THESES CANADIENNES SUR MICROFICHE

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i I .

AUDITORY STIMULATION

Douglas Owen Cheyne

3 . S c . , University of Waterloo, 1931

P-

a THESIS SUBMITTED I K PARTIAL FULFILLMENT GF m- 7 3

-ZL 2E23IREMEkiTS FOR THE DEGRZE OF

Yf.STER OF ARTS

i n tne Department

Psychclogy @

C

0 Douglas Owen Cheyne I984

SIMON FXASER UNIVERSITY

Nove~~beq, - . I 984 1 j

- . t '- A - r rlqhts reserves. This work mav not be - *

reprcSxced in whole cr in part, by photocopy Qr cther Leans, withc~r permission of the a~thor.

2' APPROVAL

NAME: Douglas h e n Cheyne - - DEGREE: Master o f Arts

TITLE OF THESIS: An ~ x b l o r a t i o n o f Psychophysiological

Responses t o ~ h y t h m i c Auditory S t imula t ion 4

EXAMINING ,COPHITf E E : . -

Chairperson: Dr. Vi t o f40dipl iani

I Dr. ~ h r i s t t f ~ h e r ~ a v ? s

1

/

Dr. H a b l d Weinbkrg

v Dr. arti in L& External Exarnl'ne D e p a r t w n t o f Cormunications * Simon Fras.er Uni ve r s i t y

, \ L K b * h . q /9& Date approved:

PART I A L COPY3 I GHT L 1 CENSE

1

\ I oereby g ran t t o Simon Fraser U n i v v s i t y the rignt t o lend

-+{ t hes is , p r o j e c t or exrended essay ( t he t i t l e o f which i s shown b e l p w )

+o users o f the Simon Frasec U n i v e r s i t y L i b ra r y , and t o m k e p a r t i a l o r

s ing le .cop ies only f o r such users o r i n res~onse t o a i s ~ u e s t f r o m f h s '

. i b ra ry o f any o m e r un ive rs i t y , . o r o ther educat iona l i n s t i t u t i o n , on

: t s -own behaf f o r f o r one of i t s users. I f u r t h e r agree t h a t permission

f o r mul t ip l ,e copying of t h i s work f o r s cha la r l y purposes m y be granted

' tv me o r the Dean af Graduate Studies. I t i s unders*md t h a t copying

s r pub1 l c a t i o n o f t h i s work f o r tirarrial g a i n ska l l ~ o t be a t lowed

w i thou t my w r i r t e ~ permission.

T i t l e o f Thesis/?roject /Extended Essay

Author:

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photic stimulation. EHG responses indicated slight differences I _

in resting activity in contralateral 1imbs.before and during

tapping movements. Since no auditory driving was achieved no . comparisons could be made between EEG and peripheral responses

with respect to the frequency of the auditory stimulus. ,

It was concluded that overt auditory driving of the EEG

cannot be readily produced in a laboratory situation although

photic driving responses were prod&ed under conditions in which

audjtory driving responses were not ~roduced. Although auditory

driving responses gay be correlated with behavior;ra? changes as

indicated by Neher, photic driving can be dbserved in the

absence of such changes and may therefore constitute a different

phenomenon physiologically than auditory driving., Difficulties t

in measuring such responses in a laboratory setting were noted

and suggestions for further research on auditory driving are

given,

- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis could not have been completed without the help

and suggestions of many friends and colleagues.

I must exbress my gratitude to the members of my advisory I

committee, Chris ~ a v i s and Hal Weinberg, for their support and

suggestions over :he course of the project and would also like

to thank Hartin Laba for his insightful comments and careful

reading of the thesis.

I owe a great deal of thanks to Howard Gabert for his help

and advice (and for endless discussions on FFT's) and to Malcolm

Toms, Wayne Tressel and other members of the.technica1 and . support staff at Simon fraser for theirrhelp.throughout the

project. (I

I would also like to thank Kurtis Vane1 for his expert help i It

, with the sound tapes, and to Albert St. Albert for graciously -

L

providing his musical talents for the taping of the conga drum.

A great deal of appreciation is also owed to all those 3

people who provided their help and suggestions throughouta- /

Carol Barker, Tom Zerucha, Nancy Higgens, Sandra Murray, Dr.

j'paul Brickett, and Dr. Len Diamond, to name only a few.

--k Of course, special thanks go to Chris Davis for his advice

and enthusiasm for the thesis project and for his support

, thrbughout my time spent here at Simon Fraser. L

m

U

'Id 13

~ecomrnendations for further research ..;.....s,..*.......92

Appendix. A : Schematic diagram of auditory-envelope . a? detector.. ........;..................,..+............,:....94

Appendix- B : Plots of during auditory st imulatio~ . . - -95, -7

URING AUDITORY STIMULATION AT' a rate of 3.4 eats/second. (Subject: G . S ; ) . . . . . . . . , . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96 - %- 7 . - 8

'AUDITORY STIWLITI-ONL'AT a ra ti of - beats/second. (Subject: G. S . 1 .............*-...:......_'.97

E E G DURING AUDITOR? STIMULATION AT a rate 02 3 . 4 beats/second. (Subject: D. W.) . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 8 .... * -

EEG DURING AUDITQRIT STIWLATIO& AT a rate of 9.0

1 beats/second. (Subject: D. , ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . 9 9 r

Appendix C : P&zs bf EEG data during ic stimblation ... . l o 0 *

EEG DURING P H O T I C S T S m A T ~ O R AT a rate of 5 . 0 , . flashes/second. jSubject: G . 5 .1 . . . , . . . / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I01

* EEG DURING PHOTIC STIMULATION AT a rate of 10.0 .... - f lashes/se,cond. (Subject: G . S. ) ................

EEG DURING P H O T I C STIMULATIOK'AT a,'r&te of 5 .0 . fla$hes/second. (Subject: D,.W.) .................,......103

E E G DURING P H O T I C STIM~LATEON A T a rate- of 10.0 b .... flashes/secbnd. (Subject: D . W.) ...$.............. 104

. *

a .:...... 105

106 ......... . .

RECTLFYED EMG FOR L E F T AND R I G H T FGREARM PLA$XbENTS. S U B J E C T .

- T A P P I N G T O RHYTHMIC $OLJND. (Subject: N. H,) . . . . . . . . . . . . . l a7 - RECTIFIED EMG FOR LEFT ~m RIGHT F O R E A ~ ~ P L A C E M E N T S ; SUBJECT . ....... L I S T E N I N G T O RHYTHMIC SOUND. (Subject: C . B.) *... 108

R ~ C T I PI ED EHG FOR LEFT AND R I G H T 'FOREA~(H P L A C E M E ~ E C T T A P P I N G T O RHYTHMIC SCUND. (Subject: C. B.! *....++.-.,...I09 . -- -

/ - ' 1 Reference Notes ...............-................,...............110

f .. 9

References . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . 1 1 4

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

1 Model, of _pathways involved ception and ................... production of auditory s 2 7

2 Diagram of laboratory layout showing position of subje~t and apparatus during recording ....................................... procedure. 3 4

1 r - $3-1; 3-2 A

Average magnitude of EEG frequency c%mponents for ...... each electrode placement. Subject G. S. 43, 4 4 4

I . '7-

' L

3-3; ;3-4 . . Average mahitude of EEG frequency components for ...... e-ach elec7rode placement. Subject D. W. 45, 4 6

- 3-5; 3-6

Average,magnitude of EEG frequency components for ...... each'electrode placement. Subject P. R. 47, 48

3-7; - 3 - 8 r , ~vekage magni tude'of EEG frequency components for ...... each electrode placement. Subject K. W. 49, 50

3-9; 3-10

...... Av-erage magnitude of each electrode 51, 52

3-71; 3-12,' ~verage. magnitude ...... each electrode 53, 5 4

I. ......... 3-1 3 Average. magnitude' of EG frequency components . during photic stim lation. Subject G. S. 5 5

, 3 -74 Averagemagnitude of EEG frequency cdmponents during photic stimulation. SubjLeit D. W. ......... 59

4-1 Frequency analysis (FFT) of EEG for each electrode ....... placement across conditi'ons. Subject G. S. 5 7 -

4-2 Frequency analysis (FFT) of EEG for each electrode placement across conditions. Subject D. W. ....... 5 8

....... . Frequency analysis (FFT) of EEG for' each electrode

placement across conditions. Subject P. R. 5 9

- - -

& 5 .' *:

4 -4 ' Frequency aplysis IFFT) of EEG for each electrode placement across conditions. Subject K. W. ....... 60

4-5 Frequency analysis (FFT) . o f E E ~ for .each e l e c t r o c placement across conditions. Subject L. R. .+.... 61

1,

4 - 6 Frequency -.analysis (FFT) of EEG for each e l e c t r o d p ....... placement across conditions. ~ M c t M. G. 62 @ 4-7 @requency analysis (FFT) of EEG Xor each electrode ;A

placement during photic stimulation. Suqject d G. S. ............................................ 63

4 4-8 Frequency analysis (?FFT) of EEG for each electrode

pla'cernent during photic stimulation. Subject D. W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

3

5- 1 Average respiration rate across conditions. $& :$ 4 Subject G+ S , ,,,,.,,,,,.,.............,.......... 6 3 1

5-2 Average respiration rate across conditions. Subjece D. W. ...................................... 68 '. .

5 - Average respiration rat: *across conditions. .................................... Subject P. R. 69

5-4 Average respiration rate across conditions. .................................... Subject'K. W. 70

5-5 Average respiration rate across conditions. .................................... Subject G. R, 71 - -

5-6 Average respiration rate across conditions. .................................... Subject M. G. 72

5-7 Average respiration rate acrosp conditions during ................ photic stimulation. Subject G. S. 73

5 - 8 Average respiration-rate across conditions during ................. 'photic stimulation. Subject D. W. 74

6- 1 Average h art' rate across conditions .......,....... 4 Subjec G. S. ....................r...........6..,.. 75 -. ? 6-2 Average heart rate across conditions .............. ....... Subject D. W. :................,,......... 76-

- -

' 6'3 # .............. Average heart rate across conditions

Sub'ject P. R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 -- -

........... - 6 - 4 Average heart rate across conditions. *. Y ...................................... Subject .K. W: 78

Average heart rate across r p n d i t i m % , ....... .-- - k+ ... Subject G.. .............................. -. 79 e .

Average heart rate-across conditions. during . photic stimulation. .Subject G. 5 : ................ 3 0

Average ss conditions. during ................ photic stimuJation. Subject D. W, 81

Introduction

I. Theoretical Background

- Prqvious Research %

i-

'Although phot c driving1 responses can be elicited with

consistency in humans using stroboscopic stimulation (Adrian &

r Matthews, 1934; Walter & Walter, 1949) and have been applied in

the diagnosis of various physical pathologies fiiamel et al., -

1978; Cohen et al., 1980; Ramani, Torres '&- ~uewenson, 1984)

studies of auditory driving have been less successful.

Conflicting reports of the ability to elicit rhythmic responses

in the EEG synchronous with a repetitive auditory stimulus may

be due, not to recording techry'iques or methods of analysis, byt

to the types of auditory stimuli usedmdnd-the manner in which

they are presented. Plutchik (1966) was unsuccessful id

eliciting a driving response to various frequenci.es using a tone

generator, whereas, Neher (1961) reported the successful

. elicitation of auditory driving using a drum beat at various frequencies. As will be noted, there are many procedural -

diffe~ences between these two studies which may accdunt for the

conflicting results and these will be discussed later. However,

Neher makes an important point with regard to the nature of the

driving stimulus noting that "natural" auditory stimuli, such as

the beating of a drum, would be mor,e likely to elicit a respbnse .1

i - due to the presence of harmonics which would increase the

"power: of the stimulus and possibly a largerportion

of the auditory: cortex. This early

validity" in'an electrophysiological study may 5

possible importance of- u,singnnaturalistic stimuli andbr

settings in these types of experiments. More recent studies have

reported the ability to induce rhythmic activity in the EEG

using complex (natur.aliy occurring) auditory stimuJi such as

chanting and rhytnmic music, (Rogers, 1976: Rogers & Walter, s . .

1982) as well as amplitude modulated white nois4 (~odenburg,

Verweij, & Van den Brink, 1972). Some early investigators

reported driving responses in patients with temporal lobe ki,

seizutes in a few cases. The difficulty in eliciting driving

resp'onses with auditory stimulation has also been attributed to

the anatomical position of the primary auditory'cortices J'

(infolded within the Silvian fissures). It is thus debatable a;

--. to whether primary cortical -responses to sound can be recorded 1

•’;om the scalp even with temporal electrode placements (see -

Naquet, 1974, p. 30). \ With regard to the experimental findings to date, the

relative success with which photic driving can be elicited may

be attributed to the fact that white light of high intensity is d

typically used as the eliciting stimulus. This results in a

large proportion of fibers being activated throughout the visual /

system; a system which in humans represents a relatively large

amount of ascending fibers and cortex. Similarly, in accordance

with present knowledge of coding I

. , in the auditory system

(frequency encoding, tonotapic organization of the auditory a ,

cortex) st"inu2ation by means of a single fpitjuency tone of (- --."

'moderate incensiiy would only eigage a relatively small & propor<ion ;i similar components in the auditory system,

whereas, a broadernrange of frequencies would.activate a larger

area of cortex a$ is contended by Neher (1962). Studies of the,' C

auditory system have shbwn that stimulus intensity is related to i"

the number 9f nerve fibers'activated although it is not known

how this mechanism works with complex sounds and it is even -=A

speculated that inf9,rmation regarding sound intensity may be

T determined during the first few milliseconds and only- chanqes in

intensity dethdted thereafter (M@ller, 1983 p.237). ~ow.ever, it

is important to note that the temporal response of fibers

encoding complex sounds are dominated by frequency components

that are large in the/--stimi;lus (Sachs, 1984). Also, tonotopic

organization of fr+quency in fhe human auditory cortex has been .

demonstrated using intracranial electrodes (Celesia, 1976) and I

more recently with magnetoencephalographic recordings (Romani,

* Willjamson & Kaufman, 1982). here fore, the use of either pure ..

tones or compiex sounds may be an important. factor in

understanding the-differences observed. between photic driving ,.

responses and driving in the auditory system.

In addition r a the types of sounds employed, the (driving)

frequency, duration, and regularity of stimulation may have a +

significant eiiecr on results. Plutchik, (1966) used pulsed pure

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4 populations of these neurons are firing5 in phase. Emphasis has

y'a.

' C been mostly 6n thalamocortic~l con ections as a possible

centra1,generator or "pacemaker",of phasic activity in the

cortex (~nderson & Eccles, ;1962) although some afgue for

cortical origin from various sites based on .phase/reversals *

observed within the layers of the cortex opes da Silva,& Storm van Leeuwen, 1578).

./

There has been great interest as to whether spontaneous or .

so-called "resting" rhythms of the EEG, such as alpha and theta

rhythms, may reflectithe functional state of underlying neural

structures. ~ l u l - (1972) presents an interesting theory in which

short epochs of synchronous EEG activity represents "scanning"

of the cortex by subcortical structures where intermittent f - . '-- A'

synchronization of gr;ups of cortical cells by sub-cortical

structures resembles selec'tive attention to sensory input. -5

Others have proposed that cortical rhythms may reflect the . "filteringn effects of neural syrst&s involved in the

d

selectivity of sensory-input, particularly for the visual system

(Spekreijse, 1966; Lcpes da Silva et al, 1974) and that the '

modification of filtering characteristics of the'cortical

network may be involved in learning and memory (Creutzfeldt,

' 9 7 8 ) .

More recently some theorists have proposed that the +r

electromagnetic osc,illations produced by the firing of large

populations of neurcns (and recorded by the EEG) may themselves .

provide the medium i r which information is encoded in t<he brain

i--- I- rhythms -- although some have pointed out difficulties with this

A /--- view (Regan, 1972, p. 237).

I t may be -important to di~tin~uish'here-between brain

responses to repetitive stimulation at various levels of sen.sory ' . ,

, .

systems, such as the ability to produce synchrony or desynchrony a

in the EEG by direct stimulation o reti~llar's~stems of the. C ..

brain stem (~ernpse~ b'~orrison, 1943: Moruzzi & ~ a ~ o u n , 1 9 4 8 ) - and those changes observed in electrical activity at the surface

< of the cortex due to stimu1-i. presented to the subject in the

\ P, - form of tones, beaps, clicks and so on. Furthermore, .it must-be

- .r\

determined whether-one wishes to measure brain stem res~onseg to

sounds to which the subject is responding in a passive manner .

#

(reflecting activity of ascend,ing auditory pathways).or whether

one wishes to measure the subject's active response to rhythmic

auditory stimulation which would entail a higher deqree of ' 1C

processing.-In other words, it is necessary to distinguish * large-scale 'driving' responses which can be detected in the

\

continuous,ly recoqded EEG and 'frequency following' responses

observed in the EEG using steady state averaging techniques2. To

date, an explanation of cortical driving responses in terms of 9

either activity of ascending sensory pathways or as a reflection

of neural events involving information processing has not been

provided. Therefore, "driving" of the; E G can be considered to % reflect some sort of generalizes rhythmic brain activi'ty

(similar to that of aipha rhythms) the neurological basis of

which is not yet fully understoo6. However, it can be argued -

* -' 3 k.

f that sensory driven rhythms would involve large-scale

R

sy-nchronizat'ion of underlying neural structures. - It may.be important, however, to note some differences

found between EEG responses to sinusoidally modulated light ,

(SML) and responses to,repetitive flashes. Sinusoidally

modulated light was first employed in the investigation of

retino-cortical transfer functions ( ~ e Lange, 1958: Spekreijse, . . --. ,966). Nonlinearities exhibited by these systems were explained

in terms of the "selettive filteringQroperties of the coqex

to sensory stimulation. I K was found by Townshend, Lubin, and

Naitoh (1975) that spontaneous alpha rhythms could be frequency

- stabilized by SML but not by photic flashes. I t was concluded

that phase-locking with sub-cbrtical alpha gen ators may be P achieved with SH5 at frequencies at or near the resting alpha

rate; whereas, repetitive photic flashes reflect successive

evoked responses. This is in agreement with earlier findings 'by J- A

Van der Tweel a a Verduyn Lunel ( 1 9 6 5 ) that greater 'cortical

e obtained with SML near spontaneous alpha rates

frequencies. It is also interesting that

responses were also greater for lower modulation depth (less 7

than 50%). This .has interesting implications in the study of

auditory driving if the same effect is found to hold true for i - I,

repetitive auditory stimuli. Thus, it may be critical to examine \t

the type of modulation used in auditory driving studies -- "I naturalistic s o u ~ d s may represent a more sinusoidally modulated

\ b.

so'urce,thar, pgre tones and increase the likelihood of

i

phase-lock1 .effects with .resting cortical rhythms. - '

P . * 1 ?

t is generally knownithat synchronization of EEG activity -.

' is correlated wiz5'. the functionai statk of-reticular structures \ \

associated w i t h d i f f & c levels of the vaking-sleeping I* % / . continuum. Less.wei1 understood is how afferent stimuli interact.

with reticular sysrems. I t is also3nown that responses to *

repetitive acoustic stimuli are'fac itated by stimulation of i v

the 'reticular formatior. although interaction between the

reticular formasion and sensory systems appears to be complex ,

- 22 .' and dependent u p z Seha-~ioural state (see Steriade, 1970 for

:.-. 4

With regar" labratory studies of photicdriving ther,e

appears to be a srrs-3 elationshq6between maximal driving a?d f a the behavibural s;;re 03 the subject. Maximal driving is-often

-3 1 . i

accompanied by reports of emotional changes or perceptual

distortions by r h e gubjects (Walter & Walter, i949;Ule -\ r

Neher, 1961). Sseriaie (19621 reported that increased response 0 '

to rhythmic photic stisxlation during arousal was sometimes \

. *

associated with increased subjecjive experience. Some s

researchers shave stressed the impcrtance of the functional state

of =he reticuiar activating system ith regard to individual P <

differences in drivirg responses {Golubeva, 1972). Various forms r-+---

~f physieai s t i m u l a t i ~ ~ are able to enhance EEG responses to

rkythaic stinula:icE ir laboratcry studies-and include;

ccajinations ~f 5tfferert rhythms, tactile stimulation, / *\

~ y ~ e r v e n ~ i l a t i o r , ~ ~ . ~ ~ s ~ 1 y c e n i a , and administration.of \

convulsants such as Metrazol (Neher, 1962). It has alsoqeen r

fo& by this investigator3 that successful elicitation o 7

photic driving in animal preparations may be h?ghly d e w n t

upon the arhsal level of the animal. heref fore, it is apparent k '

that EEG responses to sensory stimulation are highly dependent - - l

on arousal mechanisms. and the effects 'of stimulation in other t

sensory modalities.

EEG Driving and States of 'consciousness - - -

Most lieely we do n-ot respond in the form of cortical

driving to the mere presence-of repetitive auditory and visual '-+ B - stimulation around us; nevertheless, $here can be founb, many

.. examples of' e treme behavioural the presence 0.f *2

C rhythmic stimulation, often concomitant with EEG changes.

Experimentafiy, it has been demonstrated that rhythmic visual * - .,

3% and auditoryb- stimulation is able to induce altered perceptions

e .

1 or seizure activity in some ipstances (Walter & Wabter, 1949;

addi2ioI-r to this are the many reports of. the use of rhythmic .

J. 1 chanting, singing, or drumming in various cultures to achieve

-?-- meditational or hailucinatory states. These Bxamples Involve

"nighly complex and differing sets of behaviours,.but all have +

, C

=he common feature of using external stimulation of a repetitive

or rhythmic nat.~re, often in conjunction with other forms of

Shysica: sti~ulazion, in order to achieve behavloural changes. --

Considering these 'two phenomena -- the abi1i.t~ to produce

perce2tual or behavioural changes in a laboratory setting using .

rhythmic sensory stimulation $n$the use of rhythmic stimulation

du'ring ritualistic practices which often result in altered . . -.

mental states -- it would appear that there may be similar '\

physiological processes involved. . - f /

The import given tp physiolo3ical and $he notion of .. . u

"hyperarousedn' states in the ~roduction of trance-like states or. . e

SQ-called "possessionn stdes is well documented and many '4

authors have proposed the idea of rhythmic being an

important device for proiiucing central nervous system effects '1 \ 1'

associated with such states (Neher, 1962; Sarge-nt, 1964; Prince,

1966: ~oodman, 1972: Jilek, 1 9 8 h fact, the relationship P

between stroboscopic stimulation d;ring stress and "visionaryn

4 experiences is recounted as early as 1956 by Aldous Huxley in - t

his des=riptions of the effects of hallucinatory drugs$ on

perception i ~ u x l e ~ , l956), Jilek (1982) has published a review ,

I r

bf shamanic ceremonialism among the Pacific Northwest Indians in t -

which he describes the therapeutic effects of ritualistic

"spirit dancingn. He regards physiologicalo stress, in t E con junction with rhythmic auditory stimulation, particular2y

driunming,^as necessary for the production of the hypnotic /

trances experienced by those undergoing the therapeutic ritua t-/- .,

"~hythmic drumming is of paramount importance in Coast Sali 4 winter ceremonialg, and the-loud beating of rapid rhythms ...

9

a characteristic feature of spirit dance initiations" (p. 4 7 ) t

'hat speed can eventualiy be as slow as 4 beats/second ..., then + k . - --.e wn=,e of sub-Sa'rsran Africa should be in trance from the

I . A beginning to =he e2E sf :he yearW!p. 234, quoted in Erlmann,

: 3 8 2 ) . Although Rongec dismisses che theory that music has 9

direct neurophysiolcgical effects which aid in the production of

trances he acknowledges the role of music in evoking emotional

responses i n io,njtl-c:ion with the production of trances (Rouget,

' 3 8 0 1 . Erlmann ( 1 9 8 2 1 , o r the other hand, takes a more extreme i 7iew stating that "trance is not generated physiologically by '%

=-sic". Based on ooservatipns made by Rouget as well as his own 1 fieid ~bser'bations in which he notes that trance often occurs

\ 1

without any musical stimulation Erlmann offers an alternative

thesry jased on czltxrally acquired abilities to self-induce

zra,?ces through -,recesses sf identification and projection. In

s reviewing the neurop3ysisfogical theories df trance induction

Gczdman ( 1 9 7 2 ) states that although it is unclear what role

driving effects play in szates of "dissociationn the effects of

such stimulation are most likely culturally conditioned.

3bviccsly, it is necessary to avoid oversimplification of

tte relationship bdtweer music and its effects on the body in

a~zerpzinc t o decribe the ~europhysiological mechanisms that may

l n d e r l y the proiiuczion of trance-like states. It is also

necessary 5ere C G avoie -he kinds cf errors made by - . .

iovesti2atsrs whs 1:>xe3 the presepre of alpha rhythms in the

- LZG w i t 5 a prticxlar stzze of consciousness associated with

- . . . . rez:ratisr sr ezL:??:ezz?lt, More recently it has been shown I

that.increased amount otalpha activity may only indicate -.

decroased visual processing and that there is little %

experimental evidence to support the idea that rhythmic brain

activity, such as alpha or theta "states", necessarily indicate

any specific subjective state of mind, though the two. often

occur together .(Beyerstein, 1984). It has yet.to be determined *\

whether physiological changes resulting from sensory stimulation

are capable of producing behavioural changes or if they simply

reflect internally mediated changes associated with a particular

setting or situation in which the stimulation occurs.

- Theta Rhythms aAd Auditory Driving

Neher (1961) has suggested that lower rates of repetition

may be more effective for sound stimulation due to the presence -..

of theta activity in the auditory cortex and with reference to /

the fact that the predominant rhythms in ceremonial drumming in -

various cultures fall within this range (Jones, 1954). Although

theta activity is usually observed during the early stages of

sleep, cortical theta rhythms have been observed in subjects-who

are alert with e es open during advanced.stages of Zen 1 med'itation (Kasamatsu b Hirai, 1966). Many theor.ists speeulatee

w that the relationship between theta activity and attentional

states may be significant with respect to the rates of rhythmic

stimulation used in ritualistic ceremonies based on studies such

as Neher's fLex, 1979; Chapple, 1970). However, in a recent

'review of the literature, Birbaumer (1977) states that there is

little experimental evidence to indicate that theta activity is

associated with any pa;ticular mental state beyo

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'. The use of simple rhythmic structure is found in- misic 'of

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all cultures and one may wonder as' to how this ha's evolved'. This '

raises the question of whether rhythm is strictly a cultural a R

phehowna or whether there is some innate tendency for the body

to respond in a certain way to rhythmic or repetitive sounds.

Certainly there are differences in terms of the kinds of rhythms

that are used -in the music'of a certain culture or society and ,

the relative importance of rhythm to that culture and these

differences may be interesting in themselves. For example, one.' " .

investigator has found a straog relationship between infant

carrying practices and the percentage of regular rhythms in . .. % .

music among different cu1t;re.s: indicating the possible effects

in cross--cultural variations in rhythm

1973). In order to answer questions regarding the

foundations of rhythm and rhythm responses., it may be

necessary to consider whether responses to auditory rhythms can

' .be studied apart from their musical context and strictly in ,

relation to their physical effects upon the body.,

Biological Rhythms and Motor Theories of Rhythm.

r ' J

.'.

Many early theories of rhythm attempted to relate musical I -

rhythm to some basic physiological process, such as the beating \- -

of the _heart, breathing patterns, or some basic rate of activity

in the nervocs syster,. However; such explanations were unable to

account for the cmplexity of musical rhythms ande'their

perception and rere for the most part abanbonded due to lack of v

experimental evidence supporting them (Radocy and Boyle, 1979).

Later theories began to consider rhythm as a learned

response and placed more emphasis on motor aspects' of the rhythm

response flundin, 1 9 6 7 ) . Historically, rhythmic body movement

. has been associated with the perception of acoustic rhythms. ,

s Motor theories of rhythm hold that the voluntary action of the

muscles and the subsequent kinesthetic feedback play an

important role in the perception and experience of a musical

rhythm, This clcse interrelationship between musical rhythm and

movement is most rGcently expressed by Clynes and Walker (1982):

The power of musical rhythm to generate moods, shades of feeling, attitudes, and various types of mental and physical energies - in short, the psychic function of ~hythm - is seen to relate to the way -in which sound patterns are transduced by the nervous system to modulate the neural drivinq patterns that, in imagina.tion, or actually a; in dance, control the form of movement.(p. 172) rn

Motor theories raise som5 interesting questions regarding

concept of musical rhythm. Is rhythm a speci,fic temporal

s tli ructure of soundtthat results in a rhythm respbpse, the learned motor responses to what are perceived to be rhythms, or

some combination of the two? Fraisse (1982) notes that one of 'P

the most interesting aspects of rhythm is the ability to

"synchronizen body movements with the sound pulses. This differs

from most exampyes of stimulus-response type behaviw in terms

of one's ability to anticipate the stimulus -- evsn in the case

of complex rhythms. In this sense what is important is not the

regularity of the stimulus but the ability to anticipate it.

Indeed, moving 'in time' to a beat or'rhythm is often seen

as an important component of rhythmic perception and may

possibly even determine the range of frequencies or rates of

repetition that are perceived as musical rhythms. Auditory >

pulses that are separated by more,than about 1 1/2 seconds are

no longer perceived as being linked together in.time. Faster

rates of presentation up to 8 to 10 pulses per second can be

identified as separate elements after which the repeated soupd I

pulses will begin to be perceived a s a steady tone (~raisse,

1982), though the upper limit for motor synchronization with $ '

such pulses. is about 6 or 7 per second (Bartlett & ~artlett;

1 9 5 9 ) . Interestingly, when presented with very fast repetitive

sounds individuals tend to select out and identify slower I .

s (eg., subharmonics of the stimulus rate) as the beat or

is present. I t also appears t b t individuals are ?

capab!e of using 'grouping' strateLies in the' case, of complex,

or conflicting rhythms in order to identify a simpler underl)ing

beat or temporal structure. The exact natwre of such strategies

and why there is a tendency to use them is not completely

understood as yet, nevertheless, motor synkhronization most

likely plays an important role (Handel & Lawson, 1983).

-. , ,

+ t

NeuralAjepresentations of Musical Rhythms - .

I f presented with a sound pattern (ev,en a fairly'complex

one) most individvals will be a b k to reproduce the pattern, by

I,.

tapping their finger, for example, with a fair degree of

accuracy. Therefore temporal patterns must be stored in memory

somehow allowing the pattern to be reproduced either mentally or v

by physical movement or to be recognized later in time. No doubt - musicians possess many such rhythm memories or 'temp1ate.s' which

all~w-them to recreate complex sound patterns o? to maintain a

steady meter during musical performance.

Clynes ( 1 9 8 2 ) refers this aspect of musical memory as

"time-fqm printingn in which a certain temporal pattern may be

stored $memory. Once formed this 'pattern' may be reiterated

automatically until further modification. It would seem, given

such memory processes for rhythms, that the creation or

recreakion of a temporal pattern involves the initiation of Z

motor programs that are initially capable of ongoing - .

rnodif ica'tion and correction (possibly involving ' template . a matching' or some other comparison process)' and eventually able

r

to function with a certain degree .of automaticity. Such

automaticity allows a person such as a trained musician to

produce many complicated sound sequences or melodies without - having to concentrage on the underlying time'structure. One must

distinguish at this point between the production of musical

rhythms and perception of such rhythms -- these two processes

may engage different brain structures. How temporal patterns are

recognized by sensory systems and how such patterns are CT.

recreated motoricdly presents an interesting area of research' '

tj +\ - into the interactive nature of brain systems.

/

i.

Pt may be appropriate here to address again the question of'

what defines musical rhythm. As is noted by Clynes ( 1 9 8 2 ) there

is in musical rhythm a "hierarchi c)l organization of the. experience of frequencyn. Thus, our experience of music can be . . thought'of as perceptual organitation of a broad'frequency range

of sound wades. Sounds within the frequency range of about 20 Hz

6 to 2 0 i U z are percei ed as tones -- drequencies lower than this

may be perceived as "beats" or rhythms. {Of course these slower

frequencies must be composed of the amplitude modulation of one

or more frequencies within the auditory range since only the

higher frequencies can be transduced by the basilar membrane and 0

thus be perceived as "sound" -- l a w frequency sounds by +

themselves-may be sensed as vibrationjin the somatosensory , - modality).

~ u s i c ~ , therefore,' consists of the cognitive organization

or grouping of frequency or, iterations in time. In the same way

tones (high frequencies) are grouped according'Yo certain LC

cognitive principles6 to form pitch and melody, .lower rates of

repetition are grouped together 'forming what i.s common-ly

referred to as musical rhythm. The neural encoding mechanisms

for different frequency ranges may differ (eg., place theory

versus periodicity theory however it may be bssumed that

neural systems so well equipped at encoding temporal patterns as

slow as 20 cycles per second would not have difficulty in

processing slighty- slower temporal patterns that arrive through

the same sensory system. Again the complexity of such sensory , 3

I - / - d

23 , ,

/

"+

processing lies partly within the functioning of the auditory

system itself,' for example, the nature of encoding of sound

intensity, frequency (waveform), and phase in the peripheral

auditory system which would account for the complex, nonlinear

relationships between intensity, pitch, and perceived loudness.

P

Hemispheric Specialization -- and the Neural -- Basi-s of Rhythm

Recently there has been a great amount of interest in the b

role of cerebral dominance in the perception of musical stimuli

' particularly in connection with speech processing. It has been

shown, using dichotic listening tasks, that the nondominant

cerebral hemisphere (the right hemisphere in most right-handed

individuals) is'better at processing nonverbal sounds, such as

music, whereas, the dominant hemisphere is more capable at

processing speech. It has been proposed by some that this

reflects hemispheric specialization for analytic processing

(dominant hemisphere) in speech versus holistic processing

(nondominant hemisphere) for musical stimuli. Cerebral dominance

for the perception of rhythm is not as clearly defined. Temporal

qualities of speech and music are considered to' involve

'analytic' modes of processing due to their sequential nature,

and complex temporal sequences are therefore expected to be

processed better by the dominant or speech hemisphere. However,

rhythmic stimuli have been reported to be processed

prefere6tially by both the dominant (Robinson & Solomon, 1974;

Borchgrevink, 1 9 8 2 ) and nondominant hemispheres (Roland,

Fhere remains some controve;sy over the mechanisms ,involved

in observed lateral differences in auditory processing and it

appears that hemispheric specialization for the perception of B

rhythm may depend opaactors such'as the complexity of the

rhythm, cognitive strategies used,in processing the sounds, and

musical experience of the listener. Pribram (1982) suggests that

less complex temporal sequences may be-processed at a deeper . . . I - %

level than the cerebral cortex since anesthetization of either

cerebral hemisphere (the 4 d a test). does not appear to interfere

with the subjects ability to follow a simple rhythm although % lateral differences have been found with this technique using

more complex temporal patterns.

J Further, level of musical sophistication of the subject may

also a id ct the type of cognitive strategy used in processing

musical sounds and thus the hemisphere activated during such i

processing -- musically naive subjects may use subjective, . <

nonanalytic strategies and show right hemisphere preference,

while musically sophisticated subjects may be using analytic

strategies and show left hemisphere preference (Bever & - Chiarello, 1974; Mazziotta, Fhelps, Carson, & Kuhl, 1982). Thus,

although there appears.to be some evidence for hemispheric

specialization in the perception of musical rhythms it is

necessary to take into account the nature of the-cognitive

processes Ynvolved as a function of the complexity of the

temporal patt-erns in question,as. well as the musical experience *

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I MOTOR "'- ' CENTPAL ' SENSORY

SYSTEMS PRMESSIN ' SYSTEMS i I

C

correction fron feedback information must be produced using

preprogrammed or 'feedforward' mechanisms.

Activity in these pathways may be observed at various I .

levels. Sound patterns may be analyzed and accurately described

4 in terms of frequency, duration, and intensiry. The questions of

how informazion contained within the saund pattern is

transformed inro a neural code that allows the pattern to be

storeaand reproduced later still holds a major challenge to .

those studyins senscry*physiology.

Present:y, rain respo7nses to various sounds may be studied . .

using EEG recorjing techniques in the following ways. J

t (i) during sensory input (evoked or "event-relaced

potentialsWpobserved durinc a discrete sensory event) "

(ii) during a e m r y retrieval or templaze cornprison

processes (larer components cf the event-related potential)

(iii) iarincj motor out?u; (readiness potentials occuring

during prepara~ior for movement or motor pczentials recorded

-L/ over areas of the brain controlling specific parts of the body 2 C

just prior z c zcveser: cf tkose parts). >-.

C

\ '

- - A - . ?resent Study

0

This thesis represents an attempt to study

~sych8physiological responses to naturally occurring rhythmic I

sounds, particularly drumming sounds, within a laboratory

setting. Since p s z research has concentrated on one

physiological mezszrmenr at a time it is difficult to compare

findings between stxdies and little attempt has been made to

integrate the variszs approaches to the study of physical

responses of the bcdy to rhythmic sound. Furthermore, much of

the past research 5 2 s i o n e little to designate the appropriate

parameters of measurezenE for the study of re,sponses to

naturally occuring soxnds. Past studies have had their emphasis

either on the psycho>hysics of auditory perception or have been . . more concerned'witk the 3ehavioural phenomena associated with

such forms of physiological stimul.ation as it occurs in a

nacgral setting; the f~rmer being conducted under such

;..ez~ssarlly ricid l a b ~ r a t ~ r y conditions as to be unable-to study

r h e responses in queszion in a 'na~uralistic' environment and

rhe latter often Seir.2 c ~ n d x t e d in a "too uncontrolledn manner

r 2 be able t o vithstaz? criticism of the methodology involved.

- 3 . . - Czrsequently, i: is cr~fizzit to integrate these two sources of

i n f ~ r m a z i ~ n in 3rder r s clearly znderstand the psychobiological - ---'

35ases of respozses ts rkyzhrnic s~unds, particularly those which . *

are izplicate2 1~ cza:.,$es in states of consciousness, bizarre

behaviour, ritualistic usages and so on. his thesis is

therefore presented as as a preliminary study to determine if

I responses to naturally occurring sounds can be studied within a

relatively controlled laboratory setting and i f so, whether

various psychophysiological indices can be considered

concomitantly in order to provide a better description of the

physiological processes occuring during such phenomena. The -

purpose of the experiment was basically threefold.

( I ) to replicate to some degree Neher's ( 1 9 6 1 ) study in

order to observe whether a repetitive, naturalistic stimulus

(ie.,drumming)'is capable of producing recruitment of EEG .

rhythms, and if so, to determine if the response is dependent on

certain rates of stimulation. * ( 2 ) to determine to what extent peripheral responses are

involved in EEG effects observed during this kind of stimulation .

by monitoring surface EMG (specifically motor responses that may

be produced by "naturaln rhythms), heart rate, and respiration.

( 3 ) to detect possible relationships between rates of

natural (musical) rhythms, observed motor responses, EEG changes

(such as recruitment effects), and other behavioural changes

(eg., changes in levels of general arousal). P.

- B. Method -

Subjects

Four female and four male adults recruited from the

Vancouver area and Simon Fraser University pdpulation served as

subjects in this study.

Apparatus - and Recording Procedures

Recordings were made using Beckman Ag-AgC1 electrodes

filled with Beckman electrode paste and affixed with collodian

and adhesive collars (electrode impedences were below 5 kohms

for all EEG leads).

All signals were sampled at a rate of 200 samples/sec and

stored on magnetic tape for further analysis off-line. Digitized

signals could be monitored on a control room CRT display

throughout the recording procedure. Data collection and analysis

was carried out with the,aid of a Data General Nova 3D computer

system equipped with an RDOS operating system (~.'~abert, P.

Eng. is responsible for system software and hardwa're.)

Monopolar EEG was recorded from Fpz, C3, C4, T3, T4, and Oz

placements referenced to linked mastoids ( A l + A 2 ) using the 10-20

system and amplified through A.C. amplifiers with bandpass

filtering from 1 - 50 Hz. fwith a rolloff of 40 dB/decade). Heart rate was recorded frofn a sternum electrode referenced to

the lower back and fed to a cardiotachometer which provided a

con$inuous digital record of R-R intervals in milliseconds.

Respiration was monitored by means of a thermistor

transducer placed below the subjects nostrils.

Eye movements were monitored via bipolar recordings from

right supraorbital and zygomatic electrode placements.

In some subjects surface EMG was recorded using Beckman

Ag-AgC1 electrodes placed over the forearm muscles (ulnar. C

region) in order to monitor rhythmic hand movements on either

side of the body (eg., finger tapping produced sychronous spikes

in' the EMG sigqal) . \

The audio signal was monitored by a microphone placed

directly over the subjects head. This signal was rectified 2 filtered producing an audio envelppe signal (~ppendix A) that.

provided a smooth continuous record of the amplitude modulated . sound source (eg., a drum beating at -4 beats per second would

produce .a smoothly oscillat.ing signal of the same fundamental

frequency).

Subjects were fitted with the above devices and seated in a

large comfortable arm chair placed in an electricaliy shielded,

sound attenuated room. Acovstic stimuli were presented through 1

two large stereo speakers placed in front and to either side of

t h e subjects (Figure 21.

Stimulus Materials

Q The following sounds were presented to the subjects by

means of a Sony reel-to-reel tape recorder at a sound intensity

of approximately 90 d~.(note: Conga drum tapes were presented to

only two of the subjects - N.H. and C . B . ) .

( i ) Conga drum. A tape of repetitive beats on a conga drum

(approximately 5 and 10 beats per second).

(ii) Repetitive drum beats. These were produced by means of

a tape loop of steady beats on a tom tom drum providing an even

repetitive drumming sound at rates of 3.4, 4.5, 6.8, and 9.0

beats per second. (The two highest rates were produced by

playing the tape loops ardouble speed ince it was not possible k to beat the drum at this speed, thus the pitch of the drum for

/

these rates were shifted to higher ( 2 x ) values accordingly.

Frequencies were chosen so as not to be harmonics of each

other. 1

(iii) Symphony. (J. S. BachInThe Art of the Fugue Groups

(NO. ' 2 ) " ) .

( i v ) Rhythmic music. (J. Hassel, "Chor Moire" (from Dre-am

. -. Theory in Malayi -an instrumental piece consisting of a mixture - In aciditioc phocic flashes were presented to two 0-f the

subjects aE 'rates similar to the auditory stimulation (4.0, 5.0

7.6 and 1 D . O flashes/sec.). Flashes were presented using a Grass

PS22 photostimulator at maximum intensity placed behind an .3

opaque screen which produced a brightness level that subject?

. could fixate on without discomfort ( a flash rate of lO/sec.

~rdduced an luminance level of approximately 18 fL. measured *

with a Spectra Pritchard pfiotometer )'. a

Testing Procedures

Subjects were:given the following treatments.

Two subjects (C.B. and N . H . ) performed instructed tapping

movements of both h m d s and feet with and without acc~mpanying

drum beats. These subjects also listened to conga drum beats at

5 and 10 beats per second with eyes open and eyes closed.

The remaining six subjects listened, with eyes open, to

symphony, rhythmic music, and four rates of drum beats for

durations of 3 minutes each.

Two of the above subjects ( G . S and D.W.) also received .. photic stimulation, with eyes open, at rates of 4.0, ,5.0, 7.6,

7 and 10 .0 flashes per second.

Data Analysis

i The following analyses were performed on the raw data.

The E E G records were subjected to Fourier analysis (FFT) in

order toa determine the presence of predominant frequencies

within the EEG signal. 3.84 second epochs (256 points) were

selected from the raw data after smoothing (pr~ducing an L

effective sampling rate af 66.6 samples/sec.) from corresponding -

time periods across conditions and across subjects. Histograms /'

were created (Figures 3 - 1 through 3 - 14) by calculating the

average power over 5 epochs of data (a total of 19.2 seconds of

data) per condition. This provided a relative measure of the

predominance of the srequency components in the EEG signal

corresponding to each of the stimulus rates used with respect to

each -other. Thus each value corresponds to the relative

predominance of a particular frequency component over the entire bf stimulus condition. This analysis was applied to five' EEG

channels -'- C3, C4, T3, T4, and Oz. (The Fpz lead was excluded

because of excessive eye movement artifacts in that channel. Oz ? *

, is absent in one subject).

Frequency spectra were also plotted for each condition and /

electrode position. Due to limitations of the FFT program

capabilities it was not possible to plot the spectra

corresponding to the histogram data. Each spectrum corresponds

to a single 3.84 second epoch seTect?d from the middle of each

condition period. (256 points provided an optimal resolution for

plots of frequency spectra):

Respiration data were analyzed using a peak detection

algorithm which was used to compute the%Gaverage respiration

interval (ie., average timesbetween successive positive or

negative peaks in the respiration signal) for successive 6

second epochs. This provided a continuous plot of average

respiration rate for thePduration of the recording session. a

Heart rate was analyzed by plotting the R - R intervals (in

milliseconds) over the duration of the testing session. The

signal was smoothed using a software smoothing filter of 64

points (0.32 seconds) prior to plotting.

EMG data were analyzed by plotting the rectified EMG

signals with a expanded amplitude scale in order to detect any

changes in resting level activity in the contralateral limb

muscJes during tapping movements.

'c. Results

1

EEG Data --

Auditory Stimulation

' Frequency analysis of EEG recordings during repetitive /2 p

p-- - .auditory stimulation (drumming at 3.4, 4.5, 6.8 and 9.0 '.

beats/sec) 'revealed no relative increase in magnitude of

frequency components in the EEG signal corresponding to the

stimulus frequency, ie., no indication of auditory driving was

present in any'subject across all electrode positions

stimulus rates (Figures 3-1 to.3-12). f

compared against each other in order

measure7 of their overall predominance in the EEG

each electrode placement. Thus, each magnitude

the predominance of the specified frequency component in the

EEG, relative to the other frequency components for which --- -- magnitudes were calculated, in selected epochs occuring

throughout the period of stimulation. Overall power of the

entire spectrum and power vit?iin .frequency bands (alpha, theta)

were not calculqted (see ref. note 7 ) . (Earlier analysesiusing , Ir

FFT analysis of a single 20. second epoch of data produced

Examination of the plotted EEG frequency spectra (single 4

3.8 second epochs of data) across conditions and electrodes

(Figures 4-1 to 4 - 6 1 s h m s no indication of auditory driving

-f---', . -. b * stimulus frequencies) but does show marked

conditions and across subjects in terms of

the overall distributiofl of power in the total spectrum. r

Frequency analysis performed on two subjects who received

auditory stimulation at 5.0 and 10.0 beats/second (tape of conga i +

drum) also failed to show any evidence of auditory driving

effects (data not shown). e 1 - .

. .

Photic Stimulation

Analysis of EEG recordings during photic stimu1at:on at'

4.0, 5.0, 8.0 and 10.0 flashes/sec. indicated the presence of

photic driving effects in all electrode placements and for all

four rates of stimulation, although responses appea'r most t'

pronounced for stimulation at TO.O Hz and for EEG recorded from

Oz electrode position (Figures 3-13,and 3-14).

Inspection of the spectra for the phitic stimulation

conditions indicates the.presence of driving responses as .peaks

at both the stimulus frequency and first harnonic of the

stimulus frequency (Figures 4-7 and 4-8). Again, this effect

appears strongest for stimulation at 10.0 Hz., particularly in

one subject (Figure 4 - 7 ) .

Inspection cf the raw EEG records for both auditory and

photic stimulario~ indicates similar finding& for the entire

period of stimulsti~n (up to 3 minutes in duration for auditory

stimuli) -- rhe presence of clear driving can be seen in the

' raw data for the photic conditions (Appendix C) but is not

t %I discernable in the raw EEG signil during audltory stimulation

(Appendix B).

Respiration Rate

I

- Figures 5-1 to 5-8 show respiration rates for each subject r6

for the entire testing sessio? (across conditions). Plots

indicate that res~iratihn rate changgs markedly within a L 1 -- - - >

stimulus condition andtaries acyoss subjects. No one consistent

pattern of change in respiration can be see.n across conditions

although respiration appears 'to be much more' stabilized during

p 'ptic stimulation in both subjects (~igures 5-7 and 5-8) than

during auditory stimulation (Figures 5-1 and 5-2 respectively). C" v

. 8 4-

'There was no overall change in heart rate across conditions

for all subjects. Increases in heart rate variability can be

seen to occur at various point 6 throughout the recording session (Figures 6-1 to 6-7) . -

J

Re-ctif ied EMG signals are plotted with an ei~anded

amplitude scale in order to examine for differential

of muscle units controlling hand movements while subject is

rest, listening to rhythmic sounds, or tapping one hand to th 4 -

rhythmic sounds. ~ l t h o u ~ h no overall patterns of muscle activi

aside from the large potentials sychronous with rhythmic'hand

movements were observed in the amplified EMG signals there were a

di-f ferenc-6s noted in khe EMG signal of the arm at rest wfi-ile the t b

cpntralateral arm was-engaged in tapping or was at rest. t

- - -- - - - - - - -- - - - -- - .- b

- --

P- \

Examination of EEG recordings during presentation of A

%

rhythmic auditory stimulation indicated that there was no ,

presence of auditory driving in terms of increased presence of ,

-5 -6 - frequencies in the EEG corresponding to the stimulus frequency - -

k 5 s -

\

in any of the subjetts tested. Xonsequently, it was not possible,

'4 - 3 !

to make omparisons across measures with regard to the- rates of

auditory stimulation used feg., cross-correlation between the - - ' X . ., 3

EEG sig_nal and auditory signal). Frequency analysis of the EEG /

La/ signa id not detect. any. increases in f requency~ponents . I

r - - - - - - - - -- - -

- -

-

(that might not be observable in the continuous records) even .

- with repeated stimulation at high intensity lgvels for durations r +

of up to 3rminutes. It was not apparent that auditory

stimulation in the "theta" range (3.5 - 7 Hz1 was any mar? -. Y

efpctive than other f'fkquencies in producing changes in the r

psychophysiological measures taken. However, photic stimulation ~ - - - -- - -- --

at similar frequencies was capable of producing clear driving

effects with stimulus durations of less than one minute. These & B

,J r c a n be se n in the continuous plots of EEG for stimulation at- f O 5 flashes per second and in the FFT spectral plots for all rates -

as prominen@peaks in the distribution, even when these spectral A

plots represent very brief epochs of data (3.84 seconds). Thus, '

it can be assumed-that such analysis techniques would have been

capable of detecting auditory driving effects if they had been

A - rn exanunlng .so$e of the FPT sgectra it can be sehn'that

there is in fact 3 decrement in the amount of 9.0 Hz activity

during sFimulat ion at 9.0 beats/second compared to low- rates

(eg., Figure 4-21 a result totally opposite to what would be C

predicted from other studies, namely that auditory driving iould

be elicited most. eas,ily at stimulation at rates within the range

of alpha act ity f8 - ' 12 H%). . kJ : -

~ifferences in td overall distribution of power i '-.

dquency Cpectra o f recordings can be seen J

condjtisns of stimulation as well as across individuals. st he relative imount and frequency of spontaneous alp+ activi i .y

4

31Fff~ rsTacT6%%F3iiEv I'IfuarssaSCann-bee e%&e~teZari~&e~om-~

in the Oz electrode position. (It is interestiqg to note here r

sthat photic driving at 10 ilashes/sec was somewhat more . .

pronounced in one S . ) Sose resting-alpha rate was * , t'

closer to 10 Hz.). Some subjects appear to have increased alpha I . -

activity during -the rhythmic instrmental piece compared to -the

a t ~ o n t r o l con'tions (rest aiiirsy-honic music). The fact

that the~~rhythmic selection was amslower more 'relziaing' form of

music may account for this effect. $

* One difficulty encountered in the interpretation of the EEG

data was the presence of muscle artifact contamination of -the

temporal electrode~filacements (T3 and T4) in many subjects. It

is not known whether-this was a mfogenic response to the, . - J , .

auditory stimulation similar t o the so-called 'sonogenic' .

- - -- - - - - responses reprtedby-gickford e t 'al. C1964) simply spreading

the subjects' occuring throughout the experimental procedure. The Y

- - --- r

- * , - - -

. - response appeared in some subjects and not others. ~hereforz,

the use of temporally placed electrodes for recording of this

nature may not be suitable unless care is taken to reduce these

artifacts.

Respiration recordings taken over the duration of the

experimental session indicate that there is a large amount of - -

variation within each stimulus condition although no overall

pattern of change in relation to the different rates of auditory

stimulation (eg., respiration rate'does nit increase with

increase or decrease in breathing rate at >the beginning of a new

stimulus rate indicative of an orienting response to v h a n g e in i

-7 - 't stlmulus frequency. This effect may give the respiration

recordings their cyclical appearance over the duration of the

experiment.

Although this study attempted to examine

psychophysiological responses to naturalistic stimuli under

relatively controlled conditions some difficulties with this

approach were noted:

(i) The use of tape recorded sounds enabled greater control

ober the stimulus (tape loops were used for the repetitive

drumming sounds in order to reduce fluctuations in the rate of

beating and to standardize the stimulus across individuals) --- -- - -- - - --

however, this results in the loss of lGer - m u \ . . . - u HZ} wnlcn are n~rmally~present in the stimulus. 9111s may be

" particularly importknt in the case of drumming sounds in which

t h e r k s a significant amount of somesthetic stimulation from ' ?

+- -the vibrations produced by the drum. This should be taken intd

account in those studies in which actua1,drums are used as the

eliciting stimulus (eg., Neher, 1961) or studies which wish to

examine the effects of such sounds as they would normally occur

in the environment,

(i5) The setting in which this type of stimulation occurs

has been-noted as an important factor in the production of

central nervous system effects. This creates difficulties in

and excessive noise while not interfering with the subjective

state, mood, or attentiveness of the subje~cts. For example, it

was found that the use of a repetitive or monotonous stimuli .in

a situation where the subjects are required not to move results -.

in the inability of the subjects to remain alert over long ---pp- --

periods of recording. Most of the subjects tested reported to

feel drowsy towards the end of the recording session, although

interestingly respiration and heart rate does not decrease over

this period time for any of the subjects tested. (In one case a

subject reported that they perceived their breathing rate to

increase with the rate of beating, however the respiration

records show no overall change over these conditions for that

- subject.) This indicates that individuals may have inaccurate - - - - - - --- - ----

perceptions of their bodily reactions to auditory stimulatiori of

this nature.

- - - - - --

(iii) Fourier analysis met ds, such as the FFT algorithm,

are suitable for analysis of biological signali in the time

domain and allow the detection of consistant frequency

components in the signal without signal averaging techniques

(which would require a much more controlled stimulus). However,

some difficulties are encountered in th interpretations of FFT- - - - -

i analyzed signals. Since the magnitude OF a given frequency

i

component in the FFT is relative to all other frequencies

included in the FFT calculation, the presence of large unwanted

components in the signal can make comparisons across subjects

and conditions difficult by changing the distribution of power

in the FFT spectrum. For example, a large d.c. component in the

Y EEG signal due to electrode polarization or low frequency,

cornponefits produced by eye movements may "maskn the strength of

frequencies in the range of interest. This can been seen in one ----

--

subject who produced a large n'mber of eye blinks resulting in

the power being shifted to the lower end of the spectrum (Figure

The results of this study do not c'onf irm Neher's (1961 )

findings although some differences between the two studies may

account for the conflicting results. Neher used an actual drum

as the sound source and as noted earlier this may account for -4 r-= additional st~imulation of the subject. (Neher's subjects also

- - - -

produced excessive eye blinking which may have produced biased

estimates of EEG activity as well.) More importantly, Neher

reports all of his subjects experienced perceptual distortions

during the experiment -- an effect that was not observed in this study. Earlier studies have reported auditory driving to owur

in epileptic patients only indicating that auditory entrainment

may be closely associated with extreme behavioural changes.

It may be concluded from this study that overt auditory

driving responses are not readily produced i-n subjects in - -

standard lab~ratory conditions. It also appears that the ,

conflicting reports from earlier studies on the ability to

elicit auditory entrainment of brain rhythmsmay--be-- -=--=---- - -

- -- -

due to the kind of stimulus used but rather a number of other

{factors that have yet to be determined. The factathat photic 1

! @riving - was achieved under the same-conditions within the same 1 dubjects demonstrates that if setting and behavioural state of

the subject are important factors fog successful guditory

driving they are not critical for entrainment withhphotic - _

- stimuli,

It remains unclear however, as to whether other

physiological changes are necessary in order to facilitate

auditory driving or whether driving responses represent a

phenomena peculiar to the visual system itself, The latter point . is supported by the fact that maximal photic driving occurs at

frequencies nearer to the rdnge of alpha activity ( 8 - 12 HZ) >

which is stxongly associated with activit~inlhe visuaJ syste - -- 7

- Since auditory driving was not detected it could not be

determined whether peripheral activation -- respiration changes,

arousal levels, body movement, and so on, are capable of - -

enhancing such effects,

It map be stated with some certainty then, that auditory

'driving' effects are not dependent upon the use of naturalistic

stimuli in a laboratory setting 2.. drumming ,sounds as oppdsed

to reptigive clicks or tones). It was noted however, that there

may be profound differences between rhythmic stimulation as it - - - -

-

is normally enca-u-iered in the environment and as it is

presented in a laboratory setting, particularly in the case of

rhythmic drwnming vhere the additional stimulation from the --

- - - - -- - - ----- --

- - -

-

- -

vibration of the drum may have a large effect.

As well, it was apparent that although the lbb6ratory

environment can be adapted in order to present a specific,

"immediate" environment for the subject there are other aspects

of psychophysiological recording, such as having subjects

. restrict their movements, avoid blinking, or to be overly ---

conscious of their eye movements and so on, which may be

restrictive in the sense of preventing subjects from

experiencing behavioural changes that can occur under normal

circumstances.

Regarding,the concept of EEG entrainment or "drivingw

itself, it may also be important" to examine more closely the

nature of oscillating systems in the brain and what role such

systems would have in information processing mechanisms, As - - ----

noted earlier some have criticized the notion of "partially

coupled oscillatorsw within the brain as an explanation for

entrainment phenomena even in the case of observed photic

driving responses. Spekreijse (1966) notes that there is a

greater dependency of response amplitude on stimulus amplitude

than would be expected in the case of synchronization of -

external stimuli with self-oscillating brain systems;

Furthermore, it seems maladaptive for brain 'circuits' to

respondt-readily to entrainment by external stimuli since this -

kind of resonance in the nervous system could be conceivably

damaging or disruptive to normal brain function. in certain

producisg seizu=es in epileptics and such-entrainment must be

checked-in a normally functioning nervous system in order to

prevent such instances "of 'runaway' synchronization of brain

systems. Accordingly, there has been an increasing interest in

the role of 'chaotic' behaviour in physiological systems

containing_circular c o n n e c t i o n s , f e e d b ~ o p ~ & s ~ ~ - - - - - - - - - --

(Garfinkel, 1983).

One speculation on how physiological processes may in fact

differ in the case of repetitive auditory stimulation versus

repetiti;e&ual stimulation, is that rhythmic sounds may be

processed in a different manner than rhythmic light as a result

of brain systems organizing sounds temporally and visual input 1

spatially. In other words, sound is organized in terms of *

temporal patterns, w h e t e d s ~ i s u a l i ~ i u r g a n i z e d i ~ ~ -- -

of spatial patterns occurring in discrete time intervals - - - - - - - -

laltho'ugh visual information is usually perceived to be

occurring in, a time ordered sequence as well). Certain sounds, -

as in the case of language, have 'meaning" ta,the individual -.

because of the specific temporal arrangements 03 those sbunds. . C

The resultant 'chunking' of this incoming info&tion due to 0

perceptual processing may result in the temporal Aspects of

auditory input being selectively transformed in a way that may

-- - - - prevent auditory entrainment from occuring. Further studies of *

the effects of repetitive sounds on the body need to address

this aspect of sound perception in more detail before $ .

considering brain processes involved. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

-- p----- - - ---

-

Given the necessity for incoming auditory information to be

organized in terms of its temporal relationships, it may be

unreasonable, on theoretical grounds, to assume the same -

electrical patterns of activity to be manifested in the brain

during repetitive auditory stimulation as are during repetitive

visual stimulat~on. It remains to be s %I, then, if sensory - - - - - - P - - - - - - - - -

driven brain rhythms can be achieved in the auditory system in

phe same manner as in photic driving phenomena. -

Recornendations for further research -

This study was-'conducted as a pilot study in order to

examine some of the psychophysiological phenomena reported in

previous studies on the effects of rhythmic auditory stimulation' - -

on the human nervous system. Although, the examination of EEG

entrainment was not conclusive in itself, many interesting

aspects of responses to musical sounds became apparent over the

- - - - - -

-at %en of- tk'-*&am -fu rt he t -ern3 naat3Fn 07 p--p

relationships that may exist between sounds encountered in the

environment and their effects upon the body. The following

recommendations are made vith regard to further research in this

area. - c ( i ) Studies investigating the effects of strong rhythmic

the effects ofsomesthetic stimulation from vibrational sources , of stimulation. It should be noted that 'entrainment' of neurons

in the somatesensory cortex of unanaesthetized monkeys has been

observed usPng high-frequency (30 to 40 Hz) mechanical vibration r(

applied to the con'tralateral hand (Mountcastle et al., 1969).

Vibrations.are ysually considered as'"noisen which must be

eliminated frbm the recorling environment but in this case such

s m m h r a r e found to have on behaviour . -+ (ii) It seems apparent from this study that the successful

examination of the physiological changes that are expected to

occur during ritualistic ceremonies involving pronounced

physical stimulation of the body iould most successfully be

studied "in the field". Improved telemetry techniques may

eventually allow such studies to take place andthiswould

greatly increase both knowledge of physiological changes as they

occur in such circumstances and indicate steps that may be taken

. . in-order tc-imprw- L&oratory-stY~les -0, -VS*------ -- -

(iii) In the case of gross physiological changes that may

be induced by external stimulation of the body it has yet to be

determined the extent to which behavioural states of individuals

may enhance or augment such changes. The concept of

"hyperarousal" in behavioural phenomena such as those mentioned

v i n t h i s st u d ~ r e q u i r e s c l o s e r x a m i n a a . @ ~ ~ ~ ~ s t a R d - - - -

the role of central nervous system effects in mediating altered

states of awareness or "consciousnessw during such phenomena. e

APPENDIX B : PLOTS OF EEG DATA DURING AUDlTORY STIMULATION

APPENDIX C : PLOTS OF EEG DATA DURING PHOTIC STIMULATION

APPENDIX D : PLOTS OF RECTIFIED EMG DURING AUDITORY STIMULATION

REFERENCE NOTES

1. The term "driV3ngm refers here to the general phenonienon

of induced rhythms or the augmentation of existing rhythms in

the EEG by repetitive sensory stimulation; Driving responses

have been reported in humans in the visual (Adrian & Mathews,

1934; Walter & alter, 1949) auditory (Neher, 1961 1 and C

somesthetic (~ountcasi-ie et al, , 1969; Namerow, Sclabassi, &

Enns, 1974) Sensory modalities. . A

- --- - -

2. The term "steady statew refers to the condition w_here, - - - pp - -- - - - -

- - - p- - --- -- -

in the case of a repetitive stimulus such as a fli+ring -light

source, the inte-rstimulus interval is decreased to the point

where there is no longer a one-to-o correspondence between a

given stimulus and the response to that stimulus.. In this domain 0

of.evoked potential research the data are typically presented in . -

the form of plots of frequency components versus stimulus-

frequency ie,. the response is no longer analyzed.in the time <

domain (see Regan, 1972, p.75 for review).

3. Photic driving was not attained in rats under various

level3 of barbituate and non-barbituate ana'esthesia. It was

concluded that S suppression may inhibit driving responses ' I 3

(Cheyne, 1981).

4. It may be not-ed here that there exi ts a condition known t as "musicogenic epilepsyw (seizures

- -- pp- -- - -- -

however, its occurance is very rare r

inducing seizures in aI?e not necessarily

rhythmic in nature (~cott, 1977). !

5. It should k noted thattcertain problems may arise in

the attehpt to di&ingaish musical rhythms from non-musical

rhythms in order to study the effects of 'repetitive' sounds on

the brain and nervous system without considering the social -

cultural content engendered by such sounds. Given a definition

of music as &ty form of organized sound that may have meaning to - --- -

an individua-f- it- would-therefore be impossible to present a - - %.

rhythmic sound stimulus devoid of any "meaningw to the subject

and not resultant in.'furthec cognitive processing. - - - -- --

- -- -- -- - -- - - -- --- - -

Speculations on the r-shihbetween music and language

(see in particular, Pribram, 1982) may provide some insights ? into the way in which the brain may prochSs sounds such as to

distinguish musical from non-musical sounds. Specifically, it is

Stated that it is necessary to take into consideration the

meaninq engendered by musical stimuli as distinct from the

meaning engendered by language, particularly language that is /

considered "poetic" in nature, Interestingly, it is noted that

repetition and variations on what is expected to be repeated

(pragmatic processing) seem to be fundamental to the perception

of both music and poetic language, even though music may be - .

devoid of meaning in the 'referential' sense <semantic

processing) as in the case of poetic language. Pribram

speculates further on different brain structures that may be

responsible for these two types (semantic and pragmatic) of z

- - organlzatlon and processing oZ music and language suggesting

that different brain areas may be involved..

6 . In the perception of tones, frequency is often grouped A

according to such Gestalt principles~as'"similarityw and "good ,

continuationu. For example, if tones from two different

frequency5ang.e~ are played in rapid succession the listener /--

will perceive them as two parallel ,*reams ( stream segregation 1

indicating that the role of uncbn~cious inference in perception = _ - -

of complex sounds may cause'temporal and even spatial

distortions of the original sound source (Deutsch, 1982). It has

been proposed that rhythmic perception may involve simil - - -

-- - - - - - - -

--- --y - - --- -

4 -. principles of organization as well (~eauvillain, 1983).

7. Single frequency components in a discrete Fourier

transform ~ F T ) are relative inamagrritude to the entire

1 magnitude or 'power' within the spectrum bounded by the limits.

,of the function F(t) from to t / 2 fS ( 1 / 2 isbeing the Nyquist ,A

frequency or 1/2 the sampling frequency f , . Raw EEG data was

smoothed priof to FFT analysis with a filter window of 3 poimts. /' a

which effectively reduced the sampling - frequency to k6 .66 Hz

yielding FFT spectra with a maximum frequency of 33.33 Hz.

*. Magnitude measures of FFT frequency components can be

evaluatecj in various ways, for example, in relation to the x

entire sp&trum or in relation to a frequency band in the

d spectrum (eg., 8 - 12 Hz for alpha), Since the FFT program used

only provided printed output of FFT results it was not possible ---- - -- -- ---

to 'perform further computerized analysis of the FFT's (eg. area

under the total spectrum). Consequently, histograms were 3 1:

produced by averaging the magnitudes from five consecutive 3.8 -I-

- - - - - , -- - --- - -

second epochs of data (s~lected.from points throughout the

stimulus condition) whjch had been subjected to FFT analysis. 9

3.8 second epochs provided a spectral resolation (step size)

- 0.26 Hz which allowed easier identification of frequency

components for this purpose. L ' , -.

ri-

7

REFERENCES

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