An Extension and Evaluation of Job Characteristics,Organizational Commitment and Job Satisfaction in an

Expatriate, Guest Worker, Sales SettingShahid N. Bhuian and Bulent Menguc

Within the literature of sales management, researchers have explored different configurations of job characteristics,organizational commitment and job satisfaction. In this paper, we offer a new configuration that includes interactive effectsof job characteristics and organizational commitment on job satisfaction. Utilizing structural equation modeling, we test ourproposed model against three alternative models among expatriate, guest worker, salespeople in Saudi Arabia. The proposedmodel produces the best fit. The theoretical and managerial impKcations are discussed.

Introduction

Models relating the differing job characteristics of sales-people to the levels of both their organizational commitmentand their job satisfaction are legion in sales, marketing andmanagement literatures (e.g., Bettencourt and Brown 1997;Brown and Peterson 1994; Challagalla and Shervani 1996;Darden, McKee and Hampton 1993; Livingstone, Roberts andChonko 1995; Rich 1997; Shoemaker 1999). The basic asser-tion is that certain configurations of these constructs haveim^portant and identifiable implications for salespeople's be-havioral outcomes and their psychological well being (Singh1998). Although derived largely if not exclusively from stud-ies of dom^estic (U.S.) salespeople, these models, involvingjobcharacteristics, organizational commitment and job satisfac-tion, are promoted as universal. Empirical studies of theseissues in non-U.S. contexts remain a rarity, perhaps partlydue to the difficulty of obtaining samples and partly due toresearchers' distaste for replication. Therefore, despite theclaims of the body of sales literature, researchers cannot becertain of the universal applicability of the models of jobcharacteristics, organizational commitment and job satisfac-tion. This, in turn, limits theory-building.

Furthermore, in seeking to identify the different configura-tions of job characteristics, organizational commitment and jobsatisfaction that are maximally effective in explaining the in-ter-relationships among these constructs, researchers have fo-cused primarily on linear relationships (Brown and Peterson1993; Himt, Chonko and Wood 1985). Even though the emerg-

Shahid N. Bhuiaa (Ph. D., Texas Tech University)is an AssociateProfessor of Marketing at Louisiana Tech University. He has pub-lished in several marketing and management journals, including theJournal of Business Research, Journal of Services Marketing, Joumalof Global Marketing, European Joumal of Marketing, MarketingHealth Services, Joumal of Quality Management, Journal of Market-ing Channels, International Journal of Organizational Analysis, andAmerican Marketing Association Proceedings. His research focuses onthe attitudes and behavior of marketers, consumers, and marketingorganizations in international contexts.Bulent Menguc (Ph. D., Marmara University, Turkey) is a SeniorLecturer of Marketing at the University of Melbourne. He has pub-lished in several journals, including Journal of Retailing, Interna-tional Journal of Research in Marketing, Journal of Personal Selling& Sales Management, European Journal of Marketing, IndustrialMarketing Management, Joumal of Business Ethics, and Journal ofBusiness Research and in numerous conference proceedings. Hisprimary research interests are sales force management, relationshipmarketing, and cross-cultural research methodology in marketing.

ing view suggests that the relationships may be curvilinearand/or interactional (Singh 1998), very few studies have speci-fied and examined these configurations with interaction terms.Lastly, one approach for testing theories using structural equa-tions modeling suggests that the study should utilize several alter-native models, selecting one of them as most appropriate in repre-senting the sample data (Joreskog 1993). Despite the existence ofstudies exploring several alternative configurations of job charac-teristics, organizational commitment andjob satisfaction, no study,as per our search, has yet simultaneously analyzed these alterna-tive models with a single set of empirical data.

The present paper seeks to fill some of the gaps noted above.Firstly, by offering a configuration that relates the job charac-teristics of salespeople to organizational commitment and jobsatisfaction, where job characteristics and organizational com-mitment have direct as well as interactive effects on job satis-faction, we extend previous research which has focused solelyon linear linkages. Secondly, by drawing on a sample of self-initiated expatriate, guest worker, salespeople in Saudi Arabia,we attempt to generalize extant research in a new contextinvolving a new type of salespeople. Here, it is important tonote that self-initiated expatriates, guest workers, are distinctfrom organizational expatriates. While the former is directlyhired as individuals, the latter are transferred overseas byparent organizations (Al-Meer 1989). This phenomenon of theself-initiated expatriate has become a dominant feature in mostGCC (Gulf Cooperation (Council) states because of the severe short-ages of indigenous labor (Yavas, Luqmani and Quraeshi 1990).Finally, following the recommendation of Joreskog (1993), we testour proposed model against three existing models of job character-istics, organizational commitment, andjob satisfaction.

Background

Figure 1 depicts our proposed model, relating job character-istics to organizational commitment and job satisfaction, aswell as the three alternative models, representing three differ-ent configurations of job characteristics, organizational com-mitment, andjob satisfaction. The models are discussed next.

The Proposed ModelOur proposed model employs job characteristics and orga-

nizational commitment as independent variables andjob sat-

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management,Volume XXII, Number 1 (Winter 2002, Pages 01-11).

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

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Winter 2002

isfaction as the dependent variable, where job characteristics(JCs) and organizational commitment (OC) are both directlyand interactively related to job satisfaction (JS). Before dis-cussing the relationships between them, we briefly discussthe definitions of the constructs.

We define job satisfaction as the extent to which one feelspositively or negatively about the intrinsic and/or extrinsicaspects of one's job (Hunt, Chonko and Wood 1985). Followingthe suggestion of Agarwal and Ramaswami (1993), we adoptthe definition of organizational commitment as the affectivecommitment that represents an employee's strong desire toremain a member of a particular organization when the op-portunity to change jobs exists. This desire can exist for anumber of reasons: because an employee personally identi-fies with, is psychologically attached to, is concerned for thefuture welfare of, is loyal to the organization (e.g., Bettencoiirtand Brovwi 1997; Garbarino and Johnson 1999).

With respect to job characteristics, our view is consistentwith past research (adapted from Becherer, Morgan, and Ri-chard 1982; Hackman and Lawler 1971; Hackman and Oldham1976; House 1971), which focuses on four key job characteris-tics, namely, autonomy, variety, identity and feedback. Au-tonomy is the extent to which employees have a say in sched-uling their work and freedom to do what they want on the job.Variety refers to the degree to which a job allows employeesto undertake a wide range of options in their work. Taskidentity addresses the extent to which employees do an entirepiece of work and can identify with the results of their efforts.And feedback assesses the degree to which employees receiveinformation as they are working that reveals how well theyare performing on the job.

Scholars have theorized and empirically established thelinear and direct effects of job characteristics and organiza-tional commitment on job satisfaction (Hunt, Chonko, andWood 1985; Singh 1998; Tyagi and Wotruba 1993). The directrelationships between job characteristics andjob satisfactionare theoretically supported by the motivation and means-endchains hypotheses (Singh 1998). More specifically, Ilgen andHoUenbeck (1991) argue that high levels of autonomy, vari-ety, and task-identity in a job can enhance the level of intrin-sic motivation by increasing the employee's feeling of accom-plishment and self-actualization in performing their work.Similarly, by the provision of information about the effective-ness of an employee's work activities in achieving desired endgoals, the job characteristic of feedback clarifies the means-end linkage. This has been found to be motivationally uplift-ing (Ilgen and HoUenbeck 1991). Empirically, several studieshave found support for the positive relationship between dif-ferent job characteristics and job satisfaction. For instance.Fried and Ferris (1987) have reported that autonomy andfeedback are strongly related to job satisfaction. Further, intheir meta-analysis. Brown and Peterson (1993) have shownsupport for the significant positive influence of feedback, va-riety, autonomy, task-identity and other job characteristicson an employee's level of job satisfaction.

The marketing literature has advanced ample evidence sup-porting the main effect of organizational commitment on jobsatisfaction (Bateman and Strasser 1984; Hunt, Chonko andWood 1985; Steers 1977; Still 1983; Wiener 1982; Wiener andVardi 1980). This constitutes another linkage in our proposedmodel (Figure 1). Drawing on the dispositional approach,O'Reilly and Caldwell (1981) and Pierce and Dunham (1987)posit that affective commitment first surfaces as an employeemakes a job choice. This is a pre-employment disposition. The

literature argues that when this predisposition reflects rela-tively lower affective commitment to the organization, jobsatisfaction will be lower. Correspondingly, if the pre-employ-ment disposition exhibits a relatively strong commitment tothe job, high job satisfaction will ensue. This hypothesis isempirically supported by a number of studies (Bateman andStrasser 1984; Hunt, Chonko and Wood 1985; Kacmar,Carlson and Brymer 1999), which report evidence of the stronginfluence of the level of organizational commitment on anemployee's job satisfaction.

Expected Moderator Relationships

Responding to the emerging view that the work-relatedvariables-job outcomes relationships are not necessarily lin-ear (Jackson and Schuler 1985; Singh 1998), we employ orga-nizational commitment as a moderator of the relationshipbetween job characteristics and job satisfaction. Conceptu-ally, this expectation is consistent with previous theory. Asmentioned earlier, a high level of autonomy, variety, task-identity and feedback in a job enhances the experienced mean-ingfulness of an employee's work and strengthens the means(work)-end (outcome) connections (Singh 1998). In essence, jobcharacteristics (autonomy, variety, task-identity, feedback) canserve as positive motivational forces that stimulate employeesto increase their efforts in better performing their tasks.

But researchers have also argued that the positive stimula-tion effects of job characteristics on job incumbents may notbe homogeneous (Gardner and Cummings 1988). Specifically,employees who identify with the organizational goals, valuetheir organizational membership, and intend to work hard toachieve the overall organizational mission (i.e., employeeswith a high level of organizational commitment) will perceivethe job characteristics of autonomy, variety, task-identity andfeedback as highly motivational and stimulating to their taskperformance (O'Reilly, Parletter and Bloom 1980). Conversely,the stimulation effects of job characteristics will be lower foremployees who are not committed to the organization (Pierceand Dunham 1987). As a result, the relationships between jobcharacteristics andjob satisfaction will be stronger for highercommitted employees and weaker for less committed ones.Empirically, O'Reilly, Parletter and Bloom (1980) found thathighly committed employees perceive job characteristics as morestimulating and, in tum, experience greater job satisfaction,whereas less committed employees view job characteristics asless stimulating and are less satisfied with their jobs.

Alternative Models

Our Alternative Model 1 employs job satisfaction as themediating variable between job characteristics and organiza-tional commitment. We have discussed earlier the linear anddirect effects of job characteristics (autonomy, variety, task-identity, and feedback) on job satisfaction with respect to ourproposed model. The other linkage between job satisfactionand organizational commitment in the model is widely recog-nized in the literature (Brown and Peterson 1993; Singh,Verbeke and Rhoads 1996). In their meta-analysis. Brownand Peterson (1993) indicate that the majority of studies(Bartol 1979; Bluedorn 1982; Johnston et al. 1990) considerjob satisfaction as the antecedent to organizational commit-ment. More recently, Singh, Verbeke and Rhoads (1996) havefound support for the direct effect of job satisfaction on orga-nizational commitment for boundary spanners.

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

The Alternative Model 2 employs direct linkages betweenjob characteristics and organizational commitment, and be-tween organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Theo-retically, researchers argue that favorable organizational char-acteristics will induce employees to become committed to theorganization through reciprocity. In other words, when anorganization attempts to enrich jobs by providing autonomy,variety, task-identity and feedback in jobs, employees recip-rocate by identifying themselves more closely with the orga-nization (Strauss 1977; Tyagi and Wotruba 1993). A nimiberof empiriceil studies have supported the positive effect of jobcharacteristics-organizational commitment link. For instance.Hunt, Chonko and Wood (1985) found that autonomy, vari-ety, task-identity and feedback influence the level of anemployee's organizational commitment. Likewise,Ramaswami, Agarwal and Bhargava (1993) provide supportfor the direct influence of autonomy, variety and feedback onorganizational commitment.

We have developed our Alternative Model 3 by mergingcomponents from the three earlier models: the proposed,alternative 1 and alternative 2 models. The relationshipsbetween job characteristics and job satisfaction are commonto the proposed and alternative 1 models; and the rationalesfor these relationships have been explained above. The orga-nizational commitment-job satisfaction linkage is present inboth the proposed and alternative 2 models. This linkage hasbeen justified earlier.

Control Variables

Previous research has identified nimierous demographic andorganizational variables as correlates of employee job satisfac-tion and organizational commitment, the dependent variablesin oiar models (Brown and Peterson 1993; Buchko, Weinzimmerand Sergeyev 1998; Hxmt, Chonko and Wood 1985; Mayer andSchoorman 1998; Shore, Barksdale and Shore 1995). In orderto control, at least to some extent, their effects, we include anumber of demographic characteristics and organizational fac-tors in our study. The demographic variables are age, educa-tion, income, job title, responsibility, experience level, and thenimiber of firms for which the employee has worked. Specifi-cally, scholars have argued that organizational commitmentincreases with employee's age (Angle and Perry 1981), income(Morrow 1983), experience level (Hunt, Chonko and Wood 1985),job title (Mayer and Schoorman 1998), and responsibility (Himt,Chonko and Wood 1985), while it decreases with higher levelsof education (Mathieu and Zajac 1990) and number of firmsworked (Hunt, Chonko and Wood 1985).

With respect to organizational variables, we incorporatethe activities of firm, firm size and corporate ethical values (acorporate culture). These variables are not only considered instudies involving organizational com.mitment and job satis-faction, conducted in the U.S. (Himt, Wood and Chonko 1989;Hunt, Chonko and Wood 1985), but they are included in alimited number of studies addressing the experience of expa-triates in the Gulf region (Bhuian, Al-Shammari and Jefri1996). The potential links between the activities of the firmand firm size to commitment and satisfaction are based on jobopportunities and income potentials (Shore, Barksdale andShore 1995). Particularly in the Gulf region, manufacturingjobs are better paying than service industry jobs. Also, biggerfirms tend to have better paying and more stable jobs thansmaller firms. As a result, we argue that employees of eithermanufacturing firms or of bigger firms are more likely to be

more organizationally committed and experience greater jobsatisfaction than employees in service-based or retail firms,and in smaller firms (Bhuian and Al-Jabri 1996).

Lastly, the variable "corporate ethical values" is expectedto be a strong positive correlate for organizational commit-ment (Hunt, Wood and Chonko 1989; Schwepker 2001). An-ticipating substantial variance in expatriates' perceptions ofcorporate ethical values in the Gulf region, Bhuian, Al-Shammari and Jefri (1996) suggested that future studies ofexpatriates' organizational commitment and job satisfactionshould incorporate corporate ethical values.

Method

Research Context

Our study context, Saudi Arabia, is distinctive and appro-priate for testing the generalizability of research onsalespeople's job characteristics, organizational commitmentand job satisfaction. Saudi Arabia, like other Gulf States, hassevere shortages of indigenous manpower. Consequently, thecountry hires self-initiated expatriates, or guest workers, fromdifferent countries of the world. There are over five millions"guest workers" in a coimtry that has an indigenous popula-tion of about twenty million (Statistical Yearbook 2000-01).The workforce in most sectors, including sales, is composed toa large degree of these expatriates (Al-Meer 1989).

With respect to salesforces, one of the biggest challengesfaced by firms in Saudi Arabia is the high level of turnoveramong expatriate salespeople (Bhuian and Abdul-Muhmin1997). Past research has focused on job characteristics, orga-nizational commitment and job satisfaction because thesevariables are traditionally related to employee turnover(Brown and Peterson 1993; Singh, Verbeke and Rhoads 1996).

DataWe collected the data from manufacturing, service, and

retail sector companies in Saudi Arabia, utilizing both judg-mental and snowball sampling techniques. Initially, we dis-tributed 700 questionnaires to sales expatriates, working inthe cities of Dammam, Khobar, and Dhahran in the EasternProvince of Saudi Arabia. A panel of three business-schoolprofessors at King Fahd University of Petroleimi & Mineralsin Dhahran introduced us to the business establishmentswhere we contacted these expatriate salespeople. Further, weasked all our first contacts to provide information about otherexpatriates in the tri-cities, whom we visited subsequently.Following the suggestions of researchers who conducted sur-veys in Saudi Arabia (Al-Meer 1989; Bhuian and Abdul-Muhmin 1997; Tuncalp 1988), we pursued the judgmentalapproach. After three callbacks, 537 questionnaires were re-trieved, resulting in a response rate of 77 percent.

Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of the respon-dents. Most are relatively young (70.4 per cent are between 20 and40 years of age), educated (81.5 per cent have a bachelor's degree orhigher), and relatively well-off (54 per cent make above $30,000,which is a substantial income for expatriates because their incomepotentials in their respective developing home countries), educatedin business and engineering (64.1 per cent), fairly experienced (70per cent have 6 or more years work experience), and working in amanagerial capacity (65 per cent have a supervisory position).These profiles indicate that our respondents are suitable for thisstudy because (1) they represent a sample that best serves the

Winter 2002

Age

20-2930-3940-4950-59

60 or more

Responsibility

Unit TerritoryDistrictRegionNational

%

28.242.222.2

6.70.7

%

31.230.229,6

9.0

Education

No CollegeBachelor'sMaster'sDoctorate

Major inEducation

BusinessEngineeringTechnical

Social. ScienceOthers

Tabie 1Demographic Characteristics (N= 537)

%

18,564,811,55.3

%

33.330.812.721.12.1

Firm Size

12-9

10-1920-4950-99

100-249250-499500-999

1000 and more

Experience

1-5yrs.6-10yrs,11-15yrs.16-20yrs.>20yrs.

%

.87.77.06.68.5

14.57.9

11,5i 35,6

%

29.225.421.610.313.5

Income

<$10K$10K-19,999$20K-29,999$30K-39,999$40K-49,999$50K-59,999$60K-69,999

$70K and more

Number ofFirms Worked

123456

%

.230.615.510.914.512.016.10.2

%

34.426.021.6

8.64.45.0

OrganizationalActivity

ManufacturingServiceRetailOthers

No Answer

Job Title

Sales AssistantSales Supervisor

Regional Sales Mgr.General Sales Mgr.

5

%

29.937.226.1

4.32.5

%

34,526,930.6

8.0

purpose of this study, (2) they are capable of answering the ques-tions; and (3) the cost associated with ineffective performance andturnover, the primary reasons for which salespeople's job charac-teristics, organizational commitment and job satisfaction are stud-ied, are relevant for these expatriates.

Table 2 includes the results of expatriates' self-ratings of jobcharacteristics, organizational commitment and job satisfac-tion across industries, firm sizes, and job responsibilities. Themean scores of the variables indicate that expatriates in themanufacturing industry perceive a comparatively high degreeof task autonomy and identity, while expatriates in the retailindustry perceive comparatively a high degree of task variety,task feedback, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.Also, the mean scores reveal that expatriates in firms withbetween 100-499 employees reported a comparatively higherdegree of task autonomy, task identity, and job satisfaction;expatriates in firms with less than 100 employees reported acomparatively higher degree of task variety, and expatriates infirms with 1000 and more employees reported a comparativelyhigher degree of task feedback and organizational commit-ment. Further, expatriates who were responsible for territory-wide sales perceived a comparatively higher degree of taskautonomy and identity and organizational commitment thanexpatriates who were responsible for district-, region-, and na-tion-wide sales. In addition, expatriates who were responsiblefor district-wide sales perceived a comparatively higher degreeof task variety, feedback, and job satisfaction than expatriateswho were responsible for territory-, region-, and nation-widesales. It is noteworthy that the results of the Scheffe test indi-cated that expatriates did not differ significantly in their per-ceptions of job satisfaction and organizational commitmentacross industries, firm sizes, and job responsibilities.

Measures

We measured all constructs with multiple-item scales drawnfrom previous research. We adopted a 9-item scale from Min-nesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ; Weiss et al. 1967;

Quinn and Staines 1979; and Ironson et al. 1989) to assessboth the intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of job satisfaction. Tomeasure job characteristics, we used the Job ClassificationIndex (JCI; see Sims, Szilagyi, and Keller 1976) that includedfour dimensions of job characteristics: autonomy (3 items),identity (4 items), feedback (4 items), and variety (2 items).Using Hunt, Chonko, and Wood's (1985) 5-item scale, wemeasured organizational commitment. For measuring corpo-rate ethical values, we used a 5-item scale developed by Hunt,Wood, and Chonko (1989). Further, for aHother control vari-ables, we used self-report measures.

Analysis and Results

To test the hypothesized model, a covariance matrix wasused as input to LISREL 8.30 (Joreskog and Sorbom 1996). Inanalyzing the data, we followed the two-step anal3^ic proce-dure recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), whichwe elaborate next.

Assessment of Measures. We first conducted a confirmatoryfactor analysis (CFA) to estimate the measurement model, whichincluded all the seven multiple-item constructs. The CFA con-firmed that the scales of job characteristics (i.e., autonomy,variety, identity, feedback), organizational commitment, andcorporate ethical values (the control variable) were unidimen-sional, whereas the scale of job satisfaction was not. Regardingthe scale of job satisfaction, MacKenzie, PodsakofT, and Aheame(1998, p. 92) noted that "the items on the MSQ were not ex-pected to be unidimensional because they are formative mea-sures of satisfaction that together define the composite con-struct, rather than reflective measures caused by an underly-ing latent construct." Following their recommendation, we useda traditional summed scale score for job satisfaction. Table 3displays the correlations, descriptive statistics (means and stan-dard deviations), and reliability estimates. All scales met therecommended reliability coefficient of 0.70 (Nunnally 1978).

Further, the ^-values for item loadings were significant andranged from 9.04 to 19.61 (p<.01) across all items in all mea-

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

ANOVA

Variables

AutonomyVarietyIdentityFeedbackJob SatisfactionOrganizational Commitment

: Job Characteristics,

Industry (n=500)

Man

2.503.08**2.032.712.453.36

Service

2.343.42**2.002.742.513.41

Retail

2.293.10**1.882.702.373.33

Table 2Organizational Commitment, and Job Satisfaction

<100

2.443.36*1.972.65**2.413.36

Firm Size (n=537)

100-499

2.333.34*1.912.44**2.403.32

500-999

2.543.03*2.112.87**2.563.28

1000 >

2.343.07*2.022.90**2.483.37

Job Responsibility (n=537)

UnitTerritory

2.58***3.262.14*2.74*2.52*3.36

District

2.55***3.341.90*2.89*2.53*3.35

Region

2.12***3.161.92*2.49*2.36*3.35

National

2.10***3.152.04*2.85*2.25*3.22

Note: Results of Scheffe tests* p<.05; ** p<.01, *** p<.001 (using F-test)

Autonomy

VarietyIdentityFeedback

Job SatisfactionOrganizational Commitment

Expatriates who are responsible from territory and district-wide sales differ from those who are responsible fromregion and nation-wide sales.Expatriates in services differ from both those in manufacturing and those in retail group.Expatriates who are responsible from territory-wide sales differ from those who are responsible district-wide sales.Expatriates who are employed by firms with size of (100-499) employees differ from those who are employed byfirms with size of (1000>) employees. Expatriates who are responsible from district-wide sales differ from those whoare responsible region-wide sales.No groups differ.No groups differ.

sures, meeting the criterion (i^-values>2.00) for convergentvalidity (Anderson and Gerbing 1988) (Table 3). Also, to testthe discriminant validity, we computed the /^-difference be-tween the model that constrained the correlations betweenthe constructs with multiple items to unity (i.e., perfectlycorrelated) and the model that allowed the correlations be-tween the constructs to be free. The c^-difference tests be-tween all possible pairs of constructs supported the presenceof discrimiinant validity for the constructs. The fit indices ofthe measurement model were: x^ (668)= 1187.3, p<.001,GFI=.92; NFI=.92; CFI=.97; TLI=.96; PFI=.71; RMSEA=.O61,which indicated reasonably good fit.

Finally, since we gathered the dependent and independent datafrom a single respondent, common method bias could be present.Hence, we used the Harman's one-factor test (see Podsakoff andOrgan 1986) to assess the presence of common method bias.The results of the principal component factor analysis revealedseven factors with eigenvalues of greater than 1.0, which ac-counted for 84% of the total variance. Further, the analysisidentified several factors where the first factor did not accountfor the majority of the variance (only 10%) and there was nogeneral factor in the un-rotated factor structure. These indi-cated that common method bias was not a serious problem.

Comparative Fit Measures of the Theoretical and the Alterna-tive Models of Job satisfaction. Table 4 displays the fit mea-sures of the proposed model and the three alternative models.Before comparing the proposed model with the alternative mod-els, we first compared the proposed model with the null model.As expected, the proposed model showed significant improvementover the null model. We then compared our proposed model withthe alternative models. Results indicated that the proposed modelwas significantly better than all three alternative models.

Hypotheses Tests Results

Statistical Power. Following the procedure recommendedby Iverson and Macguire (2000), we estimated the statisticalpower of the model. The result exceeded Cohen's (1988) rec-

ommended criterion of .80, indicating that the model hadample power to detect meaningful parameters.

LISREL Parameter Estimates. Table 5 shows the param-eter estimates of the proposed model (Figure 1), the bestfitting one. Adopting a four-step hierarchical regression ap-proach, we simultaneously investigated the unique contribu-tion that each subset of predictor variables made toward theexplanation of the dependent variable (i.e., job satisfaction)and the individual parameter estimates of the control andpredictor variables (Bettencourt, Gwinner, andMeuter 2001).Specifically, we began by entering the control variables intoLISREL program in order to compute the unique variancethat the control variables added to the explanation of jobsatisfaction. Then we regressed job characteristics, along withcontrol variables, against job satisfaction. Next we regressedorganizational commitment, together with control variables,against job satisfaction. Finally, we regressed both job char-acteristics and organizational commitment, along with con-trol variables, against job satisfaction.

The results indicated that both job characteristics (R^=.39;F (4, 522)=67.51, p<.001) and organizational commitment(R2=.18; F (1, 521)=54.24,p<.001) explained unique variancein job satisfaction over and above that explained by controlvariables. In addition, job characteristics explained uniquevariance (AR^=.32,p<.001) in job satisfaction even when orga-nizational commitment was controlled. Similarly, organizationalcommitment explained unique variance (AR^=.O6, p<.001) injob satisfaction when job characteristics were controlled.

Further, LISREL path estimates (based on Step 4) showed thatfeedback (/3=.35, p<.001), organizational commitment (^=.25,p<.001), autonomy (/3=.22, p<.001), identity (^=.13,p<.001), andcorporate ethical values (j8=.O8, p<.05) had the strongest influenceon job satisfaction. Income (/3=-.O8, p<.05) appeared significantlybut negatively related to job satisfaction. No significant relation-ship was observed between variety and job satisfaction (/J=.O6, ns).Finally, Chow test revealed that feedback was a significantly bet-ter predictor of job satisfaction than autonomy (t(520)=3.75,p<.05)and identity (t(520)=6.33,p<.05).

Winter 2002

Variables 1 2 3 4

Table 3Summary Statistics

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

7

16

1 Autonomy2 Variety3 Identity4 Feedback5 Job Satisfaction6 Organizational

Commitment7 Corporate Ethical

Climate8 Age9 Education10 Firm Size11 Income12 Organizational

Activities13 Job Title14 Level of

Responsibility15 Total Work

Experience16 Number of Firms

Worked

.74

.25

.33

.25

.40

.70

.10

.18

.26

.80

.34 .84

.35 .51 .84

.11 .20 .12 .16 .37 .81

.16 .15-.24 -.06-.12 -.22-.03 -.09-.09 -.19

-.11 -.04

-.08 .03

.13 .14

-.20 -.07

-.09 -.02

.07 .13 .14 .21-.16 -.10 -.09 -.13-.12.03.06

.01

.10-.06 -.06

.71-.19.01

.06 -.00 -.01.07 -.08 -.12 -.05

.14

.04

.20.13.27 .35

-.09 -.00 -.06 -.03 .02 .05 .09 .13 .14 -

-.18 .02 -.02 .07 -.04 -.06 -.00 .02 -.08 .07 -

-.05 .09 .12 .02 .09 -.15 -.07 .20 -.01 .13 .25 -

-.07 -.03 -.07 -.08 -.20 .74 .05 .14 .20 -.00 -.04 -.17 -

-.05 -.02 .01 .06 -.07 .41 .05 -.07 -.08 -.02 -.06 -.18 .37Number of Items 3 2Mean 2.39 3.21Standard Deviation .96 .99Cronbach's Alpha .74 .70

Factor Loading .68 .73Range | |

.74 .75

4 4 9 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11.99 2.71 2.45 3.34 2.60 2.10 2.04 6.60 3.11 2.55 4.80 2.87 2.52 2.42.74 1.11 .68 1.02 .84 .91 .76 2.41 1.88 1.58 2.57 1.02 1.37 1.54.80 .84 .84 .81 .71

.64 .73 .51 .65 .51

.81 .81 .73 .73 .81

t-value Range 9.14 10.45 9.04 10.01 10.41 9.79 6.82

I I I I I I I10.40 10.91 13.60 12.20 19.61 11.40 12.43

* Correlations at .08 and above are significant at p<.05, one-tailed.N=537

Table 4Fit Measures: Proposed and Alternative Models

Model df GFl NFI CFI TLI PFI RMSEA

Measurement ModelProposed Model: JCs+OC+JCs*OC^JSAlternative Model 1: JCs-^JS^OCAlternative Model 2: JCs-^OC-»JSAlternative Model 3: JCs+OC-^JSNull Model

1187.31052.81299.41305.81325.6

15450.7

668660672672672820

.92

.95

.81

.86

.88

.92

.93

.92

.91

.91

.97

.98

.96

.96

.96

.96

.97

.95

.95

.95

.71

.73

.63

.67

.69

.061

.047

.098

.095

.082

1. Control variables included.2. JCs*OC interaction effects were operationalized by creating four variables computed as the products of the mean-centered variables of

organizational commitment and autonomy, variety, identity, and feedback. This is consistent with Bollen's (1989, p. 128) recommendation forincluding single-indicator interaction terms in LISREL models.

3. Total degrees of freedom=(41 X 42)/2=861. Number of estimated parameters in the proposed model (structural portion and item measurementmodel)=201, df (Proposed model)=861- 201=660

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

Table 5Results of Hierarchical Regression Predicting Job Satisfaction for Proposed Model

VariablesStepi Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Control VariablesDemographic Variables

AgeIncomeEducationExperienceJob TitleResponsibilityNumber of Firms Worked

Organizational VariablesActivityFirm Size

Organizational CultureCorporate Ethical Climate

Predictor VariablesJob Characteristics (JCs)

Job AutonomyJob VarietyJob IdentityJob Feedback

Job-Related VariableOrganizational Commitment (OC)

Step 1: Control variables onlyStep 2: Control varlables+JCsStep 3: Control variables+OCStep 4: JCs beyond OC

OC beyond JCs

060703020411*05

0708

.07-.10*.02

-.02.00.05.03

-.02.05

-.01-.04-.02.01

-.07.12**.01

-.06.06

,10-.08.02

-.02-.02.06.00

-.02.04

.19***

,07***

.10**

.22***

.09*

.15***

.38***

.39*

.15*

.34*

.18***

AW

,08*

.22***

.06

.13***

.35***

.25***

.06***

.32***

* p<.05; ** p<,01; *** p<,001 (one-tailed)

Moderator Relationship. Hypothesized interactions betweenjob characteristics and organizational commitment were testedfollowing the recommended procedure for testing the modera-tion effects in structural equation models (Jaccard and Wan1996). The procedure comprises a nested goodness-of-fit strat-egy that accompanies a multiple-group solution. First, no across-group (i.e., unconstrained model) constraints were estimatedfor the high and the low organizational commitment groups.Then, the across-group (i.e., constrained model) constraintswere estimated. Further, the parameter estimates for the highand low organizational commitment groups were constrainedto equal (i.e., a moderator effect). Then the Ax̂ test (i.e., com-parison of unconstrained and constrained models) was used todetect moderator effect. The unconstrained model had a sub-stantially better overall fit than the constrained model(AX^n,_11.27,p< .05), suggesting that some paths were signifi-cantly different between the high and low commitment groups.Further, identity (|3= .18, SE=.05,p<.001) and feedback (p= .33,SE=.O4, p<.001) had significant effects on job satisfaction forexpatriates with a low level of organizational commitment,while autonomy was not significantly related to job satisfactionfor those with a low level of organizational commitment. Fi-nally, when the level of organizational commitment was high,autonomy (|3= .36, SE=.05,p<.001) and feedback (|3= .27, SE=.O5,p<.001) were significantly related to job satisfaction. Like incase of its main effect, variety did not have any interactiveeffect with organizational commitment on job satisfaction.

Discussion

Using expatriate, guest worker, salespeople in Saudi Arabia,we evaluated one proposed and three altemative configura-tions of job characteristics, organizational commitment andjob satisfaction. The proposed model best reproduced the samplecovariance matrix, which specified direct, as well as interactiveeffects of job characteristics and organizational commitment onjob satisfaction. By supporting a specific pattem of direct andinteractive relationship, we showed that the interrelationshipsbetween salesperson's work-related variables are more thanmerely linear. The key findings pertaining to the relationshipsin the proposed model are discussed next.

As expected, when expatriate salespeople perceive higherautonomy, identity and feedback in their jobs, they experi-ence higher job satisfaction. However, these expatriates' per-ception of higher job variety does not lead to higher job satis-faction. Although contrary to the hypothesis, this is an impor-tant finding. There is a grovnng trend in the literature tocombine different dimensions of job characteristics in examin-ing their effects on job attitudes and behavior (e.g., Yitzhak andFerris 1987). Oior finding suggests that combining different jobcharacteristics in examining their effects on job attitudes andbehavior may not be the correct treatment. This study showsthat job variety does not have that same motivational potentialfor expatriate salespeople in Saudi Arabia as other job charac-teristics have. Further, as hypothesized, expatriate salespeople

Winter 2002 9

with higher organizational commitment also experience higherjob satisfaction. Here, organizational commitment precedes jobsatisfaction (Table 5), which is a deviation from the view ofmost studies in US-context where job satisfaction is seen as anantecedent to organizational commitment.

The unique feature of our proposed model was its specifica-tion of interaction effects of job characteristics and organiza-tional commitment on job satisfaction. By and large, the ef-fects of job characteristics on job satisfaction differ betweenexpatriate salespeople with higher and lower organizationalcommitment. Specifically, when expatriate salespeople withhigher organizational commitment perceive higher autonomyand feedback, they experience higher job satisfaction. Con-trary to the hypothesis, neither for expatriates with high norlow organizational commitment does job variety have a sig-nificant association with job satisfaction. This nonsignificantjob variety-job satisfaction linkage for expatriate salespeoplewas already discussed.

With respect to the control variables, our findings indicatethat when expatriate salespeople perceive higher corporateethical values, they experience higher job satisfaction. Also,expatriates with higher income experience lower job satisfac-tion. The remaining control variables are not relevant to ex-patriate salespeople's job satisfaction.

Our findings have logical implications particularly for thosewho deal with expatriate, guest worker, salespeople. Specifi-cally, promoting autonomy, task-identity and feedback forexpatriate salespeople can serve to boost their job satisfac-tion. Managers shoiild note that efforts to increase job varietyare unlikely to enhance job satisfaction of expatriate sales-people. Moreover, pursuing strategies to increase expatriatesalespeople's organizationsd commitment should be useful inincreasing their job satisfaction. Further, managers shouldalso realize that job characteristics, such as autonomy, task-identity and feedback, interactively work with organizationalcommitment to account for job satisfaction. In other words,taking steps to enhance autonomy, task-identity and feed-back is more likely to boost job satisfaction of expatriatesalespeople in the presence of higher organizational commit-ment. Thus, efforts to build commitment of expatriates in thepresence of job enrichment should pay off in better attitudetowards the job. Lastly, our findings pertaining to controlvariables indicate that managers trying to enhance job satis-faction of expatriate salespeople might benefit from reward-ing ethical behavior of expatriate salespeople.

Study Limitations and Future Research

Due to the cross-sectional nature of data collection in thisstudy, drawing of caxisal inferences may not be appropriate.Further, although we tested for it, the common method biascannot be completely ruled out. We recommend that futurestudies take a multi-method data collection approach in orderto adequately address the issue of common method variance.Furthermore, since this is the first evidence, to our knowl-edge, for the interaction effect between job characteristicsand orgEinizational commitment on job satisfaction amongexpatriate, guest worker, salespeople, corroboration is neededbefore any valid inference can be established. Because thesample of expatriate salespeople was drawn from SaudiArabia, the generalizability of our findings over other na-tional settings may not be valid. Future research should at-tempt to replicate our findings in other countries where expa-triate salespeople are in abundant supply. Additionally, since

we utilized a limited number of predictor and control vari-ables in this study, future research should include other pos-sible determinants of job sat;isfaction (for example, national-ity of expatriates) and explore other variables as moderators,such as career commitment. The other limitation is related tothe direction of the relationship between organizational com-mitment and job satisfaction. Although literature has ampleevidence for the direct effect of job satisfaction on organiza-tional commitment, our finding echoes with a limited numberof studies that posit organizational commitment as the ante-cedent of job satisfaction (e.g., Mathieu 1991). Abetter way toresolve this debate is to undertake a longitudinal research.Furthermore, recent research has focused on multidimensionalmodels of commitment. For example, research has recognizedthe differing effects of job satisfaction on the three dimensionsof commitment (i.e., affective, continuance, and normative).Hence, these multidimensional models of commitment shouldbe studied utilizing structural equations modeling approach.

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