an assessment of some physicochemical properties and cooking

44 International Journal of Agricultural and Food Science 2016; 6(2): 44-55

ISSN 2249-8516

Original Article

An assessment of some physicochemical properties and cooking characteristics of

milled rice and associated health risk in two rice varieties of arsenic contaminated

areas of West Bengal, India.

Debojyoti Moulick1*, Dibakar Ghosh2, Subhas Chandra Santra1.

Department of Environmental Science, University of Kalyani1.

ICAR-Directorate of Weed Science Research Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh)2.

Corresponding Author: Mr. Debojyoti Moulick

Email:[email protected].

Received 20 May 2016; accepted 31 May 2016

Abstract

Physicochemical properties and cooking characteristics of milled rice varies widely among different rice verities. In the

present study two commonly cultivated rice varieties(Swarna and Minikit) grown in arsenic contaminated districts of West

Bengal were examined to asses physicochemical properties and cooking characteristics along with this associated health

risk on regular consumption. Kernel weight, head rice recovery% decreased in both the studied variety when grown in

arsenic contaminated area. In the contrary amylose and protein content of milled rice increased significantly. The arsenic

content of milled rice, cooked rice of both the variety was measured separately along with the analysis of cooked rice of

same variety cultivated in control site. There is significant variation in both the varieties with respect to arsenic

accumulation and translocation. The health risk associated with consumption of cooked rice indicates that Swarna variety

(0.00662mg/kg/day) contributes highest estimated daily intake (EDI) of arsenic in comparison to Minikit variety (0.00335

mg/kg/day).

© 2016 Universal Research Publications. All rights reserved

Key words: arsenic, milled rice, quality traits, cooked rice, EDI.

1. Introduction: Rice, a staple food with the credit of

feeding more than half of the world population and thus

placed itself at the top position on the list of human food

crop of the world[1]. In Asia and Asian subcontinents more

than 90% rice is grown and consumed[2], according to

FAO[3], next to China, India’s contribution in world’s total

rice production occupied nearly one forth (21%).Milled rice

quality is the prime factor that influence acceptability of

rice a variety in market [4]. One of the important features

of rice cultivation methods is it consumes 80% of fresh

irrigated water [5]. Rice, being naturally adapted to

anaerobic condition has led the rice grain being more

susceptible to inorganic arsenic contamination and

transmission[6].In India, Bangladesh, China, Myanmar,

Thailand, Cambodia etc the major rice producing belt of the

world is also being simultaneously the worst arsenic

affected region of the world[7]. Speaking of West Bengal,

situated in eastern part of India having adjoining

boundaries with Bangladesh, with more than 50 million

people of 12 out of 20 districts were severally affected by

arsenic induced toxicity SES,JU[8]. Rice cultivated in this

area in boro (winter) season with intense irrigation were

found to accumulate higher amount of arsenic than the

global standard of 0.08–0.2 mg Kg-1 As [9]. Reports

published by Bhattacharya et al.[10] found to have

0.31ppm As in white Minikit samples collected from

Chakdha and Ranaghat blocks of Nadia district. Ghosh et

al.[11]surveyed the paddy fields of 10 villages of Sahntipur

block and found as much as 750 µg kg-1 of As in grain.

Influenced by several geological and biological factors in

different magnitude, arsenic finds its way from sediments

to ground water and finally to different crops. When this

arsenic contaminated ground water was used to irrigate

mainly in the boro season (winter season) the crop field

including rice field also gets contaminated [12].It was

established that due to the above mentioned fact and the use

of arsenic contaminated ground water in larger quantity

during boro season than aman (rainy/kharif), the boro rice

were tend to accumulate more arsenic than aman rice [13].

In the Indo-Gangetic plain (where our study site located)

85% of cultivated land (around 13.5 million ha) of the total

cultivated land area rice cultivation was done with mainly

Available online at http://www.urpjournals.com

International Journal of Agricultural and Food Science

Universal Research Publications. All rights reserved

http://www.urpjournals.com/


gound water irrigation contaminated with arsenic higher

than the global standard of 10 μg L-1 [14].Compare to other

crops rice has a tendency to accumulate more arsenic due to

having high translocation factor close to unity. In West

Bengal high yielding rice varieties were found to

translocate arsenic with greater efficiency to grain compare

to root to shoot when compared with local varieties[15].In

India, where rice providing around 73% of total calorie

intake and 22% of the total energy intake also poses a huge

impact on its economy as the largest agricultural crop being

exported to the rest of the world[16]. The grain quality is of

prime importance after productivity, as it ultimately

determines the acceptability. Amylose content (AC),

gelatinization temperature (GT) and gel consistency (GC)

are the three major cooking quality components of milled

rice with variances from region to region. According to

Khush et al.[17] intermediate amylose content, gelatination

temperature and relatively shorter value of gel consistency

has drawn the attention of as the most preferred traits for

rice breeding. Rice physical appearance, texture of cooked

rice beside other features are the main quality features

considered by the consumers[18].For last few decades plant

breeders around the world emphasized on genetic

improvement of rice grain quality along with yield

enhancement. Speaking of the influence of environment on

rice grain quality influence of high temperature during

grain filling stage and its subsequent impact on grain

quality has been documented by Lin et al[19].Chen and

Zhu [20] documented consequences of genotype and

environmental factor interaction on grain quality in indica-

japonica cross, the influences of low light on agronomic

and physiological characteristics of rice along with grain

yield and grain quality[21]. Impact of water deficit during

grain ripening stage on rice grain quality reported [22]

beside these, effect of temperature during ripening on grain

quality of rice has also been documented by Resurreccion

et al[23].It is now an established fact that abiotic

components of environment dose influence the grain

quality of rice.

The aim of the current study is to assess influence of rice

cultivation on arsenic contaminated soil irrigated with

arsenic rich ground water on milled rice quality

(physicochemical and cooking characteristics) of two

popular rice varieties and assumption of health risk

associated with consuming cooked rice of the above

mentioned varieties cultivated in three arsenic

contaminated districts of West Bengal India.

2. Materials and method:

2.1. Study sites and agronomic practice and harvested

soil physicochemical properties: Our current study area

falls within the boundary of west Bengal (with coordinates

21031´ to 27014´N and 85091´ to 89053´E), with around two

third of total geographical area made up of flat fluvial

plain. Each of the four study sites comes under new

alluvium zone and central alluvial plains sub zone having

soil texture of loam to heavy clay (Table.1; Table.2).Boro

rice is generally sown in this area from second week of

December to first week of January and harvested in the

middle of April to first week of May. Boro rice is cultivated

in irrigated ecosystem (pH<7) with irrigation in every

alternate day (with 4-5 cm standing water in fields) for at

least 10-12 hrs using shallow tube well (ground water), the

level of irrigation intensified onset of flowering and drop of

soil pH. Farmers of our study area were found to uprooted

thirty days old seedlings (4-5 leaf stage) from seed bed

prepared from the seed stock cultivated in previous season

and transplanted in the actual field by adopting line sowing

method with three seedlings per hill and maintain

approximately 20 cm gap between two lines and 15 cm gap

between adjacent hills. In the actual field during first

ploughing farmers applied 2000 kg farmyard manure per

0.1hactare and urea (N):P2O5:K2O @40:40:40.Among the

chemical fertilizers urea was divided in three lots with 20kg

dose applied on 20 DAT and 40 DAT(days after

transplanting).Harvesting done only when 90% panicle turn

yellowish in colour and threshing was done by lifting the

bundle of paddy and hitting them on wooden board kept in

a slope.

2.2. Sample collection: During the harvest phase of boro

(pre monsoon) 2014 (last week of April-second week of

May) soil collected (10 cm depth) from paddy field (n=43)

and the same parboiled milled rice (n=43) were collected

from particular owner’s house hold (later), from three

arsenic affected districts of West Bengal, Nadia and North

24 Pargana and Murshidabad along with these the same

two varieties Swarna(L) i.e. MTU-7029 and Minikit(W)

cultivated in Regional Rice Research Station, situated in

Hooghly district used as control. The control varieties were

parboiled with double distilled water in laboratory and

milled in commercial hauler alike the local farmers of

Nadia district.

2.3.Sample pretreatment: The soil samples were kept in a

hot air oven at 720C for 48 hrs followed by grinded to fine

powder and pass through 2mm sieve to obtained a

homogenize mass and packed in airtight pouch. Milled rice

samples were washed with double distilled water to remove

traces of soil deposition and sundried. A portion washed

milled rice then kept in hot air oven at 720C for 48hrs;

grinded to fine powder and kept in marked plastic pouches.

In case of cooked rice prior to acid digestion surface

moisture was removed by pressing them in between two

layers of filter paper and kept inside a petriplate in hot air

oven at 720C for two days and then the completely dried

cooked rice were grinded to fine powder and kept in

separate plastic pouches.

2.3. Reagents, instrument, quality control used in

arsenic estimation: eTrexH GPS navigator, perchloric

acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, hydrochlororic acid, sodium

borohydride, sodium hydroxide (all ACS grade obtained

from MERCK), double distilled water, Milli Q water (for

preparing As standard).Before starting digestion and

analysis all the glass wares were washed with chromic acid

solution and rinsed with double distilled water.

2.4. Sample digestion: Soil, milled rice and cooked rice

were digested by adapting to the procedure [24] along with

pure reagent blank in triplicate and SRMs. First, 0.5 g of

dried powder rice and cooked rice samples were taken in to

50ml conical flask and 5ml of tri-acid mixture(1nitric

acd:1.5perchloric acid:1sulfuric acid) were added to each

flasks and allowed to stand overnight at room temperature.


On next day conical flasks were placed on a sand bath

(80±1.60C) and heated until a clear solution obtained and

sample volume reduced to 1ml using a hot plate at 700C.

After cooling the solution was filtered using what man

No.42 filter paper and final volume made up to 25ml with

de-ionized water to fit it for total arsenic analysis. Alike the

rice and cooked rice sample, soil samples were digested

using 5ml of aqua regia mixture.

2.5. Sample analysis: Total arsenic content of digested soil

samples, milled rice as well as cooked rice were carried out

according to the protocols reported by Welsch et al[25],

using flow injection hydride generation atomic absorption

spectrophotometer (FI-HG-AAS, Perkin Elmer AAnalyst

400) reducing the samples with 5%KI(Potasium Iodide)

and 5%KI ascorbic acid HCl (Table.3). During course of

analysis respective digestion reagent blank, SRM (standard

reference Material) samples were also analyzed in

triplicates.

2.6. Physicochemical properties of milled rice: 1000-

milled rice weight. One thousand intact kernels of milled

rice were hand sorted randomly in triplicate and weighed

and mean±SE reported here. HRR% or head rice recovery

percentage was calculated by adopting the methodology of

Rao et al. [26].Amylose content in milled rice: was

determined according to the methodologies of Juliano

[27].Gel consistency: was measured according to the

method described by Cagampang et al. [28].Protein

estimation: finely grounded rice flour was defatted using n-

hexane for 24 hours, the meal (after decanting n-hexane)

was kept at 40C. Adopting the methodology given by

AOAC [29] protein content was determined and expressed

in mg/g rice flour.

2.7. Cooking properties of milled rice: Minimum cooking

time: 2 g intact milled rice samples were taken in a clean 50

ml glass beaker from each variety in three replicates and

cooked in 10 ml double distilled water in a boiling water

bath. The minimum cooking time was calculated by

removing one or two kernel at different time intervals

during cooking and pressing them between two clean glass

slides, until no white belly was observed and

simultaneously cooking time was noted. Water uptake

ratio: was determined by adopting the procedure described

by to Yadav et al[30].

2.8. Data analysis: All the obtained data were expressed in

mean± standard error format and mean values were

subjected to Pearson correlation test using SAS 9.3

statistical software.

2.8.1. Accumulation factor of arsenic: Rice plants are

known to accumulate significant amount of heavy metals

and translocate it to the edible part (milled rice).We

computed accumulation factor of As in the studied rice

varieties cultivated in arsenic contaminated environments

in three arsenic prone areas of West Bengal according to

the equation provided by Khan et al[31]with minor

modification, instead of considering arsenic concentration

of milled rice(actual edible part of rice plant) we

considered arsenic content of cooked rice(consumable form

of milled rice).

AF= As content in consumable form (cooked rice) of rice

plant/As content of soil……… (Eq.1) Further we assessed

translocation factor (TF) of milled rice to cooked rice using

the following equation (Eq.2).

TFMcr= As content in cooked rice/As content in milled

rice…………………………… (Eq.2)

2.8.2. Dietary survey for cooked rice consumption

pattern: Dietary survey was accomplished in all the study

sites among the farmer’s family members. Total six

households were identified from three arsenic contaminated

districts (treated) respectively where as for control, two

household (also farmers) from Hooghly district. The

population was divided in to two age groups adult and

minor. A through dietary routine of cooked rice

consumption pattern were taken in to account. This rice

consumption pattern survey among the members of

farmer’s family was carried out according to the guidelines

of National Institute of Nutrition (NIN), Hyderabad, India

[32]. This particular survey was entirely based upon the

interaction with the subject on preset questionnaire and not

by using human subjects treated with arsenic or any other

chemical or biochemical forms to evaluate their toxicity

symptoms. Moreover this particular survey fulfills all the

requirements of ethically treating human subjects.

2.8.3. Health risk: In order to evaluate risk associated with

consumption of arsenic laden cooked rice (cultivated in

arsenic contaminated environment) the arsenic content of

individual cooked rice sample as well as respective food

intake pattern of farmers of individual the districts were

taken into account and the arsenic load of cooked rice

assumed to be present in inorganic form. To elaborate the

potential risk associated with arsenic EDI (estimated daily

intake) of arsenic was computed [33] with minor

modification and defined cancer risk (CR)was also

derived[34-35] and expressed in the order of 10-6.

EDI=(C×Fi×Ef×Ed)/(W×Te)………………………………

…………Eq.3)

Here C = concentration of arsenic (mg/Kg) in edible part of

plant (cooked rice considered here), Fi=food intake

(amount of cooked rice consumption) by subject

(kg/person/day), Ef= exposure frequency (days/year), Ed=

exposure duration (WHO2015), W= average body weight

of subject (60 kg for adult ie. >18 years old and 50 kg for

minor <12-18 years old) Te= average exposure

time(Ed×365 days).

Cancer Risk (CR) = EDI × CSF)………………

……………….. (Eq.4)

Here CSF is a cancer slope factor for As (1.5 mg /kg/day).

3. Results and Discussion:

Arsenic concentration in irrigation water: in our current

study we fund the arsenic concentration in irrigation water

of all the three arsenic prone districts viz. Nadia, North 24

Pargana and Murshidabad were above the WHO[37]

mentioned permissible limit for arsenic content in irrigation

water i.e.0.01mg L-1. Among the three districts irrigation

water used to cultivate Swarna dhan (rice variety) in Nadia

district had highest amount of arsenic in the irrigation water

(0.065±0.002 mg L-1) followed by arsenic content of

irrigation water irrigated to cultivate Minikit variety in the

same study area(0.063±0.003mg L-1). Similarly in other

two study sites of North 24 Pargana and Murshidabad


Figure: 1. Relationship between arsenic content in milled rice and (A) 1000 kernel weight, (B) head rice recovery

percentage.

districts also had arsenic content also had alarming amount

of arsenic above the WHO mentioned permissible limit, but

less than (approaching) the maximum limit of Indian

permissible limit of arsenic content in irrigation water i.e.

0.05mg L-1 (Table.4).Extensive application of ground water

for irrigation especially during boro (pre monsoon) rice

cultivation for countless years led to the transfer and

deposition of arsenic in agricultural fields[36]. Authors

like[7-10-13-15] and Rahman et al[38]repotted about the

consequences of irrigating with arsenic contaminated

ground water in the Gangetic plain of West Bengal on

agricultural crops including rice and their impact on food

chain and human health. Major source of soil arsenic

buildup as result of irrigation with arsenic contaminated

ground water in our study site presented a situation to

worry. During harvest phase when we collected the soil

samples we found that except the study sites of

Murshidabad district all the two arsenic affected district,

agriculture soil had arsenic content above the global

average of 10mg Kg-1 [39].Accumulation pattern of arsenic

and translocation pattern of arsenic from milled rice to

cooked rice indicating different response of the two studied

variety cultivated in three different arsenic contaminated

environments. Swarna(L) variety had accumulation factor

lied in the range of 0.03-0.064 whereas Minikit(W) had AF

value in the range of 0.023-7,suggesting the relative ability

of particular variety (Swarna and Minikit here) to convey

the soil arsenic load to consumable portion. On the other

hand translocation factor describe the arsenic transfer

pattern from milled rice to cooked rice portion upon

cooking (Table.4).

When the arsenic laden milled rice of two studied

genotypes compared for their respective milled rice quality

with arsenic free milled rice of same variety (cultivated in

arsenic free condition in Hooghly districts) we found a

significant difference in milled rice quality parameters.

Compare to the control 1000 kernel weight of arsenic rich

milled rice collected from three arsenic contaminated

districts were found to have less weight(Table.5).This trend

of reduced kernel weight was found to be negatively

correlated with increasing arsenic load in milled rice at 0.01

level as well as the trend was also supported by the R2value

of 0.9255 (Figure.1A).We found a declining trend in case

of head rice recovery percentage i.e. HRR% also, with

increasing arsenic concentration of milled rice (R2=0.9126)

and negatively correlated with arsenic content of milled

rice and (r=-0.958) and with arsenic content of irrigation

water and soil arsenic concentration with r value

of -0.957 and -0.836 respectively in a significant way

(Figure.1B,Table.6). From the mid 60’s breeders focused

primarily on releasing high yielding variety, though it

helped to mount up rice production but the acceptance of

rice grain (milled rice) from consumers prospective i.e.

qualitative aspect has now became a matter of interest [40].

Sound perception about the key factors that influences

various parameters of grain quality of rice will set the

foundation of new breeding lines that combines both yield

and quality aspect [41].Before milling in commercial hauler

farmers used to parboiled their intact brown rice in by

heating in arsenic contaminated water (arsenic content are

same as irrigation water we found both shallow as well as

hand pump were 40±10ft.) and sun drying from generation

to generation[42].Reduced 1000 kernel weight of two

varieties cultivated in arsenic contaminated environment of

three arsenic prone districts indicating a negative influence

of arsenic content in milled rice on the above trait,

correlation study as well as regression analysis indicates the

fact (Figure.1A,Table.5 and 6).Our findings support the

view of Abedin et al.[43] Hossain et al. [44]. In our current

study we found that HRR% of the two studied variety

significantly differs, more over these varieties when

cultivated in arsenic contaminated soil and irrigated with

arsenic rich irrigation water and more over parboiled with

arsenic contaminated water showed variation in their

HRR% and correlates significantly with the arsenic

contaminated components (soil, irrigation water) and

milled rice arsenic content. Our present study are in good

agreement [45], who reported the influence varietal

difference, grain type (bold/slender etc.) as well as cultural

practice and drying conditions on HRR%. Our findings also

support the views presented by Lyman et al.[46];

Siebenmorgen et al.[47] who reported about the negative

influences various environmental stresses on HRR% and

subsequent consequences on global economy. Lyman et al.,


Table.1. Locations of different sampling sites in four districts of West Bengal.

Table. 2. Soil physicochemical properties of harvested paddy field soil from four study sites. All the values in table are in

mean±SE format (n=3).

Table.3. Detail instrumental setup criteria for arsenic analysis in flow injection hydride generation atomic absorption

spectrophotometer.

Sampling Sites

(Districts)

Sampling Sites

(Block/ Panchayet) Latitude Longitude

Hooghly Regional Rice Research

Station(RRS) Chinsurah 22089´69.84N

22089´86.84´Ń

88036’65.08´É

88036´78.60´É

Nadia

Chandamari

22099´45.66´Ń

22099´41.41´Ń

22099´88.27´Ń

22099´98.78´Ń

88046´06.23´É

88045´95.11´É

88045´57.34´É

88045´68.07´É

Haringhata

(Mollabelia)

22096´98.30´Ń

22096´95.06´Ń

22096.60.10´Ń

88057´35.58´É

88057´33.01´É

88057´54.47´É

North 24 Pargana

Bira 22078´33.92´Ń

22078´33.92´Ń

22078´33.73´Ń

88057´30.05´É

88057´33.80´É

88057´50.22´É

Prithiba 22078´92.38´Ń

22078´88.87´Ń

22078´42.52´Ń

22078´98.31´Ń

22079´06.62´Ń

88064´61.27´É

88064´53.97´É

88064´40.67´É

88064´40.67´É

88064´45.59´É

Murshidabad

Beldanga

23093´35.03´Ń

23093´42.50´Ń

23093´97.01´Ń

23093´49.56´Ń

88026´17.17´É

88026´20.59´É

88025´94.84´É

88025´78.53´É

Islampur

24016´55.1´Ń

24016´12.56´Ń

24015´95.72´Ń

24015´90.63´Ń

88047´59.98´É

88047´70.28´É

88047´77.57´É

88047´67.70´É

Soil Parameters Hooghly

(n=6)

North 24 Pargana

(n=14)

Nadia

(n=13)

Murshidabad

(n=14)

pH 6.9±0.1 6.7±0.2 7.1 ±0.2 6.8±0.1

Organic Carbon (%) 0.79±0.04 0.88±0.06 0.83±0.5 0.81±0.3

Phosphorus(mg/Kg) 9.8±0.9 11.4±0.05 10.2±0.3 9.1±0.2

Sand (%) 6.3±0.4 5.9±0.3 5.9±0.2 6.3±0.1

Slit (%) 18.8±0.3 20.2±0.5 21.5±0.4 19.6±0.4

Clay (%) 74.4±1.6 77.4±1.2 72.8±1.4 74.1±1.1

Texture Clay Loam Clay Loam Clay Loam Clay Loam

Specification Characteristics Remarks

Model Perkin-Elmer AAnalyst 400 FI-HG-AAS

Lamp current 400mA (EDL power supply)

Wavelength 193.7 nm

Slit 0.7 nm HCl concentration 10% v/v MERCK(ACS Grade)

HCl flow rate 1.25 ml min-1

NaBH4 concentration 0.4 % (W/V) in 0.5% (W/V) NaOH

solution

MERCK(ACS Grade)

NaBH4 Flow rate 2 ml min-1

Carrier gas Argon

Carrier gas flow rate 75 ml min-1

Flame Air-Acetylene

Digestion method Tri acid mixture,Block digestion

method

Das et.al.,2004 SRM Rice flour Item number:1568A

(NIST,USA)

0.29±0.03mg/Kg for As(specified

value)

0.279±0.009mg/Kg (obtained)

value) SRM San Joaquin soil Item number: 2709

(NIST,USA)

17.7±0.8mg/kg for As(specified

value)

17.41±0.03 mg/Kg

(obtained value)


Table.4. Arsenic content of irrigation water, soil and milled rice and cooked rice and in gruel in boro 2014. Code NV1S

and NV2M represents the Swarna (L) and Minikit (W) collected from Nadia district and PV1S,PV2M collected from 24

Pargana (N) and MV1S,MV2M and CV1S,CV2M represents Murshidabad district and regional rice research station(of

Hooghly district) respectively. Arsenic accumulation factor and translocation factor were calculated using mean values.

Swarna(L) indicates Swarna dhan(MTU-7029) with red seed coat color and Minikit(W) with white seed coat color. All the

values in table are in mean±SE format (n=3); except for accumulation and translocation factor here mean (n=3) values are

considered.

Table: 5. Millled rice quality parameters represented here in mean±SE format (except for Cooking time) of Swarna (L)

and Minikit (W) genotypes collected from four different locations of West Bengal.Code NV1S andNV2M represents the

Swarna (L) and Minikit (W) collected from Nadia district and PV1S, PV2M collected from 24 Pargana (N) and MV1S,

MV2M and CV1S,CV2M represents Murshidabad district and regional rice research station(of Hooghly district)

respectively. All the values in table are in mean±SE format (n=3)

Arsenic concentration expressed in mean±SE format and followed by

range(within bracket)

Arsenic

accumulation

factor and

Translocation

factor

Codes Variety

Irrigation

Water

(mg/L) (n=31)

Soil(mg/Kg)

(n=43)

Milled rice

(mg/Kg)

(n=43)

Cooked

rice

(mg/Kg)

(n=43)

Gruel

(mg/L)

(n=43)

AF TFMcr

CV1S

CV2M

A. Swarna(L)

B. Minikit(W)

BDL

BDL

BDL

BDL

BDL

BDL

BDL

BDL

BDL

BDL

0

0

0

0

NV1S

A. Swarna(L) 0.065±0.002 12.623±0.144 0.851±0.012 0.584±0.016 0.09±0.10 0.05 0.69

NV2M

B. Minikit

(W) 0.063±0.003 11.49±0.098 0.570±0.031 0.285±0.018 0.092±0.006 0.03 0.5

PV1S A. Swarna (L) 0.048±0.002 15.607±0.034 0.777±0.018 0.474±0.020 0.099±0.006 0.03 0.61

PV2M

B. Minikit

(W)

0.039±0.002 14.74±0.254 0.535±0.018 0.335±0.015 0.060±0.001 0.023 0.63

MV1S

MV2M

A. Swarna(L)

B. Minikit(W)

0.020±0.010

0.019±0.010

4.497±0.151

3.6±0.248

0.544±0.021

0.412±0.014

0.289±0.011

0.240±0.014

0.052±0.003

0041±0.002

0.064

0.07

0.53

0.58

CODE Variety

1000 Kernel

weight

(gram)

Head rice

recovery%

Amylose

content%

Gel

Consistency

(mm)

Protein

content(mg/g)

Cooking

Time

(Minutes)

Water uptake

(g/g)

NV1S

NV2M

PV1S

PV2M

MV1S

MV2M

CV1S

CV2M

Swarna(L)

Minikit(W)

Swarna(L)

Minikit(W)

Swarna(L)

Minikit(W)

Swarna(L)

Minikit(W)

15.107±0.340

15.047±0.104

16.840±0.145

15.340±0.110

17.133±0.336

17.633±0.334

20.410±0.564

19.687±0.571

75.130±0.229

77.783±0.396

78.83±0.505

80.243±0.516

80.953±0.439

82.797±0.448

87.060±0.191

86.220±0.178

30.77±0.267

24.81±0.476

28.830±0.372

23.773±0.615

25.677±0.302

24.433±0.689

20.233±0.334

19.637±0.230

34.26±0.378

35.653±0.104

36.187±0.244

37.010±0.227

42.090±0.522

39.910±0.284

47.563±0.162

41.987±0.128

9.773±0.198

11.520±0.225

9.203±0.180

10.700±0.107

8.430±0.227

9.747±0.077

7.633±0.162

9.270±0.072

22.45

18.50

21.3

16.50

17.35

18.25

15.05

14.50

2.157±0.050

2.710±0.098

2.480±0.133

2.793±0.061

2.327±0.105

3.163±0.078

3.733±0.203

4.000±0.115


Table: 6. Pearson correlation coefficients for the relationship between physicochemical, cooking and arsenic content of milled rice and

arsenic concentration of soil and irrigation water from four different sampling locations of West Bengal. ASHS-arsenic content of

harvested soil(mg/Kg) ASIW-arsenic concentration of irrigation water(mg/L), ASMR-arsenic content in milled rice(mg/Kg), ASCR-

arsenic content in cooked rice(mg/Kg), ASGR-arsenic content in gruel(mg/L), TKW-1000kernel weight, HR-head rice recovery%, GC-

gel consistency(mm), AC-amylose content, PC-protein content(mg/g), WUR-water uptake ratio, MCT- minimum cooking time

(minutes).

# *,**,*** indicates values are significant at 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001 levels.

Table:7. Cooked rice consumption pattern of Minikit (W) genotypes by farmer’s (owners) house hold members in three

arsenic prone district of West Bengal.

[46] further added that rice productivity differs from other

crops as the actual productivity determines after milling

(proportion of head rice and broken rice).

Among the chemical parameters of studied related to

cooking and eating quality such as amylose content (AC%)

gel consistency(GC) and protein content of arsenic rich

milled rice varied from arsenic free milled rice of

the respective genotypes. Amylose content of arsenic rich

milled rice was found to have an upward value compare to

arsenic free milled rice of same genotypes. Among the

Swarna(L) genotype cultivated in Nadia district had highest

amylose content followed by those cultivated in

24 pargana(N) and Murshidabad district (Figure.3A). The

trend was also applicable to Minikit(W) genotype

also. Consumers of the study area put much emphasis on

cooking and eating criteria while selecting rice variety for

consuming. Amylose content is the most important criteria

that influence both cooking and eating characteristics in

turn influences the customers also. An increasing trend in

amylose content of arsenic rich parboiled milled rice

noticed here. High amylose content (15-35%) in rice is

associated with dry and firm nature upon cooking than the

sticky one. this firm and dry cooked rice (Bhat locally

called) is the most important trait associated with preferable

variety for the local people. Correlation study points out

towards a significant positive influence at (0.001 level)

(Table.5) of arsenic content of milled rice and amylose

content, this trend was further seed in regression analysis

too (Figure.3A).

Similar to amylose content of milled rice protein content of

ASHS ASIW ASMR ASCR ASGR TKW HRR GC AC PC WUR MCT

ASHS 1.000 0.880** 0.858** 0.848** 0.895** -0.857** -0.836** -0.894** 0.724* 0.605 -0.749* 0.672

ASIW 1.000 0.888** 0.866** 0.962*** -0.919*** -0.957*** -0.920*** 0.820* 0.679 -0.803* 0.854*

ASMR 1.000 0.983*** 0.962*** -0.872** -0.958*** -0.815* 0.958*** 0.438 -0.954*** 0.906**

ASCR 1.000 0.926*** -0.833** -0.939*** -0.812* 0.973*** 0.384 -0.920*** 0.909**

ASGR 1.000 -0.889** -0.963*** -0.881** 0.894** 0.562 -0.889** 0.899**

TKW 1.000 0.932*** 0.873** -0.748* -0.768* 0.831* -0.726*

HR 1.000 0.887** -0.915*** -0.567 0.923*** -0.895**

GC 1.000 -0.721* -0.711* 0.698 -0.720*

AC 1.000 0.258 -0.919*** 0.956***

PC 1.000 -0.305 0.367

WUR 1.000 -0.821*

MCT 1.000

Rice

consumption

pattern(dry

weight basis)

Intake

frequenc

y

Duration Nadia District Murshidabad North 24 Pargana

Adult

(n=17)

>18 Years

B:W

≥60kg

Minor

(n=9)

12-18Years

B:W≤ 50kg

Adult

(n=24)

>18 Years

B:W ≥60kg

Minor

(n=8)

12-18Years

B:W≤ 50kg

Adult

(n=19)

>18 Years

B:W ≥60kg

Minor

(n=10)

12-18Years

B:W≤ 50kg

1.Breakfast

Daily 365 days 180 175 200 100 150 100

2.Lunch

Daily 365 days 250 200 250 250 200 200

3.Dinner

Daily 365 days 225 150 250 100 250 150

Total (in gram) 655 425 700 450 600 450


Table: 8. Cooked rice consumption pattern of Swarna(L) genotypes by farmer’s (owners) house hold members in three

arsenic prone district of West Bengal

Figure: 2. Relationship between arsenic content in milled rice and (A) amylose content, (B) gel consistency (C) protein

content.

arsenic enriched rice also found to have higher value than

their respective control counterparts (R2=0.9255)

(Figure.2A). Highest protein content in Swarna(L)

genotype was found those were cultivated in North 24

Pargana followed by samples of Nadia and Mushidabad

district (Table.4). Gel consistency was other parameters we

considered hare had a declining trend in their values with

increasing the arsenic content in their milled rice

portion(R2=0.8207) (Figure.2B).Swana cultivated in three

arsenic contaminated study sites had gel consistency of

34.26±0.378mm (in Nadia) < 36.187±0.244mm (in North

24 Paragana) < 42.090±0.522mm (in Mushidabad) compare

to the Swarna(L) cultivated in RRS Chinsurah in Hooghly

district in arsenic free condition with the GC value of

47.563±0.162mm.Minikit (W) on the other hand exhibited

same trend in reduction of GC value with increasing

arsenic content in milled rice fraction (Table.5). Gel

consistency determines the tenderness of cooked rice. Both

the studied varieties of control sites when compared for

their respective gel consistency parameters they found to

have medium gel consistency value(41-60mm) but

interesting fact was a decreasing trend of gel consistency

value with increasing arsenic content in milled rice led to

shift in gel consistency group, they moved upwards and

resides in harder gel consistency group of (26-40mm).This

trend indicated the fact that upon cooking these varieties

the cooked rice become harder though they belongs to same

amylose congaing group, supports the view of Cagampang

et al. [28].Our observations were found to be analogous

with the views of [48] who reported that the cooking and

eating characteristics influenced by the properties of starch

which makes up >90% of milled rice fraction. Amylose

content (AC), gel consistency value (GC) and protein

content (PC) are the three important parameters that

Rice consumption

pattern (dry

weight basis)

Intake

frequency Duration Nadia District Murshidabad North 24 Pargana

Adult

(n=17)

>18 Years

B:W

≥60kg

Minor

(n=9)

12-18Years

B:W≤ 50kg

Adult

(n=24)

>18 Years

B:W ≥60kg

Minor

(n=8)

12-18Years

B:W≤ 50kg

Adult

(n=19)

>18 Years

B:W ≥60kg

Minor

(n=10)

12-18Years

B:W≤ 50kg

1.Breakfast Daily 365 days 160 110 150 100 120 80

2.Lunch

Daily 365 days 200 150 250 170 150 150

3.Dinner

Daily 365 days 225 200 250 200 250 200

Total(in gram) 585 460 650 470 520 430


Figure:3. Relationship between arsenic content in milled rice and (A) arsenic content of cooked rice,(B)arsenic content in

gruel,(C) minimum cooking time,(D) water uptake ratio.

Figure: 4. EDI and associated with consumption of arsenic enriched rice genotypes Swrna(L)(A) and Minikit and cancer

risk potential of consuming the above. The horizontal bars represents mean value.


directly control the cooking and eating traits of milled rice.

Arsenic content of milled rice were found to reside in

cooked rice fraction (at r<0.001 level) Swarna cultivated in

Nadia district had highest amount (0.584±0.016 mg Kg-1)

of arsenic in cooked rice portion followed by the same

variety cultivated in 24 Pargana (N) and least amount was

recorded in Mushidabad district (0.289±0.011).Minikit(W)

also followed the same trend of accumulating arsenic in it’s

cooked rice fraction in the same order of Swarna(L) but in

relatively less amount. Our findings were in good

arguement to the observations of Raab et. al.[49]; Naito

et.al.[50] and Patrick et.al.[51] they shared similar

reduction of arsenic load in cooked rice. According to the

observation of Diaz et al. [52] the arsenic load(expressed

here as total/tAs) may modify by various means during

cooking process, which further influence the amount of

intake of the toxicant. During cooking tAs(total arsenic)

content may vary due to either loss of tAs through loss of

water and a fraction gets volatilize or by solubilization. In

our current experiment cooking milled rice with excess(1:5

here) double distilled water (As<0.0003mg Kg-1) widely

practice in the arsenic contaminated areas, higher than the

standard cooking practice of local people of West Bengal

(arsenic free areas) and in Bangladesh. After cooking, the

gruel fraction was also evaluated for arsenic concentration

study and found that both all the tested samples (except the

control) expelled some amount in gruel (r<0.001 level) in a

significant manner (Table.5).Milled rice containing arsenic

had higher minimum cooking time (MCT) when compared

with the minimum cooking tome of arsenic free milled rise

we found that with increase in arsenic load in milled rice

minimum cooking time also increased (Table.4). Among

the Swarna variety samples that were cultivated in Nadia

district had highest cooking time of 22.45 minutes while

least MCT was recorded in case of control variety (Table.5,

Figure.2C).When water uptake ratio were evaluated and

compare with the control alike previous, a decreasing trend

(Table.5, Figure.3D) of water uptake ratio was seen in case

of arsenic contaminated milled rice of all three arsenic

prone areas.

Both elemental as well as inorganic arsenic species cause a

large number of toxicological manifestations such as skin

lesions, cancer neurological disorder and many more.

Keeping in mind about the toxicological aspects of arsenic

(based and inhalational epidemiological reports) on IARC

[53] in 2012 placed arsenic among Group 1 carcinogens.

Whereas the organic arsenic species (predominant among

the fish and shell fish had much lower toxicity. Due to

having an ambiguity regarding the outline of typical dose

response relationships among different arsenic dose and

various types of cancer among the population(human)

therefore tolerable daily intake(TDI) or weekly

intake(TWI) couldn’t identified. Here we tried assume the

amount of arsenic intake (expressed here as estimated daily

intake or EDI) by the farmers via consumption of cooked

rice. The average rice consumption pattern of cooked rice

consumption pattern for two different rice genotypes

among the adult and minor populations were summarized

here (Table.7; 8).It has been seen that Swarna (L) variety

was more preferred than Minikit(W) variety in all the three

districts and by the adults(farmers mostly) where as except

in North 24 Pargana district minor population prefer to

have Minikit(W) variety.Consuming rice thrice a day is

very common among the farmer population of Bengal

delta. We found highest amount of daily intake of total

arsenic among the adults, through consumption of rice

associated with Swarna(L)genotypes cultivated in Nadia

district(0.00662 mg/Kg/day/BW) and 0.00496

mg/Kg/day/BW in minors, whereas least value obtained in

Murshidabad districts similarly the cancer risk potential

follows the same trend. In case of EDI associated Minikit

variety people of North 24 pargana had highest value >

populations of Nadia and least in case of Murshidabad

districts. Here we consider the arsenic intake through the

consumption of cooked rice alone which is not sufficient to

assess the actual scenario of arsenic exposure and

associated complexities but it helps to get an idea about

cooked rice’s/rice cultivated in arsenic contaminated

environment contribution in conveying the arsenic load to

the consumers[54](Figure.4A-D).

Conclusion: Next to yield rice grain quality fetches

attention of breeders of the world. Here we found that

phytotoxic influence of arsenic influences significantly

physical and chemical properties of milled rice. Several

strategies were reported to reduce arsenic translocation in

rice but improvement of grain quality traits was not

considered. If proper attention has given in near future on

the consumers prospective on the grain quality traits

ultimately the farmers will be benefitted.

Acknowledgement: We sincerely thankful to Dept. of

Environmental Science of Univerity of Kalyani for

providing laboratory facility and Ministry of Environment

and Forest Govt. of West Bengal for providing financial

support.

References:

1. Itani,T.T., Masahiks, A. E., & Toshroh, H..Distribution

of amylase, nitrogen and minerals in rice kernel with

various characteristics. Journal of Agricultural and

Food Chemistry,50,(2002) 5326-

5322,DOI: 10.1021/jf020073x.

2. Tyagi, A. K., Khuran, J. P., Khurana, A. P.,

Raghubanshi, S., Gour, A., Kapur, A.,Sharma, S.

Structural and functional analysis of rice genome. J.

Genet, 83,( 2004) 79-99.

3. FAO 2009. http://faostat.fao.org/

4. Conway,J. A., Sidik, M., & Halid, H..November.

Quality/value relationships in milled rice stored in

conventional warehouses in Indonesia. In Proceedings

of the Fourteenth ASEAN Seminar on Grain

Postharvest Technology, Manila, Philippines Vol. 5,

No. 8, 1991. pp. 55-82.

5. Bouman, B.A.M., Humphreys, E., Tuong, T.P. and

Barker, R. Rice and water. Adv. Agron., 92(2007)187–

237.

6. Williams, P. N., Villada, A., Deacon, C., Raab, A.,

Figuerola, J., Green, A. J., ... & Meharg, A. A. Greatly

enhanced arsenic shoot assimilation in rice leads to

elevated grain levels compared to wheat and

barley. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(19),

(2007.) 6854-6859.

http://faostat.fao.org/


7. Santra, S. C., Samal, A. C., Bhattacharya, P., Banerjee,

S., Biswas, A., & Majumdar, J. Arsenic in foodchain

and community health risk: a study in Gangetic West

Bengal. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 18,(2013)2-

13, doi:10.1016/j.proenv.2013.04.002.

8. School of Environmental Science, J.U. 2006. Ground

water arsenic contamination in West Bengal. [Online]

Available: http://www. soesju.org.(Last accessed on

18/12/15).

9. Zavala YJ, Gerads R, Gürleyük H and Duxbury JM..

Arsenic in rice: II. Arsenic speciation in USA grain

and implications for human health. Environ Sci

Technol 42(2008)3861–3866.

10. Bhattacharya P, Samal AC, Majumdar J, Santra SC.

Accumulation of arsenic and its distribution in rice

plant (Oryza sativa L.) in Gangetic West Bengal, India.

Paddy and Water Environment,8(1)( 2010) 63-70, DOI

10.1007/s10333-009-0180-z.

11. Ghosh, M., Roy, P. K., & Majumder, A. Effect of

Arsenic Rich Soil and Groundwater on Paddy

Cultivation. World Applied Sciences Journal, 29(2)

(2014) 165-170 DOI:

10.5829/idosi.wasj.2014.29.02.1225.

12. Christopher OA, Haque AMM. Arsenic Contamination

in Irrigation Water for Rice Production in Bangladesh:

A Review. Trends in Applied Sciences Research;

7(2012.) 331-349,DOI:10.3923/tasr.2012.331.349

13. Bhattacharya P, Samal AC, Majumdar J, Santra SC

Uptake of arsenic in rice plant varieties cultivated with

arsenic rich groundwater. Environment Asia,3(2)

(2010a) 34-37.DOI10.14456/ea.2010.21

14. World Bank. Arsenic Contamination in Asia. A World

Bank and Water and Sanitation Program report. 2005.

Available: http://www. worldbank.org/sar.

15. Bhattacharya P, Samal AC, Majumdar J, Santra SC.

Transfer of Arsenic from Groundwater and Paddy Soil

to Rice Plant (Oryza sativa L.): A micro Level Study in

West Bengal, India, World Journal of Agricultural

Sciences, 5(4)( 2009) 425-431.

16. Chukwu O, Osch FJ.Response of nutritional contents

of rice (Oryza sativa) to parboiling temperatures.

American-Eurasian J. Sustain. Agric. 3(3) (2009)381-

387.

17. Khush GS, Paule CM, De la Cruz NM.. Rice grain

quality evaluation and improvement at IRRI. Proc

Workshop Chemical Aspects of Rice Grain Quality.

International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños,

Laguna, The Philippines (1979).

18. Rousset S, Pons B, Martin JM Identifying objective

characteristics that product clusters produced by

sensory attributes in cooked rice. J. Texture Stud.

(1999) 30: 50-532.

19. Lin, C. J., Li, C. Y., Lin, S. K., Yang, F. H., Huang, J.

J., Liu, Y. H., & Lur, H. S. Influence of high

temperature during grain filling on the accumulation of

storage proteins and grain quality in rice (Oryza sativa

L.). Journal of Agricultural and food

chemistry, 58(19),(2010) 10545-10552, doi: 10.1021/

jf101575j.

20. Chen, J., & Zhu, J. Genetic effects and genotype×

environment interactions for cooking quality traits in

indica-japonica crosses of rice (Oryza sativa

L.). Euphytica, 109(1)( 1999) 9-15.

21. LIU Qi-hua, WU Xiu, CHEN Bo-cong, MA Jia-qing,

GAO Jie.. Effects of Low Light on Agronomic and

Physiological Characteristics of Rice Including Grain

Yield and Quality 21(5)(2014) DOI: 10.1016/S1672-

6308(13)60192-4.

22. Fofana, M., Cherif, M., Kone, B., Futakuchi, K., &

Audebert, A. Effect of water deficit at grain repining

stage on rice grain quality. Journal of Agricultural

Biotechnology and Sustainable Development, 2(6)(

2010)100-107,

23. Resurreccion, A. P., Hara, T., Juliano, B. O., &

Yoshida, S. Effect of temperature during ripening on

grain quality of rice. Soil science and plant

nutrition, 23(1),(1977) 109-112.

24. Rahman, M. A., Hasegawa, H., Rahman, M. M.,

Rahman, M. A., & Miah, M. A. M.. Accumulation of

arsenic in tissues of rice plant (Oryza sativa L.) and

its distribution in fractions of rice

grain. Chemosphere, 69(6), (2007) 942-948, doi:10.

1016/j.chemosphere.2007.05.044

25. Welsch FP, Crock JG, Sanzolone R.. Trace elements

determination of arsenic and selenium using

continuous-flow hydride generation atomic absorption

spectrophotometry (HG-AAS). In: Arbogast BF (ed)

Quality assurance manual for the branch of

geochemistry, 1990 pp 38–45.

26. RAO, P. S., Mishra, B., & Gupta, S. R. Effects of soil

salinity and alkalinity on grain quality of tolerant,

semi-tolerant and sensitive rice genotypes. Rice

Science, 20(4),(2013) 284-291, doi:10.1016/S1672-

6308(13)60136-5

27. JULIANO, B. 0.. A simplified assay for milled-rice

amylose. Cereal Sci. Today 16(1971)334-340, 360.

28. Cagampang G B, Perez C M, Juliano B O.A gel

consistency test for eating quality in rice. J Sci Food

Agric, 24(1973) 1589‒1594.

29. AOAC, Official Methods of Analysis 14th ed.

Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Arlington

V.A, 1984.

30. Yadav, R. B., Khatkar, B. S., & Yadav, B.

S.Morphological, physicochemical and cooking

properties of some Indian rice (Oryza sativa L.)

cultivars. Journal of Agricultural Technology, 3(2),

(2007)203-210.

31. Khan, N.I.; Owens, G.; Bruce, D.; Naidu, R. An

effective dietary survey framework for the assessment

of total dietary arsenic intake in Bangladesh: part-A e

FFQ Design. Environ. Geochem. Health,31(2009)

207–220, DOI 10.1007/s10653-008-9234-1

32. Thimmayamma, B.V.S. and Rau, P. Diet survey

methods. In: Thimayamma, B.V.S. (Ed.), A Handbook

of Schedule and Guidelines in Socio-Economic and

Diet Survey, National Institute of Nutrition, Indian

Council of Medical Research 1987(pp. 1–8).

33. Bhatti, S. M., Anderson, C. W. N., Stewart, R. B., &

Robinson, B. H. Risk assessment of vegetables

irrigated with arsenic-contaminated water.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2013.04.002

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.05.044


http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1672-6308(13)60136-5

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1672-6308(13)60136-5


Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 15(10)(

2013)1866-1875, doi: 10.1039/c3em00218g.

34. USEPA, Exposure Factors Handbook, National Center

for Environmental Assessment (NCEA), Office of

Research and Development (ORD), 1997.

35. USEPA, Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS),

Arsenic, inorganic (CASRN 7440-38-2), 1998.

36. Meharg AA, Rahman M; Arsenic contamination of

Bangladesh paddy field soils: Implications for rice

contribution to arsenic consumption, Environmental

Science and Technology, 37, (2003)229-234.

37. WHO, Evaluation of certain food additives and

contaminants, Thirty-third Report of the Joint

FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives,

WHO Technical Report Series 776, World Health

Organization, Geneva, 1989.

38. Rahman, M. M., Mondal, D., Das, B., Sengupta, M.

K., Ahamed, S., Hossain, M. A., ... & Chakraborti, D.

Status of groundwater arsenic contamination in all 17

blocks of Nadia district in the state of West Bengal,

India: A 23-year study report. Journal of

Hydrology, 518 ,(2014) 363-372, doi:10.1016/

j.jhydrol.2013.10.037

39. Das, H. K., Sengupta, P. K., Hossain, A., Islam, M., &

Islam, F. Diversity of environmental arsenic pollution

in Bangladesh. In M. F. Ahmed, S. A. Tanveer, & A.

B. M. Badruzzaman (Eds.), Bangladesh environment

Vol. 1, 2002,pp. 234–244. Dhaka, Bangladesh:

Bangladesh Paribesh Andolon.

40. Shobha Rani N, Pandey M K, Prasad G S V,

Sudharshan I..Historical significance, grain quality

features and precision breeding for improvement of

export quality basmati varieties in Indian. Ind J Crop

Sci, 1(1/2) (2006) 29‒41.

41. Fitzgerald M A, McCouch S R, Hall R D.. Not just a

grain of rice: The quest for quality. Trends Plant Sci,

14(2009) 133‒139, doi: 10.1016/j.tplants.2008.12.004.

42. Bhattacharya,K.R... Parboiling of Rice, Pages289-348;

Rice: chemistry and technology, B.O. Juliano .ed.

American Association of Cereal Chemists, St Paul,

Minnesota, USA, 1985.

43. Abedin, M. J., Cottep-Howells, J., Meharg, A. A.

Arsenic uptake and accumulation in rice (Oryza sativa

L.) irrigated with contaminated water. Plant and Soil.

240(2002) 311-319.

44. Hossain, M. B., Jahiruddin, M., Loeppert, R. H.,

Panaullah, G. M., Islam, M. R., & Duxbury, J. M. The

effects of iron plaque and phosphorus on yield and

arsenic accumulation in rice. Plant and Soil, 317(1-

2)(2009) 167-176, DOI 10.1007/s11104-008-9798-7.

45. Asish, K., Binod, R., Kalaiyarasi K., Thiyagarajan, &

Manonmani, S..Physio-chemical and cooking quality

characteristics of promising varieties and hybrids in

rice (Oryza sativa L.). Ind. Journal Genet, 66(2)(

2006)107-112.

46. Lyman NB, Jagadish KSV, Nalley LL, Dixon BL,

Siebenmorgen T. Neglecting rice milling yield and

quality underestimates economic losses from high-

temperature stress. PLoS One 8, e72157, doi:

10.1371/journal.pone.0072157. eCollection (2013).

47. Siebenmorgen TJ, Grigg BC, Lanning SB. Impacts of

preharvest factors during kernel development on rice

quality and functionality. Annual Review of Food

Science and Technolology 4, (2013)101–115, doi:

10.1146/annurev-food-030212-182644.

48. Bahmaniar, M. A., & Ranjbar, G. A. Response of rice

(Oryza sativa L.) cooking quality properties to nitrogen

and potassium application. Pakistan Journal of

Biological Sciences, 11(2007) 1880e1884.

49. Raab, A., Baskaran, C., Feldmann, J., & Meharg, A. A.

2008. Cooking rice in a high water to rice ratio reduces

inorganic arsenic content. J. Environ. Monit., 11(1),

41-44, doi: 10.1039/b816906c.

50. Naito, S., Matsumoto, E., Shindoh, K., & Nishimura,

T.. Effects of polishing, cooking, and storing on total

arsenic and arsenic species concentrations in rice

cultivated in Japan. Food chemistry, 168, (2015)294-

301, doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.07.060

51. Patrick J. Gray, Sean D. Conklin, Todor I. Todorov &

Sasha M. Kasko. Cooking rice in excess water reduces

both arsenic and enriched vitamins in the cooked grain,

Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A, 33:1,

(2016)78-85, DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2015.1103906.

52. Dıáz OP, Leyton I, Munõz O, Nuń˜ez N, Devesa V,

Suń˜er MA, Ve´lez D, Montoro R.. Contribution of

water, bread, and vegetables (raw and cooked) to

dietary intake of inorganic arsenic in a rural village of

Northern Chile. Journal of Agricultural and Food

Chemistry 52(2004)1773–1779, DOI: 10.1021/

jf035168t.

53. IARC.. Metals, arsenic, fibres and dusts. IARC

Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum. 100C (2012):512.

54. Khan, M. U., Malik, R. N., & Muhammad, S. Human

health risk from heavy metal via food crops

consumption with wastewater irrigation practices in

Pakistan. Chemosphere, 93(10)(2013) 2230-2238,

doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.07.067

Source of support: Nil; Conflict of interest: The authors do not have any conflict of interest.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.10.037

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.10.037

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.07.060


an assessment of some physicochemical properties and cooking

Documents