An International Study of Intrinsic Motivation Composition Author(s): Gary E. Popp, Herbert J. Davis, Theodore T. Herbert Reviewed work(s): Source: Management International Review, Vol. 26, No. 3 (3rd Quarter, 1986), pp. 28-35 Published by: Springer Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40227805 . Accessed: 16/02/2012 12:09Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

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T. G. E. Popp/H.J. Davis/ T. Herbert*

of AnInternational Study Intrinsic Motivation Composition

Introduction has become increasingly Cross-national research giventhe important management firms. Universalmanagerial and prominence multinational of risingproliferation of when applied over a variety economic, have been foundincomplete practices culturaland politicalenvironments. a result,a new emphasison identifying As to has (Negandhiand pertinent managerial practices specific nationalsetting resulted four Adler(1983),in a review twenty- (24) majormanagement of 1977).In fact, Roney, studiesto keep pace with the of cross-cultural journals,stressed necessity additional in multinational Hofstede Furthermore, writing thesamejournalhas corporate reality. stressedthe confluence management of and national culture practice, nationality cultural foundations (Hofstede, 1983). Additionally, systems' Japanesemanagement have been examinedforclues to assistin the restructuringAmerican for of industry increasedproductivity (Tung (1984), England (1983), Toyohiro(1982), Kelly and (1981),Ouchi(1981),Hazama (1981). Worthley How individuals in to and rewards various cultures respond job requirements perceive is important a morecomplete to of understanding thisarea. Maslow(1970) asserted thatbehavior affected theneed stateof theindividual. Haire,Ghiselliand is Yet by Porter foundnationaldifferences contribute an important in fashionto to (1966) in differences managers' of less thanthe contribution individual attitudes, although Reitz (1975) also founddiversity the ranked need importance of of differences, workers in acrosseight countries. found cultural differences managerial Badawy(1979) and need orientations. attitudes More recently, Herbert and Popp (1982), studying cross-cultural withinofpsychological attributes MBA students, of found commonality culture differences be moresignificant between-culture to than differences. Popp and Herbert in studying similar desiredcareerqualities. (1983a, 1983 reported b) findings Hudsonand Ruiz (1983) foundsignificant in differences valuesof U.S. and Mexican MBA students. Flores and Castalanello(1983) reportedsignificant in differences valuesbetween and in personal managers non-managers Peru.* Dr. at E. StateUniversityLos Angeles, Gary Popp,Visiting California Professor Management, of Herbert Davis,Ph.D., Assoc.Professor, J. and Schoolof Government Business Administration, T. The GeorgeWashington D.C., Dr. Theodore Herbert, Professor of University, Washington, received 1985. Rollins Winter Park,Fl, U.S.A.Manuscript July Management, College, 28 MIR, Vol. 26, 1986/3

Work Behaviorand Motivation of to stresses the necessity responding employeesas Current theory management that to is workactivity individuals. Central thisformulation therecognition employee Efforts identify to is moderatedby individualdifferences. contingent response in and research. Maslow(1970) havebeenconcentrated motivation incentive elements and intensity behavior. the of five identified need stageswhichmoderate direction to of motivational Hackman(1977) has postulated propensity be a function task need forgrowth yield are to characteristics. attributes influenced theperson's Job by outcomessuch as intrinsic motivation, job quality of performance, satisfaction, et Vroom's and absenteeism turnover. (1964) expectancy Campbell a I. (1970),expanded In motivation an implicit is decisionmaking of work-motivation.expectancy theory, and are to Valence,instrumentality, expectancy the processspecific the individual. whichdetermine effort. Valenceis thedesirability attractiveor elements component is ness of a rewardand one's needs, and expectancy the subjective of probability a reward.Operatingin a multiplicative an index of motivated fashion, receiving A outcome derived. reward is which strongly behavior a particular for is has desired, a of beingattained, and is highly relatedto the satisfaction one's of highprobability effort thanan undesirable, non-instrumental needs,willevokea higher unattainable, reward.

and Preferences Motivation Incentives,of is to for Most important considerations motivation the individual'spreference In of rewards. orderto grantrewards highvalenceand hence work-related specific moreflexible have been intromotivational compensation systems intensity, greater Underthesesystems, employee the is ducedrecently somemajorU.S. corporations. by the form incentive of These can theoptionof choosing specific compensation. given and timeoff, so on. The incentives auto expenses, of taketheform a lump-sum bonus, or or can be categorized area,suchas personal professional financial, social growth, by allow the substitution of incentives (London, 1976). Rewardschosenby employees of outcomesfor managerialassumptions desiredrewards(cf. maximally-preferred Luthansand Kreitner, indicates thatmanagers 1975,p. 86). Rand's (1977) research value various of workers and foremen predictions how hourly misjudge significantly to of thatmotivate behaviors Incentives work-rewards. appropriate the attainment to and treatments are thoseincentives person-specific are not susceptible universal and 1975, 9). (Luthans Kreitner, p.

Differences and Preferences Cross-National Occupation-SpecificIn an analysisof NationalOpinionResearchCenterdata on U.S. job characteristic of Weaver(1976) found patterns responses, although occupation-specific preferences, MIR, Vol.26, 1986/3 29

the top rankedcharacteristics all occupationalcategories for was "important and and pay work".Popp and Muhs (1982) foundsignificant meaningful occupational level patterns both men and womenemployees, for and no supportfororiginally Hofstede of (1972) also foundoccupation-specific proposedsex differences. patterns to socialand preferences among19work family, goals,although goalsrelated rewards, areas werelargely of unaffected occupation respondents. on job content by Reporting anotherphase of the same study, Sirotaand Greenwood(1971) foundonly minor work in and between-country goal differences aggregate rankings occupational group differences stemmed from rather than rankings. Major ranking between-occupation An measures between-country comparisons. Australian studyof elevenwork-related satisfaction/dissatisfaction etal, 1976) foundthat employees (Entrekin concerning Some differences were foundto be varywidelyin how theyvalue these rewards. relatedto occupationlevel and othervariables.Portions theirworksupported of of of The the previous findings studies U.S. employees. workof Mills(1971) supports ofcross-cultural similarities managerial of valuesand behavior. concept

The StudyThe presentstudywas designedto determine and compare work-related reward of and theUnitedStates.This Australia, Canada, Singapore preferences MBAs from research an extension earlierwork(1983, 1982,and 1979) conductedby the is of authorsconcerning work-reward The inclusionof of preferences MBA students. Canadian and Singaporian data in thisstudyprovidedan excellent to opportunity extendthe investigation desiredcareer characteristics individuals similar of in of in situations four countries. of can be potentially Derivingsuch patterns need-reward preference helpfulin incentive for thathire MBAs in each of the four designing systems organizations nations. this is to and could decisions Additionally, information important curriculum be helpful job design potential in to ofMBAs.The specific to employers hypotheses be tested were that no culturaldifferences will be reflected the work-reward in of studied. preferences thefour groups

InstrumentThe instrument was Blood's (1973) JobOrientation used (JOI). The JOI is Inventory an ipsative which the relative identifies subject's for instrument, self-report preferences tenjob-related An rewards. ipsative differs test from otherinstruments, conceptually, the by requiring subjectto allocatea fixed pool of choicesamonggivenalternatives. One can express desireforone alternative by diminishing opportunithe greater only tiesforchoosing another. are relative and person-specific scores then, Ipsativescores, thatrelateinformation about theindividual. "it Because of this, is onlypossible only to comparerelative of (Blood, 1973,p. 2) when making positions the dimensions" betweenindividuals. "The assumption thatpersonsrespondto their is comparisons to theirpersonalhierarchy workrewardsratherthan of work situation according 30 MIR, Vol.26, 1986/3

to without to regard otherrewards" responding theabsolutelevel of one dimension (Blood, 1973, 2). p. The JOI givesa preference of rewards rank-ordering the work-related providedby one's job. If the concept of relativepreferences maintained, is averaged group becomemeaningful capable ofproviding and useful (Blood, 1973, preferences insights Moredetaileddevelopment thesemeasures found Blood's (1973, 1974) of in are p. 7). works. original of The tenwork-reward or categories theJOI are achievement sense of accomplishfor from community, the status ment, opportunity growth, recognition responsibility, in theorganization, for interpersonal relationships, job security, pay, provision family and supportforhobbiesor avocationalactivities. Blood (1973, 1974) has reported effects age (p < 0.01); and status(p < 0.01); work-reward of preferences significant comrelated(p 0.001) to organizational werealso foundsignificantly preferences mitment job satisfaction. and

Subjectsfrom UnitedStates, the to The JOI was administered male MBA candidates Canada, and attending classes wereemployed The subjects and Singapore. Australia generally as as weremadeto match closely possibletheselections basis.Attempts on a part-time for of and oflocations types universities thefour groups. the MBAs from UnitedStates(49), Canada (25), Australia (33) (58) and Singapore and from The attended Canada, Australia theUnitedStates publicuniversities. groups The share a common primarylanguage and many other culturalsimilarities. to at leaston thesurface, be in marked wouldappear, MBAs(33), however, Singapore areas could include different to contrast the otherthreegroups.These potentially and values about family attitudes, education, responsibility, government, religion, of The factors. availability thisnewdata of and work, conformity, a widevariety other across of to enabled the authors extendtheirinvestigation work-reward preferences environments. contrasting seemingly

Resultsthe Table1: Theresults administering JOI tothe four groups ofU.S. (N = 49) Achievement Responsibility Growth Recognition JobStatus Relationships Pay Security Family Hobby = X2 0.06, p< 0.05 MIR, Vol.26, 1986/3 31 2 3 1111 10 7747 5 8 9 6 4 Australia (N = 58) 2 3 10 5 8 9 6 4 Canada (N-25) 2 3 8 10 6 9 7 4 Singapore (N-33) 2 3 9 6 8 10 5 4

In ranking, smallerthe number,the higherthe work-reward the For preference. all fourgroupsrankedgrowth mostimportant. importance each as The of example, variabledecreases theranking tenth as increases from twothrough Itemsranked ten. are theleastranked, work-reward preferences. To determine relationship the the twobetween foursetsof rankings, Friedman the of variance ranks Thisanalysis resulted 1956)was completed. way analysis by (Siegel, in a chi-square 0.15, whichwas significant < 0.05). These results of the (p support that significant no differences in theranking thefour exist of and that position groups, therankings reflect characteristics not nationalor cultural and sampledemographic differences.

Work-Reward Preferences For each of the fourMBA groups, for was the mostpreferred opportunity growth and work-reward. growth, sampleranked After each achievement second, responsibility third. These findings not be surprising, the natureof the sample groups. may given These factorsseem to be identicalto several items of Herzberg'scategoryof motivators in The reward-rankings the diverse of (satisfiers) his dual-factor theory. testedin the development the JOI showed highest of for groups preferences the forgrowth in every Also in Blood's studies, achievement opportunity category group. and responsibility rankedsecondor third preference were in (Blood, 1973,p. 7). The for results each of the foursample categories consistent are with Blood's present for overeventsis partof the need for report. High preference such personalcontrol Achievement to (Herbert, 1976). High n-Achmay be inferred characterize syndrom thesamplefrom highpreference the shown achievement responsibility/control. for and Whilesomedifferences reflected grouprankings thevarious are in characteristics of by the thesevariations reflect statistically no significant country, data analysissuggests differences.is interesting note, It to the however, lowest possibleranking Canadians by of the importance job-relatedinterpersonal of While the Canadian relationships. of is considered moreinfluenced the province thesubjects generally substantially by French culture thanother areas of thecountry, apparent no is explanation obviousto the authors. reflect generally a lowerutility Perhapsthesedifferences placed by the in all forms interpersonal of group relationships. A somewhatmore surprising and to some extentperplexing resultwas that the mirrored otherthreegroupsso closely.Given the assumed the Singaporesample of when comparedto the otherdata uniqueness the generalculturalenvironment one might some differences. results thisstudy The of presented, reasonably expect does not support such an expectation. possibleexplanation thisresult A for clearly and Addimay lie in Singapore's rapid processof industrialization westernization. it of and tionally, maybe thata homogeneity MBA teaching delivery systems expertise at theinstructional levelshas bearing this on result.

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ConclusionsThat work-rewardpreferencesof the four MBA student samples are clearly related may be attributableto several elements. The U.S. and Canada, and to some extent Australia, have long been considered to be culturally intertwined.Additionally, American models of business education are utilized and have been influentialand copied in many partsof the world. England and Lee (1974) founda high correlationin the rank ordersof the personal value systemsof U.S., Australian,Indian and Japanese have been found in culturaland industrialization managers. Other notable similarities variables in these countries (Whitely and England, 1977, p. 443) and managerial behaviors (England and Keaveny, 1969). Personalityprofilesof U.S. and Australian found in MBA candidates were found to display the same patternof striking similarity earlier work by the authors. This study has supported the hypothesis that no significantcultural differenceswould be found in work-rewardpreferencesin the countriesstudied. The identificationof preferredoutcomes is an important part of the motivational process. Results from such studies can assist managers in the formulationof more appropriate work design and incentive systems.The findingsshould contributeto a better understandingof human behavior in organizational settings.The ability to for a identify general orderingof work-rewards an entiregroup gives the opportunity of developing general incentive strategiesplus modifyingthem for individual situations. Perhaps incentiveprogramsmightbe made more responsive to needs of groups and individuals. Additionally,these findingsmay permitmore useful applications of of some aspects of the expectancytheory motivation. These findings concerningcurriculumcan also be usefulin the academic environment and to potential employers of MBA students. The present study provides a better preferencesof Americans, Canadians, Australians,as understandingof work-reward are compatible with Sirota and Greennationals. These findings well as forSingapore in wood's (1971) work thatindicated that differences occupational groups' work goals were far across national boundaries were minor,and between occupation differences care should be exercisedin applying these resultsthroughadminisgreater.Obviously, both the samples are limited and no claim is made trativeapproaches. Admittedly, that the four samples utilized are representativeof all MBA students in the four are countries.Difficulties also encounteredwhen using studentand employee samples. while attendingMBA courses in the Most studentswere, however,workingfull-time The present study does add to the recent upsurge in literatureaddressing evening. national and /or cultural factorsin management practice and thinking.Additional researchis needed with various demographic,professional,and personal cross-culture and differences variables on students,employees and managers concerningsimilarities of work-rewardpreferencesin various settings. The authors are currentlyin the process of gatheringsimilarand othermanagerial data in various countriesthatreflect of a wide variety cultures, languages, political,education, and business systems.

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