethical behavior

Fundamental questions:Fundamental questions: What is ethical?What is ethical?

Answer to this question is the same as why ethics?Answer to this question is the same as why ethics? is ethics subjective or objective?is ethics subjective or objective?

Why my conscience permits is ethics: emotionalist thinkingWhy my conscience permits is ethics: emotionalist thinking This makes the whole concept of ethics chaoticThis makes the whole concept of ethics chaotic Ethics are based on collectivismEthics are based on collectivism

Is ethics contemporary or perennial?Is ethics contemporary or perennial? Is ethics whole or partial?Is ethics whole or partial? Is ethics the same as law?Is ethics the same as law?

Who or What does unethical behavior offend – the law or humanity?Who or What does unethical behavior offend – the law or humanity?

Warren Buffet’s rule of thumb for Warren Buffet’s rule of thumb for ethical conductethical conduct

“…“…I want employees to ask themselves (when I want employees to ask themselves (when they are in doubt about whether a particular they are in doubt about whether a particular conduct is ethical or not) whether they are willing conduct is ethical or not) whether they are willing to have any contemplated act appear the next to have any contemplated act appear the next day on the front page of their local paper – to be day on the front page of their local paper – to be read by their spouses, children and friends – read by their spouses, children and friends – with the reporting done by an informed and with the reporting done by an informed and critical reporter.” [Berkshire Hathaway’s code of critical reporter.” [Berkshire Hathaway’s code of ethics]ethics]

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