an examination of notation in selected repertoire
TRANSCRIPT
AN EXAMINATION OF NOTATION IN SELECTED REPERTOIRE FOR MULTIPLE PERCUSSION
D.M.A. DOCUMENT
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Musical
Arts in the Graduate School at The Ohio State University
By
Alyssa Gretchen Smith, B.M., M.M.
* * * * *
The Ohio State University 2005
Document Committee: Approved by Professor Susan Powell, Adviser Dr. Jacqueline Henninger ______________________ Dr. Russel Mikkelson Adviser Graduate Program in Music Professor Christopher Weait
ii
ABSTRACT
This document is an examination of multiple percussion notation in selected
repertoire. A complete standardization for multiple percussion is unlikely, and this
project does not seek to standardize notation. Rather, it seeks to describe important
works and their notational systems, thus illustrating that a standardization is not
possible and would limit composers’ creativity.
The chosen repertoire represents a historical range of the genre, spanning from
the first multiple percussion composition in 1918 to contemporary works. The
compositions chosen for this project are presented in chronological order, and consist
of the following works: Igor Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du Soldat, Darius Milhaud’s La
Création du Monde and Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra, Morton
Feldman’s The King of Denmark, William Kraft’s English Suite, Iannis Xenakis’
Psappha and Rebonds, and David Holliden’s Cold Pressed.
Each work was examined and then described in terms of instrumentation, set-
up, composer’s instructions, and notational systems. In addition, the study seeks to
identify connections between the composers’ chosen notational systems, the
composers’ backgrounds, and the works’ chronological placement in the development
of percussion music. This document’s purpose is to illustrate the compositional
devices used, and in some cases created, by the selected composers. Several
iii
problems in notation were concluded from the examination, including composers’
choice of and inconsistencies in note placement, unnecessary details, multiple staves,
and unfamiliar graphic notation. Further conclusions drawn from the examination
offer suggestions for assisting composers project a clear representation of their
intentions.
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This project could not have been completed without the help and support of
the faculty members at The Ohio State University, my family, and friends. Thank
you to my adviser, Susan Powell, for all I have learned from you during my stay at
The Ohio State University and for your guidance on this project. I am indebted to the
other members of my committee, who have supported me over the past four years:
Dr. Russel Mikkelson and Professor Christopher Weait, thank you for selflessly
giving your time to help me complete this document. And to Dr. Jacqueline
Henninger, I am grateful for the opportunity to learn from you and filter ideas through
you and for your input on the final draft.
I wish to thank my parents, James and Alberta; my sister Megan; my brother
Scott, my sister-in-law Dawn, and my niece and nephew Emily and Tyler, for your
support and for driving across state lines for recitals. Mom and Dad, thank you for
driving me to that first lesson, for encouraging me, and for helping make it possible to
continue in the music field. This document’s completion was aided by my cousin
Brian – thank you for the use of your Adobe software and for lending your computer
knowledge.
vi
I am grateful to the friends I have met over the years, for enriching me with
their unconditional support and encouragement. I especially thank Kay – my OSU
roommate and family. Thank you for your input, for believing in me, for pushing me,
and for inspiring me.
Thank you to Mike Green, for that first time you opened the filing cabinet
drawer and placed texts like Percussion Instruments and Their History into my hands,
and for guiding me for four years at DePaul.
Finally, I wish to thank the C.F. Peters Coportation, C. Alan Publications,
Universal Edition A.G., and the Percussive Arts Society for granting permission,
gratis, for the use of their publications The King of Denmark, Cold Pressed, Concerto
for Percussion and Small Orchestra, and Standardization of Percussion Notation. I
would also like to acknowledge Warner Brothers Publications U.S., Inc., G. Schirmer,
Inc., Editions Durand and Editions Salabert for granting permission for the use of
English Suite, L’Histoire du Soldat, La Création du Monde, Psappha, and Rebonds.
All rights for the world on behalf of Editions Durand (SACEM) and Editions Salabert
(SACEM) administered by BMG Music Publishing France (SACEM). All rights for
the U.S. on behalf of BMG Music Publishing France (SACEM) administered by
BMG Songs, Inc. (ASCAP).
vii
VITA
September 25, 1977………..……………Born – Flushing, Michigan
1999…..……………….………………....B.M. Music Performance, DePaul University
2000…………………...…………………M.M. Music Performance,
Northwestern University
2000-2001…………………………...…...Instructor, Flint School of Performing Arts Flint, Michigan 2001-2004……………………………….Graduate Teaching Associate The Ohio State University 2004-Present……………………….….…Instructor, Flint School of Performing Arts Flint, Michigan
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Music
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………..ii
Dedication…………………………………………………………………………….iv
Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………………..v
Vita………………………………………………………………………………..…vii
List of Figures………………………………………………………………………....x
Chapters:
1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………1
2. Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du Soldat……………………………………………23
3. Milhaud’s La Création du Monde and Concerto for Percussion and Small
Orchestra…………………………………………………………………….39
4. Feldman’s The King of Denmark…………………………………………….50
5. Kraft’s English Suite…………………………………………………………59
6. Xenakis’ Psappha……………………………………………………………67
7. Xenakis’ Rebonds……………………………………………………………78
8. Hollinden’s Cold Pressed……………………………………………………82
9. Summary, Conclusions, Suggestions and Recommendations…...………..…89
ix
Appendices:
Appendix A: Selected Annotated Bibliography of Available Educational Multiple Percussion Collections.…………………………………………...…97
Appendix B: Selected Discography of Examined Works……….…...…..……….100
Bibliography……………………………………………………………..…………103
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1.1 Notated from lowest pitch (left) to highest pitch (right)…………………..…..3
1.2 Standardization of Percussion Notation. Reprinted by permission of the Percussive Arts Society, Inc………………………………..…………………8
2.1 Set-up diagram for Histoire du Soldat. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by
Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission………………………………..….26
2.2 Order of instruments on the staves, instrument labels added by author.
Measures 19-24, Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission………………………………...…27
2.3 Measures 19-24, Triumphal March of the Devil, edited by James Blades.
Copyright © 1987, 1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…………..…27
2.4 Use of additional line, instrument labels added by author. Measures 16-17,
Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…………………………………...28
2.5 Measures 16-17, Triumphal March of the Devil, edited by James Blades.
Copyright © 1987, 1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…………..…29
2.6 Stravinsky’s set-up (left) and a common timpani set-up…………………….30 2.7 Use of stem directions. Measures 1-13, Tango. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed)
by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…………………………………...31
xi
2.8 Use of stem directions. Measures 30-33, Devil’s Dance. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission………………………...33
2.9 Measures 30-33, Devil’s Dance, edited by James Blades. Copyright © 1987,
1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission………………………………...…33
2.10 Beaming according to rhythmic groupings…………………………………..33 2.11 Bass drum and cymbal placement. Measures 1-12, Royal March. Copyright
© 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………..34
2.12 Bass drum and cymbal placement. Measures 16-17, Triumphal March of the
Devil. Used by permission…………………………………………………..34
2.13 Additional line in Royal March. Measures 13-14. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission………………………...35
2.14 Additional line in Triumphal March of the Devil. Measures 16-17. Copyright
© 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……..………35
2.15 Measures 39-46, Devil’s Dance. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester
Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved.…………………………………………………………..…………35
2.16 Use of staves. Measures 19-24, Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright ©
1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………...…………36
2.17 Use of one staff. Measures 13-18, Royal March. Copyright © 1924
(Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………………..…36
2.18 Measures 19-23, Triumphal March of the Devil, instrument labels added by
author. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………………………………………………………………37
2.19 Measures 19-23, Triumphal March of the Devil, edited by James Blades.
Copyright © 1987, 1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………..37
xii
3.1 Use of Staves. Measures 468-473, La Création du Monde by Darius Milhaud.
© Editions Durand (SACEM). Used by Permission…...….………………...43
3.2 Measures 290-292, La Création du Monde by Darius Milhaud. © Editions Durand (SACEM). Used by Permission…….…………….…….44
3.3 Measures 437-439, La Création du Monde by Darius Milhaud.
© Editions Durand (SACEM). Used by Permission…...……………………44 3.4 Instrument Key to Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra. © 1931 by
Universal Edition A.G., Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission……………...46 3.5 Measures 21-22, Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition
A.G., Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission. Instrument labels added by author.………………………………………………………………………..47
3.6 Measure 97, Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition A.G.,
Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission. Instrument labels added by author…………………………………………………………………….47
3.7 Measures 95-97, Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition
A.G., Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission…………………………………48 3.8 Measure 20, Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition A.G.,
Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission………………………………………..48 4.1 Opening staff, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters
Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………………53 4.2 Figure 4.2. Performance Notes to The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965
by C. F. Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…...54 4.3 Page 2, boxes 34-42, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F.
Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…….………55 4.4 Page 2, boxes 72-81, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F.
Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…………….56 4.5 Conclusion, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters
Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………………57 4.6 Page 2, boxes 89-101, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F.
Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…………….57
xiii
5.1 Key to Prelude. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission…………..………………………………………………60
5.2 Measures 23-26, Prelude. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission………………..…………………………………………61
5.3 Use of stem directions. Measures 53-55, Prelude. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission……………………………………...62
5.4 Use of pictograms. Measures 53-58, Sarabande. Copyright © 1975 by
Award Music Co. Used by permission………………………………………63 5.5 Measures 25-31, Bourrée II. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co.
Used by permission…………………………………………………………..65
6.1 Instrument Key to Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by Permission…………………………………………………………..69 6.2 Boxes 1-51, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM).
Used by permission…...………………………...……………………………71 6.3 Boxes 440-437, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM).
Used by Permission…………………………………………………………..72 6.4 Boxes 1540-1567, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert
(SACEM). Used by Permission……………………………………………..73 6.5 Boxes 2310-2344, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert
(SACEM). Used by Permission…………………………………………….74 6.6 Boxes 2023-2029, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert
(SACEM). Used by Permission……………………………………………75 7.1 Measures 1-2, Rebonds a by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM).
Used by permission…………..…………………………………...………….79 7.2 Measures 1-2, Rebonds b by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM).
Used by permission………..…………………………………………...…….80 7.3 Measures 75-76, Rebonds b by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert
(SACEM). Used by permission……....……………………………………..80 7.4 Measures 3-4, Rebonds b by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM).
Used by permission…………………………………………………………..81
xiv
8.1 Piano keyboard. Photo by author…………………………………...……….83 8.2 Hypothetical instrument set-up. Illustration by author……………….……..83 8.3 Timbre-Staff notation accompanying hypothetical set-up.
Notation by author…………………………………………………….……..83 8.4 Notation key to Cold Pressed. Used by permission…………………..…….84 8.5 Set-up diagram from Cold Pressed. Used by permission……………...……85 8.6 Measures 91-94, Cold Pressed. Used by permission………………………..86
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The difficulties that lie in the preparation and performance of works written
for multiple percussion stem from two areas: instrument configuration and notation.
Multiple percussion requires one performer to play on one or more instruments, and
each composition is unique in its instrumentation. The performer must adapt to each
new work, and acquaint his body to the motions required to move around each
configuration. In addition, the performer must adjust to a new system of notation that
is unique to the instrumentation required by the piece. Not only does the designation
for a specific instrument vary from one piece to the next, a completely different staff
system may be created.
I have long been intrigued by the fact that multiple percussion notation is
different with each new piece that a percussionist encounters. This fact makes
multiple percussion performance unique and a constant challenge. This project has
grown from my experiences with various multiple percussion compositions, and the
resulting curiosity regarding the lack of standardized notation. A percussionist must
be extremely adaptive, and adjust her kinesthetic senses to each piece on an
2
individual basis. Even while working on a specific piece, the configuration (that is,
set-up) of instruments may vary slightly each time it is reconstructed or moved.
The ability and necessity of percussionists to adapt to each composer’s
notational system has inspired this project. Adaptability is an expected responsibility
of contemporary percussionists. This examination of relevant repertoire will
demonstrate that this responsibility will continue to be required of percussionists, as a
complete standardization of percussion notation is not possible. Twentieth century
Austrian composer Haubenstock-Ramati voiced the opinion that standardization
means “standard ideas, a stationary situation and a falling off of creative powers.”1
This implies that although some percussionists and researchers have pushed for a
standardization, such conventions have the potential to limit compositional creativity.
The repertoire chosen for this project represents composers who were able to use
their creativity without limitations of a standardization.
Modern percussionists are accustomed to reading multiple percussion notation
that utilizes the music staff in a similar manner to a pitched staff used for any melodic
instrument, such as piano. Pitched instruments use staves consisting of five lines,
with each line or space designating a specific pitch. The notation on the staff follows
the contour of the pitches played by the instrument. That is, as the performed pitch
rises, the notation is placed higher on the staff. For example, timpani follow this
notation, with drums written on a specific pitch. Due to the fact that most performers
1 John C. O'Neil, "Recent Trends in Percussion Notation," Percussive Notes: Research Edition; Percussionist 18, no.1 (1980): 52.
3
of multiple percussion are also proficient on timpani, marimba or other pitched
instruments, following a similar contour for multiple percussion notation is a natural
transference.
A hypothetical example of this matching contour is a set-up consisting of four
drums of varying pitches. Although the drums are not tuned to a specific pitch, each
instrument is assigned to a specific line or space on a staff. The staff could be a
traditional five-line staff, or it could be comprised of four lines with each line
indicating a drum. Figure 1.1 illustrates this concept, using a five-line staff. In order
to follow the familiar pitch contour, the lowest space is used to indicate the lowest-
pitched drum. The other three drums are represented by note-heads placed in
ascending order above the lowest notation, which corresponds to the ascending
pitches of the drums.
Figure 1.1. Notated from lowest pitch (left) to highest pitch (right).
Although this use of the conventional notational staff is a natural transference
for percussionists, this project will illustrate several effective methods of multiple
percussion notation that do not use this system. The chosen repertoire has remained
prominent throughout the short history of the genre, and represents frequently
performed works.
4
Brief History of Multiple Percussion
Prior to the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the role of percussion
in the orchestra was limited. Between approximately 1700 and 1850, the use of
percussion was confined mainly to timpani. When the tonal language of music began
to focus less on functional tonality, composers explored elements such as timbre and
rhythm. As the role of percussion took on more prominence, composers of the
Romantic Period, like Berlioz, prescribed specific instructions for how to strike the
instruments as well as what striking implement to be used. This type of detail
allowed percussion to break free of the limitations inherent in its traditional roles of
support, emphasis, and timekeeping.
Igor Stravinsky is credited with the first use of a multiple percussion set-up in
L’Histoire du Soldat, written in 1918. As the twentieth century progressed,
composers were attracted to the timbral possibilities of percussion, especially the fact
that many sounds could be produced by one player in a multiple percussion set-up.2
As Steven Schick, Professor of Percussion at the University of California at San
Diego, described this attraction, “Composers were fascinated with the ‘timbral
efficiency’ of percussion.”3
In the 1930s and 1940s, the concept of the multiple percussion set-up gained
more acceptance with the assistance of John Cage and Lou Harrison, who treated
2 Steven Schick, “Multiple Percussion,” in The Encyclopedia of Percussion, ed. John Beck (New York: Garland, 1995), 257. 3 Ibid.
5
multiple percussion as a standard rather than an unusual request.4 During this period,
solo repertoire for multiple percussion was rare, evident in an examination of Thomas
Siwe’s anthology Percussion Solo Literature. Today, in the twenty-first century,
multiple percussion has evolved into an important element of high school and
university percussion curricula. Students and professionals alike are now expected to
perform on a variety of set-ups in orchestras, bands, percussion ensembles, and solo
recitals.
Definition of Terms
Multiple Percussion – A term applied to music that requires more than one
instrument to be played by one percussionist.
Conventional (or Traditional) Staff – A staff is “a number of horizontal lines on
and between which musical notes are placed.”5 For the purposes of this project, the
terms “conventional” and “traditional staff” will refer to the five-line staff used with
melodic instruments, such as piano.
Notation – “Any means of writing down music.”6
Graphic Notation – “A system developed in the 1950s by which visual shapes or
patterns are used instead of, or together with, conventional musical notation.”7
4 Ibid. 5 “Staff,” in The Oxford Companion to Music, ed. Alison Latham (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 1203. 6 “Notation,” in The Harvard Dictionary of Music, ed. Don Michael, 4th ed. (Cambridge: The Belknap Press, 2003), 565. 7 Anthony Pryer, “Graphic Notation,” in The Oxford Companion to Music, ed. Alison Latham (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 537.
6
Set-up – A term commonly used in multiple percussion to refer to the configuration
of instruments on which a percussionist must perform.
Instrumentation – The instruments required to perform a composition.
Percussive Arts Society (P.A.S.) – P.A.S. is a non-profit music service organization
that is “considered the central source for information and networking for
percussionists…[and promotes] percussion education, research, performance and
appreciation throughout the world.”8 Prior to the current publication Percussive
Notes, P.A.S. published the journals Percussionist, Percussive Notes: Research
Edition Percussionist, and Percussive Notes: Research Edition.
Line-Score System – A system used to notate indefinite-pitched instruments.
Instruments may be indicated by notes placed directly on or in-between the lines, and
the number of lines vary.
Timbre-Staff System – A conventional five-line staff, coupled with an instrument
set-up arranged in the configuration of a keyboard.9
Pictogram – A symbol designed to represent a specific percussion instrument or
beater. A pictogram eliminates the use of descriptive words in the score, and their
meanings are meant to be “instantaneous to any trained percussionist.”10
8 Percussive Arts Society’s official Web site, “About,” http:www.pas.org/About. 9 Gary D. Cook, Teaching Percussion, 2nd ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1997), 88. 10 Frank McCarty, "Percussion Notation," Percussionist 15, no.2 (1978): 8.
7
Review of Literature
There have been several articles and publications regarding percussion
notation, but there has not been an extensive examination of various notational
techniques used specifically for multiple percussion. An assessment of important
reference literature on orchestration, such as Gardner Read’s Thesaurus of Orchestral
Devices, Read’s Contemporary Instrumental Techniques, and Samuel Adler’s The
Study of Orchestration did not reveal applicable information to this topic. Notation
manuals, such as Read’s Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice, were also
reviewed. These manuals offer information regarding general percussion notation but
do not contribute relevant information regarding multiple percussion.
In all of my previous research regarding percussion history, or in any search
for information on percussion instruments, James Blades’ Percussion Instruments
and Their History served as a starting point. This book is an essential resource for
percussionists, and contains a wealth of information ranging from descriptions and
histories of instruments from around the world, to the development of percussion in
western orchestral music. Percussion Instruments and Their History was first
published in 1970, and has since been published in a revised edition dating 1992.
Regardless of its extensive contents, Percussion Instruments and Their History does
not discuss multiple percussion, except for briefly mentioning, “percussionists are
unanimous in that there is need for improvement in notating their instruments,
particularly where multiple percussion is concerned.”11
11 James Blades, Percussion Instruments and Their History, rev. ed. (Westport: Bold Strummer, 1992), 439.
8
In 1973, The Percussive Arts Society published Standardization of Percussion
Notation. This report is geared toward composers of band and orchestra music, and
offers solutions to problems and questions pertaining to the notation of percussion
music. The concise booklet is presented in outline form, and the main headings cover
general considerations, stick and mallet suggestions, specific considerations of
selected instruments, and standard ranges of timpani and keyboard percussion
instruments. The following two rules, found under the sub-heading of “Preparing
Percussion Music Manuscript,” apply to multiple percussion music:
Figure 1.2. Standardization of Percussion Notation. Reprinted by permission of the Percussive Arts Society, Inc.
While these guidelines offer solutions to a composer writing for a small set-
up, the report does not supply information for instances of larger instrumentations,
nor does the standardization apply to all multiple percussion compositions. For
example, the guidelines do not address situations where the instrumentation calls for
more than the number of lines and spaces available within one five-line staff. A
composer following these guidelines must still solve the problem of clearly notating
9
for his specific instrumentation. The most logical “standardization” that can be
drawn from the P.A.S. guidelines is that the composer should be consistent within
each composition.
Composer H. Owen Reed and percussionist Joel T. Leach provided another
important resource for composers with their 1969 publication of Scoring for
Percussion: and the Instruments of the Percussion Section. In their introduction, the
authors state the following regarding their book:
Although each of the traditional orchestration books contains one or more chapters on percussion, obvious discrepancies and some inaccuracies occur. The improvements in percussion instruments, some recent attempts at their standardization, and the popularity of new and imported instruments have created the need for a new look at these problems. Scoring for Percussion attempts to do this.12
Scoring for Percussion is arranged in two parts. Part I specifically describes
each of the percussion instruments and their features, such as range, distinctions,
beaters, and transposition. Part II concentrates on the notation and scoring of
percussion, and stresses the need for standardization, even if only on a basic level.
The book is geared toward composers, and seeks to provide information that will
prevent composers from scoring percussion in a manner frustrating to the performer.
Part II is further divided into sections dealing with full scores, percussion
parts, the characteristics of percussion notation, and suggestions for integrating
percussion into the full composition. The chapter most relevant to this project is the
12 H. Owen Reed and Joel T. Leach, Scoring for Percussion: and the Instruments of the Percussion Section (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969), 4.
10
section entitled “Special Characteristics of Percussion Notation,” beginning on page
99. Of particular importance are the sections dealing with the staff, clef, or note
heads.
For example, the subsection “The Staff,” describes the use of line notation and
staff notation. The authors also address the impractical nature of attempting to
standardize percussion notation, but state their belief in the necessity of at least a
partial standardization:
Much as one might wish to assign a line or space permanently to one instrument, it is not practical. Instrument assignment must often vary both from one score to another, and from one percussion part to another. (Far more percussion instruments are available than there are lines and spaces!) Nevertheless, it is possible to be reasonably consistent so far as the Snare Drum and Bass Drum are concerned.13
The authors follow this statement with a list of flexible guidelines intended to act as a
tool in partial standardization. These guidelines include:
1. As nearly as possible, assign the higher-pitched instruments to the higher lines and spaces and the lower-pitched instruments to the lower lines and spaces. 2. Once an assignment is made, adhere to this plan throughout the composition. 3. For clarity and further reinforcement, where necessary, write the name of the instrument (or its abbreviation) at each entrance. 4. Ledger lines may be used to accommodate more instruments or for better
spacing to facilitate reading.14
This book is a beneficial source of information on individual percussion
instruments and the issues faced by the percussion section of an orchestra. The
13 Ibid., 100. 14 Ibid.
11
information regarding notation also refers mostly to percussion parts intended for an
orchestral percussion section. As a result, material relevant solely to multiple
percussion notation is limited.
Percussionist and composer Sigfried Fink wrote Tabulatur 72 in 1972. He
collected and suggested pictograms intended to clarify notation. Erhard
Karkoschka’s Notation in New Music, compiled as a survey and guide for all
instruments, includes sections devoted to similar pictograms. These books are ideal
guidelines for a composer wishing to use these pictograms, but are not helpful to the
purpose of this paper.
The remaining sources in this section are reviewed in chronological order.
Full bibliographic information is located in the Bibliography.
George A. O’Connor. Prevailing Trends in Contemporary Percussion Notation. This article is found in the Percussive Arts Society’s journal Percussionist.
The article was published in 1966 and is mainly concerned with the problems and
limitations of notating rhythmic values. In researching his article, O’Connor
consulted percussion performers, clinicians, and teachers regarding “what an ideal
system of percussion notation should consist of.”15 O’Connor describes three main
trends in the development of percussion notation: the expansion of the conventional
notational system, metrical modulation, and aleatoric occurrence. The article focuses
on the notation of note values and rhythms, and does not incorporate information
regarding multiple percussion.
15 George A. O'Connor, "Prevailing Trends in Contemporary Percussion Notation," Percussionist 3, no. 4 (1966): 61.
12
Lee A. DeFelice. Problems in Percussion Notation.
“Problems in Percussion Notation” appeared in the 1969 volume of
Percussionist. DeFelice saw “a need to foster more accurate and clear conventional
percussion notation,”16 and chose to focus on college band repertoire in his article.
Through the repertoire, DeFelice illustrates the “poor notational practices” common
in percussion writing, such as “crowding” too many instruments into a small space on
the score, parts that “jump” from line to line, and confusing terminology.17 These
illustrations demonstrate the need for clear percussion parts. Although this article
focuses on percussion parts in band repertoire, the problems DeFelice discusses are
similar to issues found during the course of the current project.
Christoph Caskel. Notation for Percussion Instruments.
Caskel’s article appeared in the 1971 volume of Percussionist, and was
translated from the original “Notation Neuer Musik” by Vernon Martin. The original
article was printed in 1964. “Notation for Percussion Instruments” discusses
problems of percussion notation. The article concentrates on multiple percussion,
and focuses on a symbol (pictogram) system as an attempt to standardize notation.
Caskel discusses the difficulties in specific compositions—such as Karheinz
Stockhausen’s Zyklus and Darius Milhaud’s Concerto for Percussion and Small
Orchestra—and makes a case for the simplification of notation through the use of
16 Lee A. DeFelice, "Problems in Percussion Notation," Percussionist 6, no.4 (1969): 108. 17 Ibid., 109.
13
symbols. Although this article discusses multiple percussion notation, Caskel’s case
for standardization through pictograms is beyond the scope of this project.
Frank McCarty. Percussion Notation.
In 1978, when this article was published in Percussionist, Frank McCarty was
the chairman of the Notation and Terminology Committee of the Percussive Arts
Society. The committee strove towards an “organizational goal through the
publication of reports in Percussionist, holding regional meetings and workshops, and
in the preparation of the seven-page document, Standardization of Percussion
Notation.”18 The committee had “addressed itself to the problem of the ever-widening
gap between the modern, diversely-skilled percussionist and the notational
inconsistencies of the music he plays.”19
McCarty’s article was intended as a continuation of Standardization of
Percussion Notation, and sought to “strengthen the notational language between
composers and performers by simplifying and clarifying its content and standardizing
its applicability without, however, limiting its potential for expansion.”20 After
stating these goals, McCarty then described and reported the results of a survey that
he distributed to American percussionists. One section of the survey related to the
current project is “Staves and Clefs.” In this section, McCarty lists short guidelines
18 Frank McCarty, "Symbols for Percussion Notation," Percussive Notes: Research Edition; Percussionist 18, no.1 (1980): 49. 19 Ibid., 50. 20 Ibid.
14
that were approved by the majority of the survey respondents, which provides an
indication of the types of notation percussionists prefer.
For example, the guidelines and ideas approved through the survey suggest
appropriate situations for the use of the five-line staff versus the line-score system, an
ideal score order for percussion instruments, and a system of grouping instruments in
multiple percussion parts. The article is intended to provide information for all types
of percussion notation, whether solo percussion or parts within an ensemble.
John C. O’Neill. Recent Trends in Percussion Notation.
“Recent Trends in Percussion Notation” was published in the 1980 volume of
Percussive Notes: Research Edition, and was intended to “clarify some of the
approaches to percussion with which a composer must deal and expose some avenues
for the interested person to pursue.”21 The body of the article is broken down into
four sections discussing staff systems, line-score systems, determinate systems, and
intermediate systems. O’Neill does not make a case for standardization and states,
“the primary contention of this article is that the individual strengths and weaknesses
of a notation are knowable.”22 Further, he asserts “It is the intent of this article to
provide the reader with enough information about the possible systems so that he may
choose a notation aptly suited to the expressions of his ideas.”23
21 John C. O'Neil, "Recent Trends in Percussion Notation," Percussive Notes: Research Edition; Percussionist 18, no.1 (1980): 22. 22 Ibid., 52. 23 Ibid., 22.
15
By breaking up systems of notation into these four categories, and by using
specific musical examples including Edgard Varese’s Ionisation, Stockhausen’s
Zyklus, and Morton Feldman’s The King of Denmark, O’Neill thoroughly discusses
the advantages and disadvantages inherent in each notational system. O’Neill’s
inclusion of Feldman’s solo, which will be examined in the current project, is brief
and is used mainly as a contrast to Zyklus.
Kurt Stone. Music Notation in the Twentieth Century: A Practical Guidebook
Published in 1980, Kurt Stone’s Music Notation in the Twentieth Century
offers a comprehensive guidebook for notation of all musical instruments. The book
covers “General Conventions,” such as beams, articulation, and barlines. It also
covers topics including pitch, duration, rhythm, scores, parts, and specific notation
guidelines for each instrument family. The specific guidelines include a chapter on
percussion. Although Stone incorporates extensive information regarding the various
types of percussion instruments, multiple percussion is limited to one page. On page
215, Stone creates examples of “families” of instruments, such as three tom toms, and
illustrates various ways that the drums may be notated. Stone offers clear solutions,
but a composer aspiring to notate for more than three drums would need to search for
another resource.
Michael W. Udow. Visual Correspondence Between Notation Systems and Instrument Configurations
Appearing in Percussionist in 1981, Udow’s article explores the relationship
between notation and instrument set-ups. This is an ideal source of information
16
regarding the timbre-staff system, which coordinates the keyboard-like configuration
of a percussion set-up to the universal five-line staff notational system.
In order to explain the timbre-staff concept, Udow illustrates several ways of
setting up an instrumentation consisting of twelve tom toms, ranging from a straight
line to a keyboard-like configuration. He discusses the subsequent coordination of
the keyboard configuration to the notation. Udow also includes examples from
specific compositions. For example, Charles Wuorinen’s Janissary Music is
discussed as a composition in which the timbre staff could have been utilized and
Herbert Brun’s …In and Out…is described as a chamber work that presents the
percussionist with a timbre-staff notation and keyboard-like instrument set-up.
David Early. Percussion Performance Issues in Stravinsky’s Histoire Du Soldat.
David Early’s article ideally prepares a percussionist to perform Stravinsky’s
L’ Histoire du Soldat. It provides insight into the percussion part of Stravinsky’s
work, such as instrumentation and problems with notation, and includes important
information gained from an interview with performer William Kraft. Early also
included relevant material referring to the revised editions of the percussion part by
comparing James Blades’ and William Kraft’s contrasting versions of notation. This
information will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 2.
17
Gary Cook. Teaching Percussion
Gary Cook’s Teaching Percussion is an excellent resource for comprehensive
percussion education. This textbook is geared toward music educators, and is
appropriate for university percussion methods courses. Cook provides insight into
backgrounds and techniques for various instruments.
In Chapter 1, general considerations of the percussion section and instruments
are discussed. Under the heading “Percussion Performance and Education,” the
notational systems for percussion are explained. Here, Cook states:
Having classified the many percussion instruments, the percussionist must next understand the various systems for percussion notation and become aware of their advantages and disadvantages…Notation for tuned percussion instruments presents few problems, since a standard five-line staff is used with appropriate clefs and key signatures. However, the lack of standardization and discrepancies in notational practices for untuned percussion result in serious notational problems for the percussionist as well as the conductor and composer.24
Cook also lists five possible systems of notation—staff, line-score, symbol notation,
combined line-score and symbol notation, and adapted keyboard or timbre-staff
notation—and states that the five-line staff is the most common.25
Chapter 3 is devoted entirely to multiple percussion, and is the portion of the
text most relevant to this project. In dealing with the topic of multiple percussion,
Cook covers a brief history of the genre and discusses the notational systems
previously mentioned in Chapter 1. This text is an ideal resource for a percussionist
24 Gary D. Cook, Teaching Percussion, 2nd ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1997), 6. 25 Ibid.
18
desiring assistance in the interpretation of notation, and is especially helpful for a
non-percussionist music educator who is unfamiliar with reading percussion notation.
Cook describes and explains each system of notation, and the syntax is geared toward
helping non-percussionist music educators understand the systems and guide students
through the interpretation of multiple-percussion notation.
Need for Study
The Review of Literature indicates that there is a need for further examination
into the area of multiple percussion notation, as the current available information is
limited and outdated. Compared to other instruments, percussion repertoire is in its
infancy; the available material has quickly become outdated as new important
repertoire and compositional devices have been created. In addition, the majority of
the existing literature seeks to find a solution for standardization, makes a case for the
use of a symbol system, or focuses on literature for band or orchestra. The gap
created by the lack of detailed coverage specific to multiple percussion notation
illustrates a need to examine important multiple percussion solo or chamber
repertoire and expose how each composer created or used a system that enabled him
to express his ideas.
This examination is intended to fill the gap in previous multiple percussion
notation literature, offering information relevant for percussionists interested in
performing the selected or similar works, conductors wishing to obtain further
information regarding percussion notation, and composers desiring to write for the
medium of multiple percussion.
19
Procedures
The research for this document centered mainly on the selected repertoire
examples, chosen for their significance, performance frequency, and relative
importance in the evolution of multiple percussion notation. Further, each work is
widely considered to hold an influential place in multiple percussion repertoire. For
example, Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du Soldat was the first work for multiple percussion
and Milhaud’s Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra was the first percussion
concerto. Research into each composer’s background and compositional style was
also conducted. The scores were thoroughly examined and described in terms of
elements commonly essential to a performer’s study and execution of a composition:
instrumentation, set-up, composer’s instructions, and notational systems. In order to
gain insight into the composers’ choice of notation, the process also included
identifying and describing connections between the chosen notational systems, the
composers’ backgrounds, music of the composers’ contemporaries, and the
development of percussion music.
The main sources for this project were the complete scores of each repertoire
example. Background research was conducted through additional sources. The
majority of research material was obtained from The Ohio State University Music
and Dance Library in Columbus, Ohio. Supplementary materials were found and
research was conducted at the Flint Public Library in Flint, Michigan; the Perkins
Branch of the Genesee District Library in Swartz Creek, Michigan; the University of
20
Michigan Music Library in Ann Arbor, Michigan; Borders Books and Music store in
Flint, Michigan; the Percussive Arts Society website; and the World Wide Web.
Scope, Limitations, and Purpose
This study is limited to the notation and set-ups associated with multiple
percussion. While drum set and timpani could technically be included in this
category, they are considered to be beyond the scope of this document. The practice
of using symbols, or “pictograms,” will be discussed only in terms of their
relationship to the main notational system of the applicable repertoire; the use of
pictograms as a standardization of notation is beyond the scope of this study.
The compositions chosen for this project are presented in chronological order
and are representative of significant works for multiple percussion. These works are:
Igor Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du Soldat (1918), Darius Milhaud’s La Création du
Monde (1923) and Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra (1929), Morton
Feldman’s The King of Denmark (1964), William Kraft’s English Suite (1974), Iannis
Xenakis’ Psappha (1976) and Rebonds (1989), and David Holliden’s Cold Pressed
(1994). A selected discography of these works, except for Kraft’s English Suite, of
which there is no known recording, is located in Appendix B. These composers and
works are significant as described below, and the importance of each will be
discussed further throughout this document.
Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) and Darius Milhaud (1892-1974) were both
significant twentieth century figures, with a prolific volume of work in various
mediums. In addition to playing important roles in twentieth century music by
21
contributing ballets, orchestral works and chamber works to the repertoire, their
compositional ideas have been influential in the development of percussion, helping
to expand its role from timekeeper to integral part of the musical ensemble.
Like Milhaud and Stravinsky, Morton Feldman (1926-1977) was an
influential twentieth century composer, writing over eighty works and contributing to
the development of indeterminacy and graphic notation.26 The solo The King of
Denmark is representative of the compositional movement of the time, as Feldman
was interested in experimental composition and often associated with the composer
John Cage. The King of Denmark also represents Feldman’s development of a unique
graphic notation using a grid to represent points of time. The work is a staple in the
percussion repertoire, demonstrated by the fact that it is still frequently performed in
international venues and in university recitals.27
William Kraft (b. 1923) has distinguished himself with a substantial
compositional output, especially for percussion. His works, such as English Suite,
French Suite, and Morris Dance are significant particularly in the educational realm
of percussion. They are often used by the novice percussionist as starting points and
learning tools.
Iannis Xenakis (1922-2001) was a prolific composer of many mediums. His
name is associated with computer music and the use of mathematical and
architectural devices in his compositions. His two works for solo percussion,
26 “Morton Feldman,” in The Oxford Dictionary of Music, ed. Michael Kennedy, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University, 1994), 292. 27 Chris Villars’ Feldman Page, “Performances,”http://www.cnvill.demon.co.uk/mfperfs.htm.
22
Psappha and Rebonds, starkly contrast each other in their notational style. Both
works have become prominent in percussion repertoire and have been recorded by
percussion artists like Steven Schick, Professor of Percussion at University of
California at San Diego, and Gert Mortensen, member of the Royal Danish Orchestra
from 1977 to 2000.28
David Hollinden (b. 1958) is a prominent composer in the modern percussion
world whose works are frequently performed at universities including Indiana
University, Temple University, Seoul Fine Arts Center, Northwestern University,
University of California – Los Angeles, The Julliard School, and Eastman School of
Music.29 Cold Pressed is a work for solo multiple percussion, using timbre-staff
notation. Hollinden devised a specific set-up, configured in the manner of a keyboard
instrument, and coordinated the notation to the set-up.
The repertoire examined for this project represents a wide range of
compositional techniques and ideas. Each composer used his creativity, knowledge,
and devices to notate their work. The purpose of this document is to illustrate
compositional methods, whether hindering or clear, that have been used to notate
multiple percussion works.
28 Red Classical Catalogue: 2004, (London: RED, 2004), 1279. 29 David Hollindon’s Web site, http://www.speakeasy.org/~daveh/performances.html.
23
CHAPTER 2
STRAVINSKY’S L’HISTOIRE DU SOLDAT
Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) is considered by many to be one of the most
significant composers of the twentieth century. His work encompassed the important
musical tendencies of the period, including experimental, nationalism, neo-
classicism, and serialism.1 He was influential in developing the role of percussion
and notated specific details in his percussion parts that were rarely seen in works of
prior composers. Prominent works like The Firebird ballet (1910), Pétrouchka
(1911), and The Rite of Spring (1913) required the percussion section to perform a
more significant role in the overall texture of the ensemble. While other composers
had successfully utilized percussion instruments, Stravinsky increased the color
palette of the genre, bringing newfound attention to the contribution of percussion
instruments to the orchestral score.
The 1918 work L’Histoire du Soldat is particularly significant to the genre of
multiple percussion. This is due to the fact that it is the first percussion part utilizing
a multiple percussion set-up. L’Histoire du Soldat is a fifteen-movement chamber
work for clarinet, bassoon, cornet, trombone, violin, contra bass, percussion, narrator,
1 Stephen Walsh, “Stravinsky, Igor,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 2nd ed. (New York: Grove’s Dictionaries, 2001), 528.
24
two speakers, and a dancer. It was composed as a theatre piece that would be
inexpensive to perform and could be taken on tour.2 This economic motive,
important especially due to World War I, may have been what inspired Stravinsky to
compose for a multiple percussion setup; it would have been more convenient and
less expensive to use only one percussionist.3 In effect, the sole percussionist was
required to take on the role of an entire percussion section.
Another influence on Stravinsky’s decision to use only one percussionist was
jazz. The percussion set-up was Stravinsky’s creation, but the sound he was
attempting to emulate was affected by the jazz drum set. Regarding the
instrumentation of L’Histoire, Stravinsky wrote:
“My choice of instruments was influenced by a very important event in my life at that time, the discovery of American jazz…The Histoire ensemble resembles the jazz band...The percussion part must also be considered as a manifestation of my enthusiasm for jazz.”4 The original manuscript of L’Histoire is dated 1918. A copyist’s manuscript
with annotations by Stravinsky was created in 1920, and J. & W. Chester’s 1924
printing of the score is based on the copyist’s manuscript.5 Changes occurred between
each of the scores, but Stravinsky conducted from the 1924 version and it has been
2 Ibid., 259. 3 David Early, “Percussion Performance Issues in Stravinsky’s Histoire Du Soldat,” Percussive Notes 31, no. 5 (1993): 69. 4 Igor Stravinsky and Robert Kraft, Expositions and Developments (Garden City: Doubleday, 1962), 103. 5 John Carewe, editor’s notes in Histoire du Soldat, ed. John Carewe, text by C. F. Ramuz (London: J. & W. Chester, 1987), iii.
25
accepted to represent his final thoughts in the revision process.6 However, the 1924
engraving is commonly known to contain errors in the percussion part and as a result,
two revised editions have been created. The 1985 version edited by William Kraft
and the 1987 edition by James Blades will be discussed later in this chapter. The
1924 printing serves as the basis for this study, because it is the version containing
Stravinsky’s revisions and was the only version available to performers for sixty-one
years.
The percussion instrumentation of L’Histoire du Soldat consists of two snare
drums without snares, a bass drum, a field drum with and without snares, suspended
cymbal, tambourine, and triangle. The cymbal part, although listed as cymbals at
times, is interpreted as one cymbal, based on the fact that Stravinsky gave specific
instructions regarding the striking implements to be used on the cymbal. The score
contains Stravinsky’s suggestions to the percussionist, including a set-up diagram.
The recommended set-up (Figure 2.1) is in the shape of a diamond, allowing the
drums to be as close together as possible. A compact set-up was essential in allowing
the performer to accurately maneuver around the instruments.
6 Ibid.
26
Figure 2.1. Set-up diagram for Histoire du Soldat. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured.
All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
According to Stravinsky’s diagram, the bass drum (grosse caisse) should be
on the performer’s left, the field drum without snares (tambour) on the right, and the
two snare drums (caisse claire) in the middle, with the lower-pitched of the two
(grande taille) furthest from the performer. Stravinsky devised this set-up after he
acquired the necessary equipment and experimented with playing on the
configuration as he composed the part.7
Because Stravinsky was the first composer to write specifically for multiple
percussion, he did not have any previous examples to follow. The result is a score
that allowed Stravinsky to notate his musical ideas, but is often confusing and
inconsistent for the performer. The note placements, stem directions and beaming,
and discrepancies in notation contribute to the difficulties of executing the percussion
part.
An example of Stravinsky’s placement of notes on the staff system is found
in Figure 2.2. The staves of the system indicate the following instruments, from top
to bottom: field drum, low snare drum, high snare drum, bass drum, and cymbals.
7 David Early, “Percussion Performance Issues in Stravinsky’s Histoire Du Soldat,” Percussive Notes 31, no. 5 (1993): 69.
27
This placement of notation is the opposite of a traditional melodic contour.
Stravinsky placed the lowest of the snare drums (field drum) on the highest staff, and
as the staves descend, the pitches of the drums ascend, with the exception of the bass
drum. In addition, Stravinsky placed each instrument in a separate staff. The notes
for all instruments could easily be condensed into one staff, providing clarity to the
performer. In 1987, J. & W. Chester released a revised edition of L’Histoire du
Soldat, containing a new version of the percussion part edited by percussionist James
Blades. Figure 2.3 illustrates how Stravinsky’s notation could be condensed into one
staff.
Figure 2.2. Order of instruments on the staves, instrument labels added by author. Measures 19-24, Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by
Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
Figure 2.3. Measures 19-24, Triumphal March of the Devil, edited by James Blades. Copyright © 1987, 1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright
Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
Tambour
Grande taille
Petite taille
Gr. C
Cymbals
28
An excerpt from the final movement, Marche Triomphale du Diable
(Triumphal March of the Devil), found in Figure 2.4, is another example of note
placement. In the first measure, Stravinsky notated the cymbal (cymbals) in the
bottom staff, and the bass drum (Gr. C.) in the staff above. Modern percussionists
would reasonably expect the cymbal notes to be placed on the higher staff, due to the
fact that cymbals sound higher in pitch than a bass drum. Another device illustrated
by Figure 2.4 is the addition of an extra line. The term Au milleu below the bass
drum staff instructs the performer to play these notes on the middle of the drumhead
while Au bord, which is indicated next to an additional line above the staff, dictates
that the performer play on the edge of the drumhead. The purpose of this additional
line is to differentiate the notes played on the edge from those played in the center.
These instructions allow the performer to obtain two different sounds from one drum,
yet the same idea could be notated more logically in one staff to save space as Blades
did in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.4. Use of additional line, instrument labels added by author. Measures 16-17, Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by
Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
Gr. C
Cymbals
29
Figure 2.5. Measures 16-17, Triumphal March of the Devil, edited by James Blades. Copyright © 1987, 1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright
Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
The placement of the field drum (tambour), which is pitched lower than the
two snare drums, causes confusion in the interpretation of the notation. Three
problems contribute to this confusion: the term tambour, the placement of the
notation, and the set-up.
1. The term tambour was not present in the original manuscript, which called
for three snare drums: high, medium, and low.8 Tambour replaced one of the snare
drums from the original manuscript, causing uncertainty because it is the generic
French term for drum. It is not clear to the performer that tambour designates a field
drum.
2. Performers sometimes misinterpret the notation by assuming the drum
notated in the top staff is the highest-pitched snare drum. This confusion is further
compounded by a mistake in the printed part: the opening of the Triumphal March of
the Devil labels the top staff as the petite (smallest) snare drum. The performer can
deduce this is a mistake by referring to the full score, which places the tambour in the
top staff. In addition, the label petite appears below the middle staff in the second
measure of the excerpt in Figure 2.2, indicating that the original label at the beginning
of the movement was an editing error.
8 Morris Lang, “A Journey to the Source on L’Histoire du Soldat,” Percussionist 12, no. 2 (1975): 52.
30
3. Stravinsky’s set-up diagram places the tambour (field drum) on the
performer’s right, mimicking the traditional configuration of the drum set. Figure 2.6
contains a re-drawn version of Stravinsky’s diagram. If the player disregards this
diagram in favor of a set-up similar to a common timpani configuration also shown in
figure 2.6, he would place the highest drum (instead of the tambour) on the right. A
familiarity with this common timpani set-up, in addition to experience with
traditional melodic notation which places the highest pitches higher in the staff, could
lead a performer to play the highest snare drum for the notation in the top staff.
Figure 2.6. Stravinsky’s set-up (left) and a common timpani set-up.
These three factors contribute to the common misinterpretation of the term
tambour. Percussionist and composer William Kraft, who recorded L’Histoire du
Soldat under Stravinsky, was able to clarify the uncertainty surrounding this issue. In
an interview conducted in 1989, Kraft stated that Stravinsky intended tambour to
designate a field drum.9 Kraft also revealed that in response to the question of why
9 David Early, “Percussion Performance Issues in Stravinsky’s Histoire Du Soldat,” Percussive Notes 31, no. 5 (1993): 75.
bass drum
low snare drum
high snare drum
field drum lowest
highest
Common Timpani Set-up. Stravinsky’s Set-up.
31
the tambour was notated on the top line, Stravinsky replied, “Because it is on the
right.”10 This indicates that Stravinsky’s notation was influenced by the physical
placement of the instruments in his set-up (the field drum is on the right, therefore he
placed it in the top staff) rather than the pitch relationship between the drums.
Throughout the percussion part, Stravinsky provided specific instructions
including how and where to strike the instruments, the type of mallets to be used, as
well as sticking indications. Sticking indications give information to the performer
regarding which hand should be used. The opening of Tango (Figure 2.7)
exemplifies his technique of conveying stickings through stem directions.
Figure 2.7. Use of stem directions. Measures 1-13, Tango. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured.
All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
The direction of the stems, in combination with the performance notes at the
bottom of the score page, indicate which hand should play each note. Stravinsky
specifies that the notes with stems pointing upwards be played with the right hand,
and the notes with stems facing downwards be played with the left. The performance
notes also stipulate the type of mallet to be used in each hand. The left hand should
10 Ibid.
32
use a leather-covered bass drum mallet, and the right hand uses a cane stick with a
fiber head.11 The two types of mallets, along with the sticking indications, allow for
two timbres on each drum. These instructions are an important illustration of the
meticulous attention Stravinsky gave to the use of percussion instruments.
While the use of stem directions in Tango gives pertinent information for
performance, there is little reason for the use of the same technique in Danse du
Diable (Devil’s Dance). Figure 2.8 illustrates contrasting stem directions in a
passage for bass drum and two snare drums. In this example, Stravinsky specifies
one type of mallet, so the stem directions are present solely to aid the performer in the
execution of the passage. An experienced percussionist is able to determine a
suitable sticking without the aid of such notational devices. The stem directions in
this passage affect the way the eighth notes are beamed together, hindering the
rhythmic clarity. If Stravinsky had beamed the notes together according to rhythmic
groupings, the notation would not obstruct the performer. Figure 2.9 illustrates
Blades’ version of this excerpt. He notated the stems in one direction, allowing
adjacent notes to be beamed together. However, he grouped them according to the
use of the bass drum,
starting a new group with each bass drum note. Figure 2.10 illustrates another
possible notation of this passage, beaming the notes together according to rhythmic
groupings.
11 Igor Strawinsky, Histoire du Soldat, text by C. F. Ramuz (London: J. & W. Chester, 1924), 39.
33
Figure 2.8 Use of stem directions. Measures 30-33, Devil’s Dance. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright
Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
Figure 2.9. Measures 30-33, Devil’s Dance, edited by James Blades. Copyright © 1987, 1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured.
All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
Figure 2.10. Beaming according to rhythmic groupings. Illustration by author.
There are several discrepancies in the percussion notation of L’Histoire du
Soldat, including inconsistent note placement, inconsistent line placement, and an
inconsistent use of staves. Figures 2.11 and 2.12 compare the note placements in an
excerpt from Marche Royale (Royal March) to an excerpt from Triumphal March of
the Devil. In Royal March, the top line designates the cymbal. This placement does
not remain consistent, as illustrated by the reversal of the two instruments in
Triumphal March.
34
Figure 2.11. Bass drum and cymbal placement. Measures 1-12, Royal March. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International
Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
Figure 2.12. Bass drum and cymbal placement. Measures 16-17, Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited,
London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
Line placements are another source of inconsistency. A comparison of
Figures 2.13 and 2.14 illustrates a difference in the notation of the two striking areas
of the bass drum. In Royal March, the additional line is placed below the staff. In
Triumphal March, the additional line is located above the staff.
Gr. C
Cymbals
35
Figure 2.13. Additional line in Royal March. Measures 13-14. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright
Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
Figure 2.14. Additional line in Triumphal March of the Devil. Measures 16-17. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London.
International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission. In other instances, as in Figure 2.15, Stravinsky placed the striking area indications of
au milleu and au bord within the limits of one five-line staff.
Figure 2.15. Measures 39-46, Devil’s Dance. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights
Reserved. Used by permission.
There are discrepancies in Stravinsky’s use of staves. An excerpt from
Triumphal March of the Devil (Figure 2.16) illustrates how he used separate staves
for each drum. By contrast, in Royal March (2.17), Stravinsky placed the bass drum
on the bottom line of the staff belonging to the large snare drum. This example of the
use of one staff is more concise and clear than the multiple-staff excerpt. Regardless
of adding clarity, the overall inconsistency in notation complicates the score.
36
Figure 2.16. Use of staves. Measures 19-24, Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International
Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
Figure 2.17. Use of one staff. Measures 13-18, Royal March. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured.
All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
As a result of the discrepancies and confusing notation in the 1924 printing of
L’Histoire’s percussion part, two additional editions have been created. William
Kraft’s edition (1985), including performance notes, is the result of his work with
Stravinsky during the 1960 recording of L’ Histoire du Soldat. James Blades’ edition
was created and released with a new critical edition of the full score by J. & W.
Chester of London in 1987.
Kraft’s version, while reducing the multiple staves into one, retains a similar
notational relationship to the original. That is, the pitches of the drums descend as
the notation ascends the staff. Blades’ edition is interesting to compare to the original
due to the drastic change in the notation. In a comparison of an excerpt from Blades’
edition of the Triumphal March to the same passage in the 1924 engraving (2.18), the
37
differences are immediately obvious. Figure 2.19 illustrates how Blades reversed the
notation to utilize the familiar pitch-ascending configuration of notation.
Figure 2.18. Measures 19-23, Triumphal March of the Devil, instrument labels added
by author. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
Figure 2.19. Measures 19-23, Triumphal March of the Devil, edited by James Blades. Copyright © 1987, 1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright
Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
Blades simplified Stravinsky’s notation into a single staff, and reversed the
order of the drums so that the highest drum is placed on the highest line. The
rhythms are more cohesive because of Blades’ beaming. It is intriguing that the
notation of this edition can be so contradictory to the original, and it provides tangible
evidence that musical material can be notated by a variety of methods. A composer,
therefore, must use a system that he feels is the best option for recording his musical
ideas.
Stravinsky was the pioneer of multiple percussion writing. His notational
system may seem clumsy to percussionists in the twenty-first century, but his ideas
were fundamental in the creation of a new genre. Stravinsky, without the benefit of
Tambour
Grande taille
Petite taille Gr. C
Cymbals
38
any previous examples, had to create a method to record his musical ideas. Because
the genre was new, Stravinsky was open to improvements to the percussion part.
After his collaboration with Kraft on the 1960 recording, he even requested that
Kraft’s edition be sent to the publisher.12 A logical conclusion from this information
is that Stravinsky devised a notational system to the best of his ability, based on his
own ideas and experience. Yet, he was willing to admit its faults and to expand his
knowledge in order to more clearly record his intentions.
12 David Early, “Percussion Performance Issues in Stravinsky’s Histoire Du Soldat,” Percussive Notes 31, no. 5 (1993): 74.
39
CHAPTER 3
MILHAUD’S LA CRÉATION DU MONDE AND CONCERTO FOR
PERCUSSION
Darius Milhaud (1892-1974) was a French composer and a member of “Les
Six,” a group of composers consisting of Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, Arthur Honegger,
Louis Durey, Georges Auric, and Germaine Tailleferre. All six composers appeared
on the same program in 1917, and many of its members had been giving concerts as
“Les nouveaux jeunes,” literally “the new young.”1 The group, taking its name from a
1920 article, was formed under the mentorship of Erik Satie and promoted by Jean
Cocteau.2 Regarding the aesthetic of the group, Poulenc wrote, “We were tired of
Debussyism, of Florent Schmitt, of Ravel. I wanted music to be clear, healthy and
robust—music as frankly French in spririt as Stravinsky’s Petrushka is Russian.”3 In
order to distance themselves from what they believed to be the sterile music of
composers like Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel, it was ideal to incorporate jazz,
1 Paul Griffiths, “Six, Les,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 2nd ed. (New York: Grove’s Dictionary, 2001), 460. 2 Ibid. 3 Harold Schonberg, The Lives of the Great Composers, 3rd ed. (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997), 474.
40
popular, circus, and commercial music into their writing.4 “Les Six” pulled apart after
1921, and Milhaud was the first member to attain international attention when his
music began to emerge in the 1920s.5
Milhaud made substantial contributions to the evolving role of percussion; he
was making extensive use of it as early as 1915 in Les Choéfores and L’Homme et
son Desir (1918). The significance he placed on percussion is also evident in 1923’s
La Création du Monde (The Creation of the World). In 1929, with the first concerto
for the genre, Concerto pour batterie et petit orchestre (Concerto for Percussion and
Small Orchestra), the prominence of percussion reached a new level. Both La
Création and Concerto use a part designed for one player, representing significant
contributions to the early works of the multiple percussion genre.
In 1922, Milhaud visited the United States and was exposed to jazz. He was
particularly drawn to Harlem, about which he stated, “The music I heard was
absolutely different from anything I had ever heard before, and was a revelation to
me.”6 The effect was so overwhelming that Milhaud resolved to use jazz for a
chamber-music work.7
Milhaud’s fascination with jazz influenced the conception of the ballet La
Création du Monde. Written after his return from the United States, the work was a
4 Ibid. 5 Ibid. 6 Darius Milhaud, My Happy Life: An Autobiography, trans. Donald Evans, George Hall and Christopher Palmer (London: Marion Boyars, 1995), 110. 7 Ibid.
41
collaboration between Milhaud, Fernand Léger, and Blaise Cendrars for Swedish
ballet-producer Rolf de Maré.8 The African story of the creation of the world was the
subject chosen by Cendrars, who had just published an anthology of African folklore.
Milhaud seized his chance to use the inspiration of jazz, saying “At last in La
Création du Monde, I had the opportunity I had been waiting for to use those
elements of jazz to which I had devoted so much study...I made wholesale use of the
jazz style to convey a purely classical feeling.”9
La Création du Monde was not initially well-received. However, the
perception of the work has evolved since its premiere. Leonard Bernstein reflected
on the significance of La Création du Monde in his book The Infinite Variety of
Music:
All these changes are reflected in the music of those European composers who were still avidly drinking at this exotic American well. Only now instead of a ragtime by Satie you got a Charleston by Martin...Out of all this has come one real masterpiece, one full-length, fully developed jazz work that had such character and originality that even today it sounds as fresh as it did when it was written in 1923. It is a ballet called The Creation of the World, by the brilliant French composer Darius Milhaud. I take the liberty of calling this work a masterpiece because it has the one real requisite of a masterpiece – durability. Among all those experiments with jazz that Europe flirted with in this period, only The Creation of the World emerges complete, not as a flirtation but as a real love affair with jazz.10
La Création is scored for seventeen instruments, resembling a band Milhaud
saw in Harlem, which he said included “a complicated percussion section played by
8 Ibid., 117. 9 Ibid., 118. 10 Desmoines Community Orchestra’s Page, “Program Notes,” http://www.desmoinescommunityorchestra.org/notes_winter.htm.
42
one man.”11 The percussion part for La Création calls for one percussionist, and
requires the following instruments: tambourine, non-pitched metal instruments, wood
block, snare drum, tenor drum, tambourin (a long drum), bass drum, and cymbal with
striker. The cymbal is played by a striker that is attached to the pedal mechanism of
the bass drum, which results in the simultaneous striking of both the drum and
cymbal (hi-hat cymbals are frequently substituted for this device).
Milhaud placed the notation in a logical order, ascending the staff as the
pitches of the instruments rise. However, there are several devices in this percussion
part that could complicate the interpretation of the notation. These issues include a
multiple-staff system and inconsistent placement of notation.
One of these potential problems is the use of multiple five-line staves.
Although Milhaud placed the instruments in a logical order, he placed each
instrument in its own five-line staff, similar to the manner in which Stravinsky used
staves. Figure 3.1 illustrates Milhaud’s use of staves. In instances where four or five
instruments are playing simultaneously, the notation becomes cluttered. Milhaud
occasionally placed a maximum of two instruments in one staff, as illustrated by the
long drum (tambourin) and bass drum (G. C.) in Figure 3.1.
11 Ibid., 110.
43
Figure 3.1. Use of staves. Measures 468-473, La Création du Monde by Darius Milhaud. © Editions Durand (SACEM). Used by Permission.
Another reason that the percussion part in La Création is confusing is that
Milhaud changed the placement of notation based on the combination of instruments
being used. Instead of designating a specific line, space, or staff to one instrument, he
notated the instruments based on a relative relationship. As a result, the performer
must pay careful attention to the labels accompanying the notation. Reducing the
number of staves helps achieve an efficient reading of a more compact score. For
example, Milhaud generally notated the cymbal in one of the highest staves when
many instruments are simultaneously engaged. When he employs only the cymbals
and the bass drum, which is notated in the bottom staff, the inner staves are removed
to save space; the cymbal is notated in a staff directly above the bass drum’s staff.
Consequently, the staff system is reduced into two staves.
Although varying the notation within a work can be confusing, the efficiency
previously mentioned provides logical reasoning for altering the placement of the
notation. There are times, however, when Milhaud made use of notation shifts where
little logic can be found. For example, Figure 3.2 illustrates the notation of four
44
instruments: the snare drum (C.Claire), the tenor drum (C.Roulante), the tambourin,
and the bass drum (G.C.). At this point in the score the snare drum and the tenor
drum share the top staff (although each are assigned to a particular line), while the
tambourin and the bass drum each have their own staff. These same instruments,
however, are notated differently in Figure 3.3. In this example, the snare drum and
tenor drum each have their own staves, and the tambourin and bass drum share the
bottom staff.
Figure 3.2. Measures 290-292, Figure 3.3. Measures 437-439, La Création du Monde by Darius La Création du Monde by Darius Milhaud. © Editions Durand (SACEM). Milhaud. © Editions Durand Used by permission. (SACEM). Used by permission.
Milhaud’s Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra is another example
of the generous use of percussion in his compositions. Concerto for Percussion
represents a new multiple percussion sound, free from the influence of jazz.
Regarding the process and influences of this work, Milhaud wrote:
An excellent kettle-drummer, Theo Coutelier…asked me if I would like to write a concerto for only one percussion performer…The idea appealed to me…In view of the fact that when I composed it (between 1929 and 1930 in Paris) jazz was enjoying a decisive influence on musical composition, I wanted to avoid at any cost the thought that anyone might think it that kind of work, so I therefore stressed the rough and dramatic part of the piece…I had
45
already paid my tribute to jazz, since in La Création du Monde, except for a part written for a kettle-drummer, there is only one performer designated for the percussion part. 12 The instrumentation consists of four timpani, a triangle, a suspended cymbal,
a non-pitched metal instrument, a woodblock, a pair of cymbals, castanets, whip,
ratchet, tambourine, snare drum, tenor drum, tambourin provencal, tam-tam, and a
bass drum with a pedal and detachable cymbal. Hi-hat cymbals are frequently used in
replacement of the detachable cymbal and the timpani are included within the overall
multiple percussion set-up.
The notational technique in the percussion part to Concerto for Percussion
maintains similarities to La Création, but differs in the organization of instruments
and use of staves. As previously mentioned, five-line staves were used in La
Création, with a rare maximum of two instruments per staff. In the Concerto,
Milhaud sorted the instruments into groups before assigning them to a staff. The
number of lines in each staff was modified to match the number of instruments
engaged at any moment in the score. The first measure of the work (Figure 3.4)
functions as a key listing the instrument groupings next to six empty staves.
12 Darius Milhaud, Program notes for Darius Milhaud, Orch of Luxemburg, LP, 1970 Candide.
46
Figure 3.4. Instrument key to Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra. © 1931 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission
According to the first measure of Concerto for Percussion, instruments are
divided as follows: the top staff contains the “fixed accessories,”—which are
mounted or played on a table—consisting of a triangle, suspended cymbal, metal
piece, and woodblock; the second staff contains the “free accessories,”—which the
performer picks up to play—consisting of crash cymbals, castanets, whip, ratchet, and
tambourine; the third staff contains the snare drum, tenor drum, and tambourin
provencal; the fourth staff contains the tam-tam; the fifth staff contains the timpani;
and the bass drum and detachable cymbal are assigned to the bottom staff.
Throughout the score, Milhaud used only the staves belonging to the instruments
being used at a given point in the composition, similar to the condensation of the
staves he used in La Création. For example, the first entrance of percussion is
executed on the timpani alone, so only the timpani staff is used. This technique saves
space and eliminates visual distractions. If two or more of the instrument groups in
the key are needed, Milhaud retains the relative position laid out at the beginning of
the score.
47
Unlike the notation in La Création, the number of staves, and of lines within
each staff, is modified according to instrumentation. Whereas La Création retains
five lines for each staff throughout the entire composition, Concerto for Percussion
utilizes only the quantity of lines required to adequately notate the necessary
instruments. The result is a line-score system that does not rely solely on the
traditional five-line staff. For example, the top staff of Figure 3.5 indicates the use of
four instruments from the “fixed accessory category.” The top line is assigned to the
triangle, the second to the suspended cymbal, the next to the metal piece, and the
bottom line is assigned to the woodblock. In comparison, Figure 3.6 shows the
“fixed accessory” top staff using only the suspended cymbal, metal piece, and the
woodblock, in descending order. To accommodate the use of only three instruments
the staff was condensed into three lines, allowing the score to be more compact and
concise. However, with the removal of the triangle, the cymbal is now notated on
the top line (as opposed to the second) and such changes to notational positions could
confuse the performer.
Figure 3.5. Measures 21-22, Concerto for Figure 3.6. Measure 97, Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition A.G., Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission. by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/ Instrument labels added by author. UE 6453. Used by permission.
Triangle Cymbal Metal W. B.
Cymbal Metal W. Block
48
A similarity to La Création is the treatment of stems and beaming of notes. In
both works, note heads are connected across staves. This technique allows for visual
clarity of rhythmic placement, but it also tends to clutter the score. Beams across
staves are not as prevalent in Concerto for Percussion as in La Création, and pose
less of a problem due to the work’s smaller staves as well as the limited use. Figure
3.7 illustrates the one example of this beaming technique found in Concerto for
Percussion. A contrasting technique used in the majority of the score is illustrated in
Figure 3.8. In this example, rests are used instead of beaming. Each technique has an
advantage and a disadvantage: while Figure 3.8 clears the visual clutter of the beams
present in Figure 3.7, Figure 3.7 provides a more unified sense of rhythm.
Figure 3.7. Measures 95-97, Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission.
Figure 3.8. Measure 20, Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission.
49
An interesting observation can be made regarding Milhaud’s use of note heads
in the Concerto: every instrument, with the exception of the timpani, is represented
by “x” note heads. This technique is obvious in the previous excerpts found in
Figures 3.7 and 3.8. The “x” note heads may initially prove to be disconcerting to a
modern percussionist who is accustomed to interpreting “x” as a representation of
cymbals, triangles, stick clicks, rim shots, or rim clicks. A conclusion regarding this
technique is that the note heads indicate Milhaud’s attempts to visually clarify the
score. By notating only timpani with standard note heads Milhaud provided a clear
differentiation between the pitched and non-pitched instruments.
Milhaud’s contributions of La Création du Monde and Concerto for
Percussion to the multiple percussion repertoire were made within a decade of
Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du Soldat. Due to the similar significance of the percussion
part of both La Création du Monde and L’Histoire du Soldat, I have searched for but
have been unable to find any sources verifying if Milhaud had ever heard or studied
the score to Stravinsky’s work. For both composers, the development of multiple
percussion was still in its infancy; Milhaud, like Stravinsky, did not have the option
of basing his notation on ideas from predecessors. As a result, his system of notation
is awkward for modern performers. A simplification of his notation would make the
rendering of La Création and Concerto for Percussion more accessible to performers
in the same way that Blades’ edition did for Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du Soldat.
50
CHAPTER 4
FELDMAN’S THE KING OF DENMARK
In early 1950s New York, American composer Morton Feldman (1926-1987)
became associated with John Cage, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff and David Tudor.1
The group of composers was interested in discovering how, as John Cage said, to “let
sounds be themselves rather than vehicles for man-made theories, or expression of
human sentiments.”2 A common phrase for this idea is “sound for sound’s sake.”
These composers focused on finding methods to allow sound to be free from
constraints. Feldman made the following statement, reflecting their perception of
composition:
It appears to me that the subject of music, from Machaut to Boulez, has always been its construction. Melodies of 12-tone rows just don’t happen. They must be constructed...To demonstrate any formal idea in music, whether structure or stricture, is a matter of construction, in which the methodology is the controlling metaphor of the composition...Only by ‘unfixing’ the elements traditionally used to construct a piece of music could the sounds exist in themselves—not as symbols, or memories which were memories of other music to begin with.3
1 Steven Johnson, “Feldman, Morton,” in Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy, http://www.grovemusic.com.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/ (accessed September 11, 2004). 2 Michael Nyman, Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1999), 51. 3Ibid., 50.
51
In their search for new approaches, the composers drew inspiration from their
surroundings, especially the expressionist painters in New York. Feldman once
wrote the following about the painters:
Anybody who was around in the early fifties with the painters saw that these men had started to explore their own sensibilities, their own plastic language...with that complete independence from other art, that complete inner security to work with what was unknown to them...I feel that John Cage, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff and I were very much in that particular spirit.4
Feldman, therefore, was looking for new ways to conceive music that was
independent from conventional ideas. This spirit of independence led to his
development of a graphic system of notation that allowed him to create music, which
as Cage described, “is indeterminate with respect to its performance.”5 The solo The
King of Denmark, written in 1964 and published in 1965, is an example of his use of
graphic notation. In a 1983 interview with percussionist Jan Williams, Feldman
described the method’s conception and evolution:
I still use a grid. But now the grid encompasses conventional notation. But the initial concept of the grid – Oh, it’s like one of those things that you don’t know is going to have significance afterwards. I have no idea how it came about. Actually, I was living in the same building as John Cage and he invited me to dinner…so we were waiting a long time for the wild rice to be ready. It was while waiting for the wild rice that I just sat down at his desk and picked up a piece of note paper and started to doodle. And what I doodled was a freely drawn page of graph paper – and what emerged were high, middle, and low categories. It was just automatic – I never had any conversation about it heretofore, you know – never discussed it…Actually, I didn’t have any kind of theory and I had no idea what was going to emerge, but if I wasn’t waiting for that wild rice, I wouldn’t have had those wild ideas.6
4 Ibid., 51. 5 Ibid., 53. 6 Jan Williams, “An Interview with Morton Feldman,” Percussive Notes: Research Edition 21, no. 6 (1983): 6-7.
52
Feldman saw problems in his early grid, like the ability to make “wonderful
designs” allowing the grid to become too design-oriented.7 However, he felt it was
ideal for percussion writing, saying “The percussion just made the balance between
being specific and, at the same time, to some degree, general.”8 Feldman, through the
use of such notational devices, was able to maintain control over the composition
while giving some freedom to the interpretation.
According to Feldman, his first use of percussion—in the 1951 orchestral
piece Marginal Intersection—was modeled after Cage’s early 1940s pieces, the
Gamelan Orchestra, and the works of Edgard Varese.9 In Marginal Intersection,
Feldman utilized the “en masse” use of instruments from these models, while also
“wanting the percussion to sound more like noise.”10 The percussion solo The King of
Denmark is a contrast to his earlier use of percussion, as it strives for the opposite
effect. Percussionist Steven Schick described the work in a program note
accompanying the concert series “Three Nights of Percussion” given in New York in
1998:
In many ways, The King of Denmark is an anti-percussion piece. It is to be played very softly using only the hand and fingers – no sticks or mallets...Even though a tempo runs throughout, no rhythmic coherence emerges. Sounds simply float out, detached and weightless. One instrument has no more sonic gravity than another does...They are sounds in many different loudnesses, but they are being heard from different distances. The gong is really forte but is heard from the distance of fifty yards. It sounds as
7 Ibid., 7. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid., 5. 10 Ibid.
53
soft as the little bell six inches from your ear. Mirages of distance appear and evaporate again into music. It is like rain or the sound of rain. These illusions come from Feldman’s love of the pulsating but rhythmically directionless canvases of Mark Rothko and other American Abstract Expressionists. Directionlessness is key here.11 Feldman achieved the directionless sense by removing the constraints of
conventional notation. The King of Denmark uses a form of the grid Feldman
originally created in Cage’s apartment and premiered in the 1950 work Projections I
for Solo Cello. An example of The King of Denmark’s grid is illustrated in Figure
4.1. The score presents multiple problems to the performer: he must interpret the grid
and its consequences on rhythm and time, translate the symbols contained in the grid,
and devise an appropriate set-up. In order to interpret the notation illustrated in
Figure 4.1, the performer must refer to the performance notes provided at the
beginning of the score. The performance notes are listed in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.1. Opening staff, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
11 Chris Villars’ Feldman Page, “A Note on The King of Denmark by Steven Schick,” http://www.cnvill.demon.co.uk/mfschick.htm.
54
1. Graphed High, Middle and Low, with each box equal to MM 66-92. The top line or slightly above the top line, very high. The bottom line or slightly beneath, very low.
2. Numbers represent the amount of sounds to played in each box 3. All instruments to be played without sticks or mallets. The performer may
use fingers, hand, or any part of his arm. 4. Dynamics are extremely low, and as equal as possible. 5. The thick horizontal line designates clusters. (Instruments should be varied
when possible). 6. Roman numerals represent simultaneous sounds. 7. Large numbers (encompassing High, Middle and Low) indicate single sounds
to be played in all registers and in any time sequence. 8. Broken lines indicate sustained sounds. 9. Vibraphone is played without motor.
SYMBOLS USED:
B - Bell-like sounds; S – Skin instruments; C – Cymbal; G – Gong; R – Roll; T.R. – Tympani roll; ∆ – Triangle; G.R. – Gong Roll.
Figure 4.2. Performance Notes to The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
The first problem the performer must solve is the interpretation of the grid.
Although the tempo of the piece is strictly structured through the grid, the actual
rhythms to be played are determined by the performer. Each box in the score
represents a metronome beat at a marking between 66 and 92. The second instruction
in the performance notes indicates that within the boundaries of each box the
performer has freedom to determine the sequence of sounds and rhythm.
For example, Figure 4.3 illustrates various symbols used in the score. The
performance notes allow the performer to determine the meaning of the symbols
following the large number “5.” The sound events are interpreted as follows: two
55
high-registered sounds, seven middle-registered sounds, and three low-registered
sounds are all performed within the time parameters of one box. While the duration
of the box is controlled, the performer determines the actual rhythms or placement of
sounds within that time limit.
Figure 4.3. Page 2, boxes 34-42, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F.
Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
A dashed line follows the remaining symbol (the “R” in the upper box). This
indicates that the performer plays a roll on a high-registered instrument for the extent
of the boxes containing the “R” and dashed line.
A problem presented to the performer in this example is the duration of the
wide box with the large number “5,” because it is not described in the performance
notes. Percussionist Daryl Pratt answered this question in his performance analysis
of The King of Denmark. Through examining a pre-publication version of the score
he discovered that “the work was initially composed on grid coordinate paper. The
longer boxes were, therefore, precisely equal to two or more small boxes.”12 As a
result, the performer will need to determine how many small boxes fit inside the
wider box, which will give the correct duration. The performer must examine each
occurrence, as the lengths are not immediately obvious during the reading of the
12 Daryl L. Pratt, “Performance Analysis: Morton Feldman, The King of Denmark,” Percussive Notes: Research Edition 25, no. 3 (1987): 73.
56
score. In this case, the large box is the equivalent of four smaller boxes. The entire
box is interpreted as five individual sounds occurring in all registers in any sequence
within the time limit of four boxes.
Feldman did not include an instrumentation list or a suggested set-up in the
performance notes, so it is up to the discretion of the performer to choose the
instruments that will provide the registers of sounds. Throughout the score the
performer will find instances of specifically notated instrument groups, which will
help her in the determination of the complete set-up. Figure 4.4 illustrates an
example. Here, Feldman clearly indicated that the particular sounds within the
bracket must be played on skin instruments. In order to execute this passage, the set-
up must include a minimum of three drums of three different registers.
Figure 4.4. Page 2, boxes 72-81, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
The conclusion of the piece, as illustrated in Figure 4.5, specifically dictates
that the notes be played on vibraphone, glockenspiel and antique cymbal. Figure 4.6
illustrates another device used by Feldman to indicate instrumentation. In this
example, it is necessary for the performer to refer to the “SYMBOLS USED” section
of the performance notes to determine the type of instruments to strike within each
57
box. For example, the first box of Figure 4.6 is a bell-like sound, followed by a
middle-registered skin instrument, a high-registered cymbal, and low-registered gong.
The remaining boxes of the excerpt are interpreted by the same system.
Figure 4.5. Conclusion, Figure 4.6. Page 2, boxes 89-101, The King of Denmark. The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters. All Rights Reserved. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission. Used by permission.
An examination of the “SYMBOLS USED” section of the performance notes,
and the previously mentioned specific instrument indications, give the performer
guidelines for choosing the makeup of the configuration. The performer can deduce
that the set-up must represent all of the following timbres or instruments: bell-like
sounds, skin instruments, cymbals, gongs, tympani, triangle, vibraphone,
glockenspiel, and antique cymbal. Through closely studying the score, the performer
can determine the number of registers required for each timbre and can thus choose
specific instruments to fulfill that number. Common performance practice is to
perform The King of Denmark with a large set-up, although some performers have
chosen to condense the configuration into what Feldman called a “capsule version.”13
13 Jan Williams, “An Interview with Morton Feldman,” Percussive Notes: Research Edition 21, no. 6 (1983): 6.
58
These smaller set-ups disregard some of Feldman’s wishes indicated by the score.
For example, a literal interpretation of Feldman’s design would require three triangles
of different pitches while a condensed set-up might use only one triangle to represent
all three timbres.
The King of Denmark requires a significant amount of time and effort from
the performer. Not only must the grid be understood and the symbols interpreted, but
the performer must also closely examine the score to determine an appropriate
instrumentation. Once an instrumentation is chosen to represent all the requested
sounds, she must also devise a logical set-up. By breaking away from conventional
notation, Feldman placed more responsibility on the performer.
Although the responsibility and inconvenience placed on the performer may
discourage percussionists from performing The King of Denmark, Feldman chose this
system for a reason: to allow him to control some aspects of the composition while
leaving the performer free to devise the other elements. By removing a strong sense
of rhythm and the percussive attack of mallets and sticks, he used the instruments in a
way that he felt “would have been considered the least area for ‘success’.”14 He was
thus able to break away from the traditional concept of percussion, and his ability to
do so would have been limited through the use of conventional notation.
14 Ibid., 14.
59
CHAPTER 5
KRAFT’S ENGLISH SUITE
William Kraft is an American composer and percussionist born in 1923. He
performed as a percussionist and timpanist with the Los Angeles Philharmonic from
1955 to 1981, and was appointed to the Dorothy and Sherrill C. Corwin Chair in
Music Composition at the University of California at Santa Barbara in 1992.1 He also
was the Composer-in-Residence for the Los Angeles Philharmonic from 1981 to
1985. Among Kraft’s numerous compositions are works for percussion that include
timpani and percussion concertos, percussion ensemble pieces of various sizes and
styles, and several multiple percussion solos such as Morris Dance, French Suite, and
English Suite. These three multiple percussion solos are important additions to the
standard percussion repertoire, as the novice percussionist frequently uses Kraft’s
works as learning tools for multiple percussion technique and performance.
English Suite was written in 1974 and is a historical reference to the Baroque
instrumental suite from which it acquired its title. J.J. Froberger (1616-67) is credited
with standardizing the movements contained within the suite form, which contains
1 Laurie Shulman, “Kraft, William,” Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy, http//www.grovemusic.com.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu (accessed February 10, 2004).
60
combinations of slow and fast dance styles.2 Kraft’s English Suite consists of seven
movements, each bearing the title of a dance. Kraft designated the movements as
“Parts” and the titles are as follows: Prelude, Allemande, Courante, Sarabande,
Bourrée I, Bourée II, and Gigue. Each dance includes a notation key under the title,
and performance notes at the end of the movement. The key to Prelude, found in
Figure 5.1, tells the performer which instruments are needed and designates the
appropriate location on the five-line staff for the corresponding notation. The
performance notes explain other markings in the score, such as explanations for
symbols, or pictograms, that refer to various striking techniques on the cymbal.
Figure 5.1. Key to Prelude.
Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission.
As Figure 5.1 illustrates, Kraft used a traditional five-line staff to notate
English Suite. The ascending order of the notated “pitches” on the staff matches the
contour of the instruments they represent. While the instrumentation varies between
movements, Kraft was consistent in maintaining specific spaces or lines as the
representation of certain instruments. For example, in every movement the bass
drum, tenor drum, field drum, and snare drum are notated in the lowest four spaces.
As the instrumentation is changed between movements, the spaces of these drums are
2 Judith Nagley, “Suite,” in The Oxford Companion to Music, ed. Alison Latham (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).
61
not affected. Each new instrument is assigned to a new space or line as needed. This
eliminates confusion that would certainly arise from varying the specific notation
across the movements.
The instrumentation of Prelude consists of a bass drum, tenor drum, field
drum, snare drum, and bongos. The key also notes that the snares on all drums
remain in the off position throughout this movement. Figure 5.2 illustrates several
techniques used by Kraft in this composition. First, there are abbreviations used in
this excerpt: R, L, E, and C. “R” designates the right hand, and “L” designates the
left hand. These sticking indications assist the performer in the execution of the
passage. “E” refers to the edge of the drumhead, and “C” refers to the center of the
drumhead. In this case, Kraft called for the performer to play in both the edge and
center of the bass drum. This allows for more available timbres from the instrument.
Figure 5.2. Measures 23-26, Prelude. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission.
An interesting technique present in the first three movements is the use of
different-sized note heads. According to the performance notes, the large note heads
instruct the performer to play forte (loud) and the small note heads piano (soft).
Whereas another composer may have kept the standard-sized note head and simply
62
used accents, Kraft chose this method in order to clearly differentiate between volume
levels. The notation serves as a constant reminder to the performer by creating a
clear visual contrast.
In general, Kraft’s stem directions follow the standard of music notation: the
direction of the stems depends on how high or low in the staff the note is placed.
This allows (except in instances where Kraft provides “R” or “L” suggestions) the
performer to decide his own sticking. As Stravinsky did in L’Histoire du Soldat,
Kraft occasionally used stem directions to specify which hand should be used. Kraft
only used this method when he desired one hand to execute material independent of
the other. Figure 5.3 provides an example of this technique as used by Kraft.
Figure 5.3. Use of stem directions. Measures 53-55, Prelude. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission.
The last measure of Figure 5.3 shows the left hand playing an eighth-note
accompaniment, while the right hand plays a melodic idea. The stem directions,
combined with the size of the note heads, help visually clarify the concept of
accompaniment versus melody.
The use of opposite stem directions while two hands are playing simultaneous
contrasting ideas is necessary for clarity. If the stems were all facing upwards, the
stacked notation would be confusing to the performer. Kraft also used the technique
for more than necessity. In the first two measures of Figure 5.3, the stems move from
63
an “up” position to a “down” position. Although this technique is not described in
the performance notes at the end of the movement, the performer may assume that the
change in stem direction dictates a switch to the left hand for the entire second
measure. If the stem directions are interpreted in this way, the notation clearly
prepares the performer for the following section. Playing the second measure with
only the left hand sets up the accompaniment, allows the right hand to be free to enter
with the melodic line, and creates a smooth transition.
One of the obstacles that composers must face is how to notate the variety of
sounds that are available from each percussion instrument. The type of stick, the area
of stick used, the striking technique, and the area of the playing surface all affect the
sound of the instrument. Kraft answered this challenge by using pictograms for
specific playing techniques, and then defining the symbols in the performance notes.
Figure 5.4, from Sarabande, illustrates an example of Kraft’s use of pictograms.
Figure 5.4. Use of pictograms. Measures 53-58, Sarabande. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission.
According to the performance notes, the notation in the last measure calls for
the following manners of striking, in order: tip of stick on cymbal dome, shaft of stick
on cymbal dome, tip of stick on cymbal dome (twice), shaft of stick on cymbal dome,
64
and tip of stick on cymbal dome (twice).3 Upon study of this measure, the performer
can realize that this notation calls simply for her to play the accented notes
with the shaft of the stick for a heavier sound, and the unaccented notes with the tip
for a lighter sound. Kraft’s use of symbols for these details obscure the visual clarity
of the notation, and it may initially hinder the performer. Until the performer adapts
to the symbols, and possibly memorizes how to strike the instruments, the score may
appear to be overloaded with too much information. Simply using accents and an
accompanying performance note explaining the necessary techniques could have
conveyed the same information.
Kraft did not attempt to minutely control the performer’s choice of stickings.
In general, his sticking indications are meant to aid the performer through more
difficult passages. “R” and “L” were used in a situation that is illustrated in Figure
5.5. Similar to Stravinsky, Kraft used the stickings to control the performer’s use of
contrasting mallets. For example, in Bourrée II (Figure 5.5), the middle section of
the movement requires the performer to put down the stick from the left hand and
replace it with a brush. The result is that the performer is holding a brush in the left
hand and a stick in the right hand.
3 William Kraft, English Suite: Multiple Percussion Solo in Seven Parts, ed. Joel Leach (New York: Award Music, 1975), 13.
65
Figure 5.5. Measures 25-31, Bourrée II. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission.
At the beginning of Bourrée II, the performer is using a snare drum stick in
both hands. Here, about halfway though the piece, Kraft used a pictogram defined as
a brush, and the abbreviation “L.H.” This instructs the performer to pick up the brush
with the left hand while the right hand continues to play the snare drum. The
pictograms above the staff in the first four measures instruct the player to play a
“chop,” which the performance notes describe being executed “by placing palm of
hand on [the drum] head, holding stick tip against center of head. Bring shank down
on far rim.”4
Once the performer has the stick in one hand and brush in the other, Kraft
designated the desired sounds by specifying which hand should play each note. Kraft
also continues to use the symbols for “brush” and “chop.” The pictograms would be
unnecessary because of the “R” and “L” specifications, except for one reason: Kraft
also uses the symbol “ord.,” which instructs the player to strike “ordinarily” in
between the center and edge of the instrument. This label appears in the last measure
of Figure 5.5. An alternative method for this section would be a performance note
stating that all the left hand strikes are to be with the brush and the right hand notes
are to be chops. The “R” and “L” markings could then give the necessary
4 Ibid., 17.
66
information. Therefore, only the “ordinary” notes would need to be additionally
marked, which would eliminate the clutter created by excessive symbols.
In this work, Kraft was very specific in how he wanted each note to be
executed, but the choice of instructions could be more concise; while the pictograms
supply necessary information, they also complicate the rendering of the score.
However, the use of the five-line staff and specific placement of notation eliminates
much of the confusion present in earlier multiple percussion works like L’Histoire du
Soldat and La Création du Monde. As multiple percussion notation has evolved,
Kraft’s English Suite is an example of an overall consistent and logical score.
67
CHAPTER 6
XENAKIS’ PSAPPHA
Iannis Xenakis (1922-2001) was born in Romania to Greek parents, and lived
most of his life in France. He was an architect, engineer, and composer. Xenakis once
said, “I wanted to do everything at the same time. Earn my living, learn math and
physics: the only really serious place was the Polytechnic University in Athens…But at
the same time, I was doing music, archaeology, and law.”1 Even with his many
interests, Xenakis considered music to be particularly significant in his life, saying
“The power of music is such that it transports you from one state to another…If I
wanted to learn how to compose music, maybe it was to acquire this power.”2
Xenakis was among the age of composers who revolutionized twentieth
century music after World War II.3 His name is associated with stochastic4 music,
computer music, and using mathematical or architectural methods to control music
1 Iannis Xenakis, "Xenakis on Xenakis," trans. Roberta Brown and John Rahn, Perspectives of New Music 25, no.1 (1987): 18. 2 Ibid. 3 Peter Hoffman, "Xenakis, Iannis," in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd ed, ed. Stanley Sadie (New York: Grove's Dictionaries, 2001), 27: 605. 4 A term implying the controlled use of a very large number of elements, giving a false impression of aleatory or chance procedures. Glenn Watkins, Soundings: Music in the Twentieth Century (New York: Schirmer, 1995), 587.
68
composition. Xenakis was interested in the relationship of time and space and
developed the Sieve Theory, a mathematical sifting process that will be discussed
later in this chapter.
Psappha is a composition for solo percussion, written for performance by
Sylvio Gualda at the English Bach Festival on May 2, 1976. The notation is placed
on a grid, although it differs from Feldman’s system in The King of Denmark by
maintaining control over rhythm. The unconventional score to Psappha presents
several challenges, including instrumentation choices and interpretation of the
notation.
The only specification that Xenakis assigned to the instrumentation is a
division into categories of membrane (peaux), wood (bois), and metal (metaux).
These specifications are further divided into registers of high, medium, and low. The
performer, therefore, determines the choice of exact instruments. In 1976, previous
to Psappha’s premiere, Simon Emmerson interviewed Xenakis for the journal Music
and Musicians. When Emmerson asked Xenakis if he had particular sound-qualities
in mind for the instrumentation of Psappha, Xenakis replied, “Yes, I wanted
something which is not musical in the traditional sense; something which does not
remind one of some other instrument or which even has other associations; just a
category of timbre.”5 Rather than trying to use instruments that might have contextual
or cultural connotations, he was seeking the sounds of general, non-specific timbres.
5 Simon Emmerson, “Xenakis Talks to Simon Emmerson,” Music and Musicians 25 (1976): 24.
69
Figure 6.1 illustrates the instrument key found in the score. The left column
in each half of the box, labeled “Registre de hauteurs,” indicates the register of
instruments (high/medium/low) and each register is assigned a letter (A-F). The
middle column in each half is labeled “Gradations dans les registres,” designating the
graduation in the registers. These graduations are subdivisions within each register
and are labeled numerically. The third column, labeled “Catégorie de timbre ou de
matériaux,” indicates the timbres or instrument suggestions that are assigned to each
group. The key demonstrates that Xenakis divided the instrumentation, and thus the
score, into six main groups, labeled A-F.
Figure 6.1. Instrument Key to Psappha by Iannis Xenakis.
© Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by Permission.
According to Figure 6.1, Group A consists of three high wooden or membrane
instruments, such as bongos or tom toms. Group B consists of three medium
membrane or wooden instruments. Group C requires three low membrane
instruments, such as bass drums or African congas. The bottom instrument in Group
C, labeled “3”, could be a bass drum played with a foot pedal in order to alleviate
70
technical difficulties in the latter half of the piece. Group D indicates three medium
metallic instruments. Group E consists of one neutral metallic instrument, and
Group F indicates three very high or acute metallic instruments. Xenakis described
the metallic sounds he desired as “not tam-tams, but rough metal such as railway lines
and pieces of iron or steel.”6
As the key reveals, Xenakis mixed the wooden and membrane instruments
into one category, resulting in a distinct contrast of timbre between wood/membrane
and metal. He described these categories as “skins with clear harmonics, and metal
with complex harmonic colours, though without definite pitch.”7 Xenakis’ creation of
these timbral groups corresponds to the intent of Psappha, which he described as a
“purely rhythmical composition, which means that colour is used only to render more
clearly the polyrhythmic construction.”8
Once the performer has chosen the instruments and has assigned each to a
label, such as A-1 or A-2, she can begin to interpret the notation. The notation of
Psappha relies on the registers of instruments (A-F) that Xenakis created. Within the
registers, he used a separate horizontal line to indicate each instrument. For example,
Group A has a potential total of three horizontal lines. Throughout the piece, Xenakis
uses only the lines that designate the instruments being used, eliminating non-
functional empty lines that would complicate the clarity of the score. For example,
6 Ibid. 7 Ibid., 25. 8 Ibid., 24.
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Figure 6.2 is an excerpt from the opening of the piece. Instead of utilizing sixteen
horizontal lines, Xenakis chose to use only those that were needed.
Figure 6.2. Boxes 1-51, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by permission.
As illustrated in Figure 6.2, the rhythmic notation is unconventional.
Consequently, even if the use of single horizontal lines (instead of a traditional staff)
is familiar to the performer, the method in which Xenakis notated the rhythms will
not be. The rhythms are indicated by dots, similar to note heads without stems. The
horizontal lines represent the specific instruments, and the location of the dots on
specific lines determines the actual points of sound. For example, the first note head
at the opening of the piece (Figure 6.2) is notated on the second horizontal line of the
Group B system. This informs the performer that the first sound should be the
instrument he has chosen as the middle of the medium wood/membrane group. The
rhythms in which the dots are executed are determined by the intersection of the
vertical lines of the grid with the horizontal lines. The vertical lines mark specific
points in the passage of time, which is represented by the horizontal lines; this system
differs from how Feldman used his grid in The King of Denmark, where the
performer decided the specific rhythms within the boundaries of the vertical lines.
72
To apply this graphic system, Figure 6.2 may again be considered. The
marking “greater-than or equal to 152 MM” refers to the tempo of the composition.
A metronome set at 154 beats per minute will correspond to the vertical lines of the
grid. In order to grow more accustomed to this notation, the performer may even
consider each note head placed on the vertical lines to be a quarter note. Ideally, the
performer will eventually be able to recognize the notation as it is written, rendering
this rhythmic transposition unnecessary.
Figure 6.3 is an example of the placement of the dots in-between the vertical
lines. This indicates that these attacks should occur halfway between the dots that are
placed directly on the vertical lines. Using the idea of rhythmic transposition
mentioned above, the performer might consider these notes to function as eighth
notes.
Figure 6.3. Boxes 440-437, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by permission.
A broad examination of the score shows that the piece begins with a thin
layering of instrument groups (Group A and B), grows thicker as more groups are
layered under the first two, and then culminates with only Groups F and C. Figure
6.4 illustrates the largest simultaneous use of instrument groups: Groups A, B, C, D,
and E. As groups are added throughout the piece, it becomes more difficult for the
73
performer to keep track of the instrumentation and placement of the note heads.
While Xenakis visually placed the groups together according to timbre (Groups A-C
are wooden/membrane instruments, and D-E are metallic instruments), the higher-
sounding metallic instruments are notated below the lower-sounding
wooden/membrane instruments. Because performers are accustomed to higher
pitches notated above lower pitches, an adjustment will need to be made to Xenakis’
placement of the timbre groups.
Figure 6.4. Boxes 1540-1567, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by Permission.
The six groups are never used simultaneously, and Group F is not introduced
until the texture thins toward the end of the piece. Figure 6.5 shows the
instrumentation of the conclusion. It is interesting to note that in this instance,
contrasting to the previous example, Group C is placed below Group F despite the
alphabetic labels. In this case, Xenakis placed the lower instrument—a low
membrane drum—below the high-pitched metals, which gives the performer a visual
reference to correspond to the aural reference. It should also be noted that the third
drum of Group C could appropriately be interpreted as a bass drum with a pedal, due
74
to the fact that the hands must play rapid rhythms layered above the constant low
drum. The performer may wish to use two drums to represent line 3 of Group C – a
large concert bass drum for a deeper tone in the beginning of the piece, and the pedal
bass drum to assist with execution in the latter portion.
Figure 6.5. Boxes 2310-2344, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by Permission.
One other notational device that Xenakis used in his score is illustrated in
Figure 6.6. The excerpt is the first use of the “roll” notation in the composition, and
Xenakis placed a definition above it. Translated into English, the caption describes
the notation as “two or three blows per point.” The performer, therefore, will need to
bounce the stick two or three times for each execution of a note head. In order to
produce smoother sounding rolls, a performance practice is to place identical
instruments upside-down above the first instrument. The performer then rolls one-
handed, back and forth, between the surfaces.
75
Figure 6.6. Boxes 2023-2029, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by Permission.
A performer, or anyone with occasion to look at this score, may pose the
question, “Why did Xenakis choose to notate his composition in this manner?” For
answers, Xenakis’ compositional process—particularly his Sieve Theory—should be
taken into account. The Sieve Theory is a mathematical sifting process; Xenakis
described how he applied it to musical composition in a 1975 interview with Michael
Zaplitny:
What the sieve theory enables you to do is to choose in a totally ordered set, or to structure the elements of the set. By comparison, this is what happens in the major scale, the white key scale, or any other more or less complicated scale. This ordered set depends on an elementary displacement; it could be a quartertone, or a comma, or anything you want. This process represents a very general way of structuring an ordered set.9
The process of the Sieve Theory is a method of providing elements from
which to build a composition, and it may provide the most insight into how Xenakis
created the notational system for Psappha. During a conversation with Bálint Varga,
Xenakis said, “The sieve theory helps in the selection and organization of points on a
line. The line represents any characteristic of sound which has an ordering
9 Michael Zaplitny, "Conversation with Iannis Xenakis," Perspectives of New Music 14, no.1 (1975): 97.
76
structure.”10 It seems likely that Xenakis created this notational system simply by
notating his piece exactly as he conceived it: as an organization of points on a line
intended to represent time.
Due to his use of mathematical processes, a common assumption is that
Xenakis’ music is cold and calculated. Dispelling this conception, he once said:
Most of my works are done without calculation. Although I look as if I always work with a slide rule, this is not the case. Sometimes I have to calculate if I am organizing things, but when I have conquered that domain, then up to a point I can forget the calculation and feel at home.11
It appears, then, that Xenakis grew comfortable using sieves in his previous
compositions, and therefore could use them as a framework for Psappha, while
breaking free from their constraints. In fact, he considered Psappha to be “a kind of
liberation from sieves.”12
Perhaps Xenakis, who intended this composition to be a study in rhythm,
simply wanted to devise the notation to represent rhythm in a basic way—free from
the limitations of traditional notation and subdivisions of musical time. This is
especially evident in the fact that the concept of the piece was to consider time “as a
continuous horizontal line, on which you place dots that correspond to the attacks of
percussion.”13
10 Bálint András Varga, Conversations with Iannis Xenakis (London: Faber, 1996), 93. 11 Simon Emmerson, “Xenakis Talks to Simon Emmerson,” Music and Musicians 25 (1976): 25. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid., 24.
77
It is clear that Xenakis’ choice of notation requires tremendous effort and a
significant amount of preparation time from the performer. He must learn this new
system and orient his eyes and brain to follow the notation as readily as traditional
notation. The effort of interpreting the score may discourage performers from
learning the work. However, although the task presented to the performer would be
less daunting if the work had been notated in a traditional manner, Psappha would
inevitably feel and sound different due to the inflections that are instinctual to
performers reading conventional notation. In utilizing his graphic system of notation,
Xenakis chose to strip away the familiar and allow the performer to concentrate
purely on the rhythmic construction.
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CHAPTER 7
XENAKIS’ REBONDS
Composed in 1987-1989, Rebonds, for solo percussion, was premiered by
Sylvio Gualda in July 1988 at the Villa Medici in Rome.1 A comment by Jacques
Lonchampt accompanying the score describes the work as “An immense abstract
ritual, a suite of movements and of hammerings without any folkloristic
‘contamination,’ pure music full of marvelously efflorescent rhythms, going beyond
drama and tempest.”2 Rebonds is a stark contrast to Xenakis’ work previously
examined in this document (Psappha), both in terms of musical content and notation.
Whereas learning Psappha’s graphic notational system is a central obstacle of the
work, the difficulties of Rebonds lie more in the technical and musical challenges of
executing the rhythms.
Rebonds is in two movements: Rebonds a features a gradual build-up of
intensity and density, and Rebonds b encompasses a relentless, driving pulse.
The instrumentation of Rebonds a consists of two bongos, three tom toms, and two
bass drums. Rebonds b utilizes five woodblocks, two bongos, one tumba (conga),
one tom tom, and one bass drum. The notational system that Xenakis used
1 James Harley, Xenakis: His Life in Music (New York: Routledge, 2004), 192. 2 Xenakis, Iannis. Rebonds (Paris: Editions Salabert, 1991).
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throughout this work is quite dissimilar to the system he used in Psappha. In the
previous work, Xenakis placed the percussion attacks along a horizontal timeline,
limiting the subdivision of rhythm. In contrast, Rebonds is notated conventionally
and the two movements explore differing concepts of rhythm; one, a gradual build-up
of subdivisions and the other, a constant driving pulse. The notational system used in
Rebonds provides an excellent example of a clear, logical score that effectively
conveys the composer’s ideas.
Figure 7.1 depicts the first two measures of Rebonds a. The labels next to the
staff serve as the instrumentation key. The score is clear for several reasons: the
notation ascends the staff as the sounding pitches ascend, the notes are limited to one
five-line staff, and the notes are beamed together according to rhythmic groupings. In
addition, the stem directions in Figure 7.1 are pointing in the same direction, which
helps render the rhythmic groupings more clearly.
Figure 7.1. Measures 1-2, Rebonds a by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by permission.
Figure 7.2 illustrates the first two measures of Rebonds b, with the instrument
labels serving as the key. The top staff is reserved for the five woodblocks, and the
bottom staff contains the drums. It is interesting to compare the treatment of
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multiple-staff systems in Rebonds to the works by Stravinsky and Milhaud previously
examined in this document. While the staff systems in L’Histoire du Soldat and La
Création du Monde caused the notation to seem disjointed or disconnected, the staves
in Rebonds b (Figure 7.3) are combined to function as one logical system. By using
two staves, Xenakis clearly differentiated the two timbre groups.
Figure 7.2. Measures 1-2, Rebonds b by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by permission.
Figure 7.3. Measures 75-76, Rebonds b by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by permission.
In L’Histoire du Soldat, Stravinsky often retained all the staves, even when
they were not in use. In the case of Rebonds b, Xenakis used both staves only when
necessary. In Figure 7.4, the woodblock staff has been removed, saving space and
allowing the performer to follow the drum staves without distraction from the empty
woodblock staff.
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Figure 7.4. Measures 3-4, Rebonds b. Used by permission.
The score is clear and logical, due to Xenakis' note placement and treatment
of the staves, which allows the performer to utilize her previous experience with
melodic notation while adjusting to the notation used in Rebonds. Rebonds illustrates
the growth that multiple percussion has experienced since the 1924 release of
Stravinsky's L'Histoire du Soldat. Whereas the notational systems of previous works
examined in this document compounded the difficulties of learning the percussion
parts, Xenakis' clear notation in Rebonds allows the performer to concentrate on
executing the challenges of the work itself.
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CHAPTER 8
HOLLINDEN’S COLD PRESSED
American composer Dave Hollinden (b. 1958) has been the recipient of
numerous artist grants, was trained at Indiana University and University of Michigan,
and is frequently commissioned for percussion works.1 He has composed twelve
works for percussion, including marimba solo Of Wind and Water, percussion duet
Surface Tension, and percussion quartet The Whole Toy Laid Down.2 Cold Pressed,
commissioned in 1990 and published in 1994, was written for solo percussion.
Several of Hollinden’s percussion works incorporate a system of notation known as
“timbre-staff” notation. The timbre-staff system represents an alternative notational
option for composers, gaining more recognition since Herbert Brun’s use of it in the
1974 work In and Out.3
The timbre-staff system utilizes a traditional five-line staff and resembles the
notation of any pitched instrument. However, the notes on the timbre-staff represent
instruments (or timbres) as opposed to exact pitches. In order to correspond to the
traditional notation, the set-up is configured into the layout of a keyboard. A
1 Dave Hollinden’s Web Site, “Bio/Resume,” http://wwwspeakeasy.org/~daveh/resume.html. 2Ibid., “Compositions,” http://www.speakeasy.org/~daveh/compositions.html. 3 Gary D. Cook, Teaching Percussion, 2nd ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1997), 88; Michael W. Udow, “Visual Correspondence Between Notation Systems and Instrument Configurations,” Percussionist 18, no. 2 (1981): 23.
83
comparison of Figures 8.1 and 8.2 exemplifies the assembly of the keyboard. Figure
8.1 illustrates a standard piano keyboard, and Figure 8.2 shows a hypothetical
instrument set-up that a composer utilizing timbre-staff notation might use.
Figure 8.1. Piano keyboard. Photo by author.
Figure 8.2. Hypothetical instrument set-up. Illustration by author.
Figure 8.3. Timbre-Staff notation accompanying hypothetical set-up. Notation by author.
The circles in Figure 8.2 represent a hypothetical selection of drums placed
into a keyboard configuration. In traditional pitched notation, the lowest piano key in
Figure 8.1 corresponds to a notated C. Similarly, each drum’s label in Figure 8.2
C# D#
C D E C F G B A
A# G# F#
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corresponds to the accompanying timbre-staff notation in Figure 8.3. The drum
labeled “C” is represented by middle C in Figure 8.3, but is not tuned to the pitch C.
As the notation does not correspond to the sounding pitches, a crossed-off treble clef
sign indicates the timbre-staff.4
An advantage of the timbre-staff system is that it offers a relative
standardization. Regardless of the specific instrumentation of each composition, the
set-ups of timbre-staff pieces have a degree of standardization because the physical
layout will remain similar. The timbre-staff system also provides a compact and clear
score, but it can be aurally confusing to the performer.
Cold Pressed uses a total of nineteen instruments: a snare drum, two tom
toms, a bass drum with pedal, two bongos, a tambourine, three cowbells, two
woodblocks, two temple blocks, two crotales, a ride cymbal, a crash cymbal, and a
splash cymbal. This large set-up demonstrates the timbre-staff’s substantial capacity
for an extensive instrumentation while retaining a compact score limited to one staff.
Figure 8.4 is the key Hollinden provided in the performance notes.
Figure 8.4. Notation key to Cold Pressed. Used by permission.
4 Dave Hollinden, Cold Pressed (n.p.: McClaren, 1994).
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The key illustrates how the instruments are assigned to the exact notation.
The performer must consult the performance notes for the definitions of the
instrument symbols. Hollinden also included a set-up diagram, depicted in
Figure 8.5. The diagram clearly illustrates the arrangement of instruments in a
keyboard layout. The large square on the left side of the diagram represents the large
tom-tom, and is placed in the position of “C” in the layout. This drum corresponds to
the first note, middle C, in the instrument key (Figure 8.4).
As illustrated by the set-up diagram, the three cymbals and the bass drum are
placed outside the keyboard layout. They are therefore notated outside the range of
the “chromatic scale” used to represent the other instruments. In addition, the
cymbals are designated by “x” note heads, which clearly distinguishes the cymbal
notation from the other instruments’ “pitched” notation. This concept is illustrated by
Figure 8.6. The isolation of the cymbal notation is logical because percussionists,
especially those well-versed on drum set, are accustomed to a similar differentiation
between the cymbal and drum notations.
Figure 8.5. Set-up diagram from Cold Pressed. Used by permission.
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Figure 8.6. Measures 91-94, Cold Pressed. Used by permission.
The last measure of Figure 8.6 illustrates the compactness of the timbre-staff
system, as the use of accidentals provides the capacity for many instruments to be
designated within one staff. Typical line-score or staff-system notation would not
allow for nineteen instruments to be notated in such a limited space; the timbre-staff
not only allows for numerous instruments, but it is also clear and concise due to the
use of traditional “pitched” notation. As modern percussionists are typically
proficient in all areas of percussion, including keyboard percussion such as marimba
and xylophone, the notation of Figure 8.6 should be familiar and comfortable. In fact,
the last measure of the excerpt could easily be mistaken for a marimba or xylophone
score. The ease with which the well-rounded percussionist could execute the pitched
notation on keyboard percussion should transfer to the timbre-staff set-up.
Due to the keyboard layout of the instrumentation, the timbre-staff system
offers a relative standardization between compositions. That is, the system allows for
a similarity between set-ups, even if the instrumentation differs. Regardless of the
specific instruments involved for each composition, the performer will be able to rely
on his kinesthetic sense of the keyboard and the physical position of the instruments
in the set-up. For example, the notated C could represent a woodblock in one
composition and a bongo in another. Although the instrumentation has changed, the
percussionist will be able to locate the necessary instrument simply by locating the
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“C” position in the keyboard layout. As a result, this system eliminates the need to
relearn new notation or to build new kinesthetic memories for the specific set-up of
each individual composition. The adjustment between two works utilizing timbre-
staff notation would thus be less than between two works of varying systems.
Although this system may remove the burden of adapting to new notation and
set-ups, one drawback is that it may be aurally confusing to the performer. This
confusion results from the fact that the notation designates the location of the
instruments, as opposed to the pitches. The performer must adapt to seeing
conventional pitched-notation used to notate non-pitched instruments. The timbre-
staff notation doesn’t sound the way it appears, and this lack of correlation between
the notation and performed sounds can cause aural confusion for the performer.
The discrepancies between what the percussionist expects to hear based on the
notation and the actual sounds of the instruments may be further impacted by the
composer’s choice of instrument set-up. For example, the composer may choose to
place accessory instruments like tambourines and woodblocks in the “black key”
positions of the layout, while placing drums in the “white key” positions. The
percussionist would reasonably expect the relative pitches of the timbre-staff
instrumentation to ascend to the right, as piano keys do. However, the accessory
instruments would sound higher than the surrounding drums, disrupting the ascending
pattern. Because the performer will have previous associations to the visual
references of ascending pitch, it may be confusing to hear sound results that do not
follow the contour of a keyboard.
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Despite the advantages of a compact score and relative standardization, few
composers have regularly utilized the timbre-staff system of composition. This could
be due to the responsibility imposed on the composers to devise a set-up and
coordinate it with the notation. The system also contains an intermediate step not
present in the other systems; the composer essentially needs to translate the
percussion ideas into melodic notation. The performer must then translate the
melodic notation back into percussive ideas, because the visual references
percussionists have built through their experiences will not be applicable to the
timbre-staff. The visual cues of the timbre-staff automatically recall pitched
instruments, not non-pitched percussion. Hollinden chose to accept this
responsibility, offering the performer a compact and clear score. Although the
performer must adjust to a new system, she will be prepared to readily adapt to future
interpretations of timbre-staff scores.
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CHAPTER 9
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The purpose of this study was to examine the notation of various significant
multiple percussion works and illustrate devices used by the composers to record their
ideas. The following scores were thoroughly examined and described in terms of
instrumentation, set-up, composer’s instructions, and notational systems:
1. Igor Stravinsky, L’Histoire du Soldat 2. Darius Milhaud, La Création du Monde and Concerto for Percussion and
Small Orchestra 3. Morton Feldman, The King of Denmark 4. William Kraft, English Suite 5. Iannis Xenakis, Psappha 6. Iannis Xenakis, Rebonds 7. Dave Hollinden, Cold Pressed The examination of these eight works illustrated different methods of notating
multiple percussion scores. The study revealed notational devices that present
challenges to interpretation, as well as conventions that are helpful to the performer.
Conclusions can be drawn from indentification of these trends in multiple percussion
notation.
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Conclusions
Several problems with multiple percussion notation can be drawn from the
chosen repertoire, and they include: note placement, unnecessary details, multiple
staves, and unfamiliar graphic notation.
1. Two issues regarding note placement can cause difficulties in the
interpretation of the score. One is a result of the composer’s choice of placement;
the other is the result of the placement not remaining consistent throughout the
composition. Igor Stravinsky chose to notate the instruments in an order opposite to
traditional melodic notation. That is, in L’ Histoire du Soldat, the pitches of the
instruments ascend as the notation descends the staves.
As illustrated in previous chapters, both L’Histoire du Soldat and Darius
Milhaud’s La Création du Monde contain inconsistencies in the placement of notation
for specific instruments. For example, a note placed in the top space of the staff may
not represent the same instrument throughout the entire piece. Even if this aids in
maintaining compact notation, the lack of consistency makes the score difficult for
the performer to follow.
2. Unnecessary details can complicate and clutter the score. In L’ Histoire du
Soldat, Stravinsky obscured the clarity of his percussion part by using stem directions
to indicate stickings and by beaming the notes according to stem directions rather
than rhythmic groupings. Milhaud also provided superfluous details by using “x”
note heads in Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra. Because percussionists
are accustomed to the use of “x” note heads for the notation of cymbals or special
effects, Milhaud’s use adds unnecessary confusion to the interpretation.
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In English Suite, William Kraft often relied on the use of pictograms to
indicate specific details. Although the information is essential for the correct
execution of the work, the use of such symbols could have been simplified. In some
instances, Kraft overloaded the score with information, which ultimately has the
potential to hinder the execution of the work.
3. Both Stravinsky and Milhaud used multiple staves to notate their works.
This seems especially unnecessary in the case of L’Histoire du Soldat, in which often
only one instrument was notated on each staff. It is difficult for performers to follow
the notation across multiple staves because it appears disjointed and disconnected.
James Blades’ version illustrates that Stravinsky’s musical ideas could be placed
concisely into one staff. It follows that La Création du Monde could also be placed
into a more logical and compact format.
4. Morton Feldman and Iannis Xenakis both used unconventional graphic
notation to compose the percussion works examined in this study. The King of
Denmark and Psappha are similar in that they are both based on a grid representing
the passage of time. In Feldman’s case, the purpose was to allow him to maintain
control over tempo, while leaving the exact rhythms to the discretion of the performer
within the parameters provided. In contrast, Xenakis’ grid strictly controls both
tempo and rhythm. Because the notational systems are drastically different from
traditional scores, performers are faced with not only the challenge of learning a new
composition, but also of learning an uncommon system of notation.
The examination of repertoire for this project has revealed several notational
issues that can cause problems in interpretation. The goal of the composer should be
92
to offer notation that is as clear as possible and does not compound the difficulty of
learning the work. In order for a composer to project a clear representation of his
intentions, I offer the following suggestions:
1. Notation should be as clear and concise as possible. To achieve
compactness, the composer should use no more staves than absolutely necessary.
Kraft’s English Suite, Xenakis’ Rebonds, and Hollinden’s Cold Pressed are examples
of compact scores. With the exception of the second movement of Rebonds, these
three compositions utilize only one staff.
2. Notation should be placed in an ascending order. That is, the pitch of the
instruments should ascend as the notation that represents them rises. This will allow
for a natural transference from traditional pitched notation. Kraft’s English Suite,
Xenakis’ Rebonds, and Milhaud’s La Création du Monde illustrate this concept.
3. Placement of notation should remain consistent. For example, if a snare
drum is placed on the top line of a staff, it should not be notated on any other line for
the remainder of the composition. Kraft’s English Suite, Xenakis’ Rebonds, and
Hollinden’s Cold Pressed adhere to this idea.
4. The set-up should be considered in the compositional process. Many
composers do not specify a configuration of instruments, and percussionists are
accustomed to devising their own set-ups for each composition. However, if the
composer is aware of a set-up during the compositional process, this will ensure the
practicality of executing the notation. Stravinsky and Hollinden provided instrument
set-up diagrams with their works. Regardless of the difficulties presented by the
93
notation, the fact that they considered the set-up while composing is obvious in the
logic and ease of the physical movements required of the performer.
5. The score should be as detailed as possible so that the performer can fully
realize the composer’s intentions. However, the composer should take care not to
overload the score with details. Too many details, like the pictograms in Kraft’s
English Suite, can ultimately obscure the clarity of the score.
6. A degree of standardization is desirable to performers, but it is realistic that
some composers will inevitably stray outside convention. The goal is to provide clear
and concise notation, but if the composer feels that her ideas cannot be notated in a
traditional manner, creativity should be allowed to expand the current possibilities.
Feldman and Xenakis both created systems outside convention. The notational
systems of The King of Denmark and Psappha present significant challenges to
performers, but neither composer compromised his ideas for the purpose of fitting
into convention.
Although the conclusions and suggestions drawn from this study are not new
ideas to the general realm of percussion notation, the examination brings the state of
multiple percussion to light. Problems and inconsistencies are clearly prevalent in
multiple percussion notation. Because there is no true standardization and the current
available literature does not contain much information specific to the genre, non-
percussionist composers are often left with very little upon which to base their
notation. As a result, performers are faced with inconsistent notation. This project is
intended to illustrate compositional methods, whether hindering or clear, that have
been used to notate multiple percussion works.
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Suggestions for Related Projects
The current study suggests applications for further projects into the area of
multiple percussion notation. Recommended applications are:
1. The renotation of early multiple percussion works, similar to how James
Blades simplified the notation of L’Histoire du Soldat. It is recommended that works
such as La Création du Monde be similarly edited so that performers can concentrate
on the interpretation of the music rather than understanding the notation.
2. The development of a multiple percussion notation course component for
composers. This project would involve creating a university course component to be
implemented within an orchestration curriculum. Such an offering would explore
percussion notation in detail. It is recommended that the component include a
background of multiple percussion as well as a study of historical repertoire.
Students should gain first-hand knowledge of physical set-ups, possibly using the
repertoire examples they study. In addition, the students could experience playing on
multiple percussion set-ups through the integrated use of existing compositions. I
recommend that the course include a workshop element where students play each
other’s compositions and offer feedback regarding the set-up and notational clarity of
the works.
3. The creation of an additional multiple percussion method book. Most
current publications are collections of solos and several contain only one type of
notational system. I recommend that an in-depth review of current available method
books and solo collections be conducted to help identify the specific needs to be
95
addressed by an additional book. Appendix A contains a selected annotated
bibliography of available multiple percussion collections.
I suggest that the additional book contain material suitable for young
beginning percussionists as well as for the serious student (intending to pursue
percussion as a college major and career path) with limited multiple percussion
experience. The book should start on a basic level in terms of rhythm and set-ups and
move in a progressive manner, building reading and technical skills. I recommend
that the problems illustrated in this document be included, as serious percussionists
will likely be exposed to several of the examined works throughout their educational
and professional careers. The book should contain and address all types of notation,
providing students with the tools needed to adjust to each new composition they
encounter in the future.
Recommendations for Further Research
The Review of Literature indicated there is a need for further examination into
the area of multiple percussion notation. Recommendations for further research into
this topic include:
1. An examination of notation in repertoire for percussion ensemble.
According to the anthology Percussion Solo Literature, edited by Thomas Siwe, solo
multiple percussion compositions were rare during the time period between
Milhaud’s Concerto for Percussion (1929) and the 1960s. The percussion ensemble
genre, however, was developing during this time period. It is recommended that the
procedures applied to the current study be utilized in a similar examination of
percussion ensemble repertoire. The desired result would be an exposure of the
96
continued development of multiple percussion notation throughout this period.
Suggestions for repertoire selections include:
• Amadeo Roldan, Ritmica No. 5 and Ritmica No. 6 (1930) • Edgard Varèse, Ionisation (1931) • Henry Cowell, Ostinato Pianissimo (1934) • Béla Bartók, Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion (1937) • Henry Cowell, Pulse (1939) • Lou Harrison, Bomba (1939) • Lou Harrison, Canticle No. 1 (1939) • John Cage, Third Construction (1941) • John Cage, Amores (1943) • Michael Colgrass, Three Brothers (1951) • Michael Colgrass, Inventions on a Motive (1955) • Benson, Warren Three Pieces for Percussion Quartet (1960) • Carlos Chavez, Toccata (1964)
2. An additional examination of notation in selected repertoire for multiple
percussion. An additional research project could be conducted based on the
procedures utilized in the current document. I recommend the process be applied to
multiple percussion repertoire not covered in this examination. Suggestions for
repertoire selections include:
• Benjamin Britton, Concert Piece for Jimmy (1956) • Karlheinz Stockhausen, Zyklus (1958-1959) • William Kraft, French Suite (1962) • Charles Wuorinen, Janissary Music (1966) • William Cahn, Nara (1976) • Per Norgard, I Ching (1982) • Maki Ishii, Thirteen Drums (1985) • Nebojsa Zivkovic, Generally Spoken It Is Nothing But Rhythm (1991) • David Lang, Anvil Chorus (1991) • Marta Ptaszynska, Spider Walk (1993) • Dave Hollinden, Dusting the Connecting Link (1995)
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APPENDIX A
SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF AVAILABLE EDUCATIONAL
MULTIPLE PERCUSSION COLLECTIONS
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Burns, Roy and Saul Feldstein. Intermediate Percussion Solos: Book One. New York: Adler, 1966. This book contains six solos “designed to introduce the drummer to multiple percussion playing.” It is appropriate for intermediate students that are comfortable reading rhythms but have little experience with multiple percussion. All the compositions use line-score systems. The majority of compositions use only three lines, and because the greatest number is five, the line-score system remains clear and logical. ———. Advanced Percussion Solos: Book One. New York: Adler, 1966. This book is in the same series as Intermediate Percussion Solos, and is similar in design. The progression moves toward more technically challenging solos. The line score presents more clutter in this volume. Cirone, Anthony J. Portraits for Multiple Percussion. N.p.: Belwin-Mills, 1996. In this collection, Cirone applied the etudes from his popular snare book Portraits in Rhythm to a multiple percussion set-up. It may be interesting for a student to learn the snare etude and then follow-up the study with the corresponding multiple percussion etude. All of the etudes are designed for one universal set-up. Although the rhythms of this collection will challenge students, it is not appropriate for training students to become accustomed to the fact that multiple percussion set-ups and notation vary. Feldstein, Saul. Multiple Percussion Music. New York: Alfred, n.d. Multiple Percussion Music is excellent for young or inexperienced percussionists. The solos progress in technical difficulty. The opening solos can even be used to introduce multiple percussion to students who have been studying for only a few weeks. All works in the collection are notated with line-score notation. Goldenberg, Morris. Studies in Solo Percussion. Edited by Ralph Satz. New York: Chappell, 1968. This book contains an extensive collection of etudes by Morris Goldenberg, who has also written collections for the snare drum and for keyboard percussion. It also contains works by composers such as Robert Russell Bennett, Morton Gould, and William Kraft. This volume is a combination of etudes suitable for performance and pedagogical etudes intended to hone multiple percussion skills. The compositions in this collection would best serve students with considerable rhythmic reading ability.
99
Houghton, Steve and George Nishigomi. Percussion Recital Series: Multiple Percussion. N.P.: Warner Brothers, 1996. The cover of this book states “Designed for the multiple percussionist and/or teacher in search of performance literature with musical accompaniment.” It consists of five solos and a CD containing accompaniment to each. Each solo uses a five-line staff and is preceded by a notation key, set-up diagram, and performance notes. The notation is clear and logical, and offers students an opportunity to play with accompaniment. Udow, Michael W. and Chris Watts. The Contemporary Percussionist. Ft. Lauderdale: Meredith, 1986. A collection of twenty multiple percussion solos. Each contains its own set-up diagram and instrumentation. The majority of solos utilize a line-score system, four use a five-line staff system, and three illustrate the timbre-staff system. The rhythmic difficulty of the compositions dictates that the student must have significant experience to use this book.
101
Igor Stravinsky, L’ Histoire du Soldat
CD Title Performer Date Released
Label / Catalogue #
Boulez Conducts Stravinsky – Le Chant Du Rossignol, Etc
Richard Weiner 2001 Deutsche Grammophon 471197
Stravinsky Conducts Stravinsky
William Kraft 1999 Sony Classical 64136
Igor Stravinsky: The Soldier’s Tale / London Sinfonietta
James Holland 1990 Pangea 4610482
Stravinsky: Le Noces / L'Histoire du Soldat / Boston Symphony Chamber Players
Vic Firth 1994 Praga 250057
Darius Milhaud, La Création du Monde
CD Title Performer Date Released
Label / Catalogue #
The Jazz Album / Simon Rattle
London Sinfonietta 2002 Emi Classics 47991
Honegger and Milhaud Conduct Their Own Works
ORTF Chamber Orchestra
1997 Pearl 9459
Milhaud: La Création Du Monde, etc / Bernstein
ORTF Chamber Orchestra
2000 Emi Classics 47845
Preludes, Fugues and Riffs – Jazz in Classical Music
Columbia Chamber Orchestra
1999 Sony Classical 61697
Darius Milhaud, Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra
CD Title Performer Date Released
Label / Catalogue #
Virtuoso Percussion Music
Rainer Kuisma 1994 Bis 149
Milhaud: 6 Little Symphonies, Etc.
Faure Daniel 1994 Vox Box 5109
102
Morton Feldman, The King of Denmark
CD Title Performer Date Released
Label / Catalogue #
Markussion Markus Leoson 2003 Nosag 71
Iannis Xenakis, Psappha
CD Title Performer Date Released
Label / Catalogue #
Xenakis: Pléiades Gert Mortensen 1994 Bis 482
Gert Mortensen, Solo Percussion
Gert Mortensen 1994 Bis 256
Markussion Markus Leoson 2003 Nosag 71
Open Hans Sorensen 2002 Bis 1219
Iannis Xenakis, Rebonds
CD Title Performer Date Released
Label / Catalogue #
Steven Schick – Drumming in the Dark
Steven Schick 2001 Neuma 450100
Open Hans Sorensen 2002 Bis 1219
Dave Hollinden, Cold Pressed
CD Title Performer Date Released
Label / Catalogue #
American-De-Construction
Joseph Gramley 2000 Unknown Label ASIN: B000056NU0
103
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